What peoples belong to the Turkic-speaking. Who are the Turks

A new era in the history of Europe was opened in 375. Then numerous hordes of the Huns invaded its borders, starting a devastating war. The mass movement of the Huns to the West gave impetus to the Great Migration of Peoples, which contributed to the death of the slave-owning Roman Empire. In Europe, new, early feudal social orders are emerging, the period of the Middle Ages begins. An important result of the Great Migration of Nations was the formation of a new political and ethnic map of the European continent.

Together with the Huns, the Bulgarians, Khazars, Savirs and other Turkic-speaking tribes came to the Eastern European steppes. Thus, the era of the Great Migration of Peoples played a huge role in the further historical destinies of the local peoples of a vast region that stretched in the north to the banks of the Middle Volga. It is to these peoples, who had their own statehood, bright and original culture, that the most ancient roots of the Tatar people go back.

Of course, both the Huns and the Turks (Turkuts) who came after them cannot be considered the direct ancestors of the Tatars. Of the numerous tribes of the Hunnic union, only the Bulgarians, Savirs and Barsils, who found themselves in the 6th-7th centuries. as part of the Turkic Khaganate, Great Bulgaria and Khazaria, then went to the forest-steppe regions of the Middle Volga region. Mixing here with the local Finno-Ugric population, they laid the foundation for the formation of the Bulgarian people as part of the new state of Volga Bulgaria.

§3.Xiongnu-HunsAndGreatresettlementpeoples

Xiongnu-Huns through the eyes of Europeans. “The hitherto unknown human race, the Huns, were a new tribe in Europe, which even our ancestors did not know about,” wrote the historian of that time, Ammianus Marcellinus. They have no one engaged in arable farming and never touches the plow. All of them, not having a fixed place of residence, roam to different places, as if eternal fugitives, with wagons in which they spend their lives, driving draft animals and herds in front of them; they take the greatest care in caring for horses ... The Huns are born riders, "they are rooted to horses", they even sleep, bending down to the narrow neck of their cattle.

Who were these Huns, about whom medieval authors narrated with horror and disdain? Where are they from?

Origin and economy of the Huns. The beginning of their power. Two or three millennia ago, in the steppes of modern Mongolia and Northern China, in Altai and the Baikal region, they lived Turkic-speakingtribes. In Chinese sources, they were known as the Hun-nu or Xiongnu. Their authors reported that it was a very strong and numerous people who did not want to obey anyone.

The habitat of the Huns did not give them the opportunity to actively develop agriculture, so they were primarily engaged in cattle breeding and led a nomadic lifestyle. Their main wealth was horses and sheep.

In the III-II centuries. BC. the Huns were undergoing a process of decomposition of tribal orders. The tribal nobility began the struggle for primacy in the unification of nomads. Chinese historian of the 2nd century. AD Sima Qian left us a colorful description of the events that marked the beginning of the power of the Huns.

Shangyu (ruler)HunsToumanhadtwosons.heirHewanteddojuniorsonand the elderMaodunsenthostageVenemytribe.ThenToumanattackedonthem.Maodun notdiedHestolehorseAndrode awayTohis.ToumanGave himdetachmentwarriors.Teachingtheir,Maodunorderedwarriors shootthere,Whereflieshis"whistle" (famouswhistlingarrowHuns).SoonHeshot an arrowVhisbeautifulhorse.thoseWhoNotfollowedhisexample,Hechopped offheads.Sometime laterMaodunletarrowVmyfavoritewife.Hechopped offheadstopicsWhoNotdarefire.One dayonhuntingMaodunfiredVhorsehisfather,AndnobodyfromhiswarriorsNotslowed downdoThatsamemost.MaodunUnderstood,Whattimeit has come.WhenHeletarrowVhisfather,Toumanya,momthroughinstantwasstuckarrows.Executionjuniorbrotherand closefather,Maodunbecamechanyu.Thiswas in 209G.

Rulerneighboringtribe,decidingWhatturmoilweakenedHuns,demandedfromMaodunyieldborderterritory.Someelders,afraidwar,advisedMaodonggive awayearth.Extremelyangry,Maodunanswered:"Earthfoundation of the stateunlessCangive awayher!» Everyoneadvisingyieldearth,Hechopped offheads.Then Maodundefeatedhostiletribe,killedtheirrulerAndattachedtheirlandTotheirlands.

According to the same historian Sima Qian, “Under Maodong, the Xiongnu (Huns) gained unprecedented strength, conquered all the northern barbarians and formed a state equal in strength to the Middle State,” i.e. China.

Hunva state. The Xiongnu state was a centralized empire that absorbed nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples. At the head of the state was the shanyu ruler. His power was strictly hereditary and deified. Shanuy was called the "Son of Heaven". He disposed of the entire territory of the state, personally led the troops, had the right to life and death of each subject, was the supreme judge.

Shanuy was surrounded by a large group of assistants, advisers and military leaders. The highest officials of the state after the shanyu were the "wise princes" his sons and close relatives. A step below were other relatives. Temniks were appointed from among them (from the ancient Turkic word "Tyumen" ten thousand), i.e. commanders over ten thousand horsemen. Within the limits of his possessions, the temnik, in turn, appointed thousand's men, centurions and foremen.

The main duty of the entire male population was military service. Each Xiongnu was considered a warrior, and the slightest deviation from military duties was punishable by death.

Maodun successfully undertook aggressive campaigns, expanding the borders of his state. First of all, he annexed the northern territories of the foothills of Altai and the Baikal region, rich in various minerals. Immediately after the capture of new lands, the Xiongnu masters began to develop iron deposits. Settlements of metallurgists, foundry workers and blacksmiths appeared, who supplied the army with weapons and camping equipment. It was then that most of the Xiongnu cities and fortresses, handicraft and agricultural settlements arose. Thus, the reports of medieval authors that the Hun barbarians “moved from place to place in search of water and grass, and they did not have cities surrounded by internal and external walls, they did not have a permanent place of residence,

and they are not engaged in the processing of fields”, turned out to be far from reality. A significant part of the Huns also led a settled way of life.

Not far from the Baikal city of Ulan-Ude, on the left bank of the river. Selenga, archaeologists unearthed the ruins of a large Xiongnu city, named Ivolginsky. The city was fortified with five rows of earthen ramparts and ditches. During the excavations, dozens of dwellings with a unique heating system from chimneys, granaries, cellars for food supplies, furnaces for iron and copper smelting, the remains of workshops, artisans' tools, various products made of iron, cast iron, bronze and bone, processed with amazing skill, were discovered. An important place among the finds is occupied by complex bows with bone overlays and whistling arrows. Lots of jewelry made of silver, gold and precious stones. The earthenware, decorated with wavy patterns, is made by hand and on the potter's wheel.

The Huns had many cities like Ivolginsky. Two of them Longchen And Dailin were the capitals. According to Sima Qian, “in summer, the Xiongnu gather for a large meeting in Longchen, where they make sacrifices to their ancestors, the sky, the earth, the spirits of people and the heavenly spirits. In the autumn, when the horses are fattened, they come to a large meeting in Dailin, where they count and check the number of horses and livestock. In these cities there were temples, residence palaces, and other public buildings. The population of the surrounding villages was engaged in agriculture.

Confrontation with the Chinese Empire and its consequences. The Chinese empire could not reconcile itself to the emergence of such a powerful and warlike power in the north. The Xiongnu seized the territory along which the Great Silk Road ran, and thus hindered China's trade with the West.

China for a long time did not recognize the state of the Xiongnu, demanded obedience from it, sent large military detachments to destroy it. The Xiongnu were interested in trade with China: the exchange of pastoral products for grain, fabrics and handicrafts promised benefits.

But the irreconcilable policy of the empire towards its neighbors forced the Huns to rise up to fight. In the 1st century BC. Xiongnu troops surrounded and destroyed the Chinese army numbering over 320 thousand people. The Huns demonstrated their strength, and China from that time paid tribute to them for many years.

The Chinese are trying to expel the Huns from their territory. There is a continuous war going on between the Huns and China. In an effort to protect themselves from the raids of the Huns and other nomadic tribes, the Chinese in the north of the country begin to build a powerful fortress wall hundreds of kilometers long. She entered. history called the Great Wall of China and largely preserved to this day.

Constant wars with the Chinese and other neighbors exhausted the strength of the Huns. Weakened the unity and within their state. The Huns were divided into two parts. As a result, they were utterly defeated by Chinese troops in the 1st century. AD

Advancement of the Huns to the West. Attnla. After the defeat, part of the Huns began to move to the West. They are joined by force or voluntarily by other nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of Southern Siberia. Having passed through the steppes of modern Kazakhstan, they appear on the shores of the Aral and Caspian Seas.

In 375 the Huns (as they were called in the West) crossed the Volga. They rush further and penetrate the territory of Eastern Europe. The mass advance of the Huns to the West gave impetus to the Great Migration of Peoples, which continued for several centuries.

In the 5th century the Huns, led by the famous commander Attila, reach the borders of modern Italy, Spain, France and participate in the defeat of the once powerful Roman Empire. Having conquered boundless territories, the state keeps the whole of Europe in horror. After the death of Attila in 453 G. The Hun state disintegrated and ceased to exist.

In the union of the Huns there were tribes who spoke mainly the Turkic language. When moving from East to West, they drove many peoples from their inhabited places, among which were the Bulgarians and Suvars, the distant ancestors of the Tatar people. Some of these tribes, willy-nilly, joined the Huns, others, having abandoned their native places, went to more peaceful northern regions.

Middle Volga region in the Hun times. During the period of the Huns' invasion, part of the tribes advancing along with them settled in the Volga region. Among the settlers, obviously, were the Huns themselves. Archaeologists find here objects that are characteristic only for them. So, near the village of Tatarskoe Suncheleevo, Aksubaevsky district of the Republic of Tatarstan, large bronze cauldrons with two handles, very beautifully decorated, were found. They certainly once belonged to the Huns.

Near the village of Turaevo, Mendeleevsky district, there is an ancient cemetery, which dates back to the 4th-5th centuries. The high hills above the graves were once visible from afar. Finds made during excavations, an iron helmet decorated with gold and silver, chain mail, a sword with a gilded handle and scabbard, arrowheads and spears, battle axes indicate that there was a rich burial place of military leaders. These were the warriors Turkic tribes that migrated with the Huns. So the Hun invasion left its mark in the history of the region, in the history of the Tatar and other local peoples.

QuestionsAndtasks

1. Who were the Xiongnu ethnically? Where did these tribes originally live? 2. Compare ideas about the Xiongnu of Europeans and their real way of life. What conclusions did you come to? 3. When was the Hun state established?4. Who was the ruling layer of the Hun state? How was the government built in this empire? 5. Describe the economic activities of the Huns. 6. Why was the Xiongnu army a powerful force? 7. Tell us about the confrontation between the Hunnic state and the Chinese Empire. Determine the main results and consequences of this confrontation. 8. How was the Hun invasion reflected in the history of the region?

§4.TurkicKhaganate (551-630gg.)

Homeland and origin of the Turks. In the VI century. for the first time a small group of the population appeared in the historical space called « Turk","turkuts". They lived in the Southern Altai and considered themselves descendants of the Huns. In one of the legends about the origin of the Turks, it is said that the people of the Huns were allegedly completely exterminated by their neighbors; only one ten-year-old boy survived, to whom the enemies cut off his arms and legs, and he himself was thrown into the swamp. The she-wolf saved the boy. She fed him, took him to the mountains and hid him in a cave. The young man was still killed, and the she-wolf gave birth to ten sons from him. This genus has multiplied; one of the she-wolf's grandchildren was named Ashina. He became the founder of the Turkic dynasty.

In the IV beginning of the VI centuries. the Turks led settled way of life, being engaged in the mining and smelting of iron in the foothills of Altai. However, they were in vassal dependence on the Mongol-speaking Rourans. The entire economy and armament of the Rouran army depended on the Turkic miners, iron smelters and blacksmiths.

Turks during the reign of Bumyn. Under the ruler Bumyn the Turks intensified, ceased to reckon with the zhuzhans and advanced their possessions far to the east. They sought to maintain peaceful relations and trade contacts with China. In 545, an embassy of the Chinese emperor arrived at Bumyn's headquarters. “The Turks congratulated each other and said: now our state will prosper! After all, the ambassador of a great power came to us, ”this is how this event is described in one Chinese chronicle. Bumyn responded by sending his ambassadors to China with rich gifts. Thus, the state of the Turks received international recognition.

Soon an opportunity presented itself for complete liberation from the hated Rouran dependence. The Turkic tribes of the Tele, exhausted by the Juran yoke, rebelled and set off on a campaign against their enslavers. Along the way, they met with the Turks, with whom they were not going to fight. The Taureans expressed complete obedience to Bumgau. After that, according to the chronicles, "relying on his strength and large numbers," Bumyn turned to the Juran sovereign with a request to give him a princess as his wife. The enraged Khan replied: “You are my smelter! How dare you make such an offer to me? Then the resolute Bumyn asked for the hand of a Chinese princess and married her. His authority among the nomads increased. Taking advantage of the situation, in 551 Bumyn defeated all the main forces of the Rourans and appropriated the title of ilkagan to himself. Thus the first Turkickaganate.

Turkic campaigns. Wars of Istemi-Kagan. In 552 Bumyn-Kagan died. Under his descendants, the possessions of the Turks were significantly expanded. They waged continuous wars with neighboring tribes, capturing their wealth, new lands, and turning the captives into their warriors, slaves. Even the Chinese emperor, after another defeat, was forced to pay an annual tribute to the kagan in the amount of 100 thousand pieces of silk fabric. The dominance of the Turks was established in vast regions.

Some time after the formation of the kaganate, the Turkic troops begin to move west along the path laid by the Huns. Western campaign led Istemi-kagan, Bumyn's younger brother, and his son Kara-Churin. Having subjugated a number of tribes of Southern Siberia, the Aral Sea region and the Southern Urals, in 558 they reached the banks of the Volga.

In Central Asia, the Turks defeated the powerful state of the Hephthalites, as well as the Sogdians, and entered into an alliance with Sasanian Iran. Iran and the Turkic Khaganate were divided among themselves middleAsia all lands to the east and north of the Amu Darya became part of the kaganate. On the newly conquered lands, the Turks managed to establish control over the Great Silk Road, which contributed to the strengthening of the economic power of the state.

The collapse of the kaganate. Now the Turkic Khaganate stretched from the Yellow Sea in the east to the Black Sea steppes in the west. Such vast lands could not coexist for a long time within the framework of a single empire created by force of arms. There were no close economic ties between the individual regions. The state was weakened by frequent internecine wars, the desire of individual representatives of the Turkic aristocracy to independently manage the occupied territories, and the struggle for power in the ruling stratum. As a result, the kaganate in 581-603. split into two parts: West(from Altai to the Black Sea with the center in Semirechye) and Oriental (from Altai to the Great Wall of China with the center on the Orkhon River). In 630, both of these states ceased to exist.

However, half a century later, Mongolia formed EasternTurkic kaganate. It lasted until the 740s. and presented the world with magnificent examples of runic writing in the form of inscriptions on the tombstones of Kul-Tegin, Tonyukuk and Bilge-Kagan. These inscriptions tell about the life and exploits of the rulers and commanders of the Turkic Khaganate against the background of its general history.

Turks in the history of Eurasia. The Turkic Khaganate played an important role in the history of the peoples of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. The Turks did not destroy settled agricultural areas, limiting themselves to collecting tribute from the population. Their policy was aimed at the development of trade. The Turks also contributed to the unification of heterogeneous Turkic-speaking tribes and nationalities within the framework of a single state. In the bowels of this association were laid basicscontemporaryTurkicpeoples. The Turks were the first to create a culture based on writing. At first it was Sogdian writing. Later, it formed the basis of runic writing, which was used by the entire population of the kaganate. Born with her common Turkicliterarylanguage it was on it that the famous texts were written on tombstones erected in honor of Kul-Tegin, Tonyukuk and Bilge-kagan. In the Turkic time, urban planning, architecture and art were further developed. Historical sources contain information about the construction of roads and post stations.

Imenkovskaya culture. During the existence of the Turkic Khaganate, i.e. in the VI-VII centuries, the migration of peoples was a common phenomenon. The wave of resettlement reached the banks of the Volga and Kama. At a time when the Turkic Khaganate was waging wars for the steppes of the Azov, Caspian and Black Sea regions, new tribes appeared in our area, in the confluence of the Volga and Kama. In science they are called Imenkovsky(The existence of these tribes was first told by the results of excavations near the village of Imenkovo, Laishevsky District).

The traditions and culture of the Imenkovtsy differ sharply from the customs of local tribes. The dead, for example, they first burned, their remains were placed in clay pots and buried in small pits.

The Imenkovites developed agriculture. They were the first among the local tribes of the region who began to cultivate the land with a plow pulled by a horse. Cattle breeding was also one of their main occupations.

The Imenkovsky tribes established and maintained trade relations with very remote areas, up to Central Asia and Kazakhstan. They are one of the first among the local peoples who begin to use metal money when trading. The first money was made of cast bronze and had an oblong shape.

The ethnicity of the Imenkovtsy is still the subject of scientific disputes. Some scholars consider them Turks, others ancient Slavs. So far, there is no definitive answer. It is only obvious that the Imenkovtsy, like some other tribes, at one time were forced to leave their habitable places as a result of the aggressive wars of the Turkic Khaganate.

QuestionsAndtasks

1. Describe the way of life, occupations of the Turks in the 4th - early 6th centuries. 2. When and under what circumstances did the first Turkic Khaganate arise? 3. What lands were part of the Turkic Khaganate? 4. When and into what parts did the Turkic Khaganate break up? Explain the reasons for this phenomenon. 5. Determine the role of the Turks in the history of the peoples of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. 6. Describe the occupations, the culture of the Imenkovites. How did they differ from local tribes? 7. How did the ethnic composition of the population of the region change as a whole as a result of the invasion of the Huns and the aggressive wars of the Turkic Khaganate? 8. How is the history of the peoples of our region connected with the history of the Turkic Khaganate?

§5.GreatBulgariaAndKhazarKhaganate

(VII-Xcenturies)

The heirs of the Huns in the steppes of Eastern Europe. The Turks of Istemi-Kagan and Kara-Churin, having conquered in the middle of the VI century. the Caspian and Black Sea steppes collided here with numerous peoples. Among these peoples were Bulgarians, Savirs, Avars, Utrigurs, Kutri-Gurs and others. Turkic-speaking tribes that came here as part of the Hun horde back in the 370s.

Some of them participated in Attila's campaigns against Europe. After his death, the Bulgarians served as mercenaries for the Byzantine emperor Zenon, and ravaged the Balkan Peninsula. The Bulgarians in Eastern Europe are repeatedly mentioned in the historical writings of the authors of the 6th century. So, in one of them it is reported that "beyond the Caspian gates", i.e. on the territory of modern Dagestan, "the Burgars (Bulgarians) live with their own language, a pagan and barbarian people, they have cities." Obviously, these Bulgarians were one of the strongest tribes in the Hunnic alliance. They began to act especially actively after the death of the power of Attila.

As a result of the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate in 630, new state formations arose on its ruins. An association was formed in the Caspian lowland and adjacent territories of Ciscaucasia Khazar, who considered themselves the direct heirs of the Turkic kagan. Its ruler was indeed from the powerful ruling Turkic family of Ashina. In the Black Sea and Azov steppes, on the Taman Peninsula and the Kuban region, an association was formed Bulgarians Kubrat.

Kubrat Khan and his state. There is very little information about Kubrat, the creator of this state association. His connections with the imperial house in Constantinople (Byzantium) are known. It is alleged that Kubrat was brought up at the court of the emperor, was baptized and was known as a successful commander, an intelligent politician. Sources speak of him as the nephew of the “Hunnic” ruler Organa from the Turkic clan Dulo.

State capital Phanagoria located on the Taman Peninsula. This ancient city, destroyed in its time by the Huns, was rebuilt by the Bulgarians and turned into a center of crafts and trade. Other settled settlements arose nearby, the inhabitants of which were engaged in agriculture and crafts, including pottery. The bulk of the population was predominantly seminomadic Lifestyle.

Bulgarians after the death of Kubrat. Great Bulgaria did not last long. After the death of Kubrat in the 50s and early 60s. 7th century the state collapsed. Its territory was divided between the sons of the heirs of the khan. According to sources, Kubrat “left five sons, having bequeathed them not to separate from each other in any case and live together so that they always rule over everything and do not fall into slavery to another people.” The Bulgarian oral tradition tells that Kubrat, dying, called his sons to him, ordered them to bring a bunch of rods and ordered everyone to break it. No one succeeded, the bars remained intact. “So you too, said Kubrat, will be invincible together, but each separately can be easily defeated and destroyed.” However, the sons did not follow the advice of their father and began to fight for the throne.

Taking advantage of a good moment, the Khazars attacked the Bulgarians and defeated them. One of the sons of Kubrat named Asparuh was forced to withdraw his horde to new lands, to the banks of the Danube. Here the Bulgarians, having conquered the Slavs, created a new state in 681 Danube Bulgaria.

Most of the Bulgarians, along with another son of Kubrat, Batbay, remained on their indigenous lands in Ciscaucasia and the Black Sea steppes. Soon they occupied the Crimean peninsula and partially moved northward into the steppes and forest-steppes of the Dnieper region. It was in this area, near the village of Maloye Pere-shchepino, Poltava region of Ukraine, that the famous treasure of gold and silver dishes, precious weapons and jewelry, including two rings of Kubrat himself, was discovered. It is quite possible that this treasure (“the treasure of Kubrat Khan”) was buried a little later, somewhere at the end of the 7th century, during a military clash between Batbai and the Khazars.

Khazars and the formation of the Khazar Khaganate. As already noted, the Khazars played a big role in the collapse of Great Bulgaria. A little later, her former lands are under the rule of the Khazar Khaganate.

Ancient authors begin to mention the Khazars from the 6th century BC. One of the manuscripts says that “the language of the Bulgarians is similar to the language of the Khazars”, and the Khazars themselves are “a great people that came out of Barsilia”. Barsilia was then located in the Caspian Sea, on the territory of present-day Dagestan. On these lands in the IV-V centuries. Numerous Turkic-speaking peoples lived: Barsils, Savirs, Avars, Bulgarians, Khazars, who ended up here as part of the Hunnic state. They often quarreled and fought with each other, and sometimes united to fight with their neighbors.

These tribes were subjugated by the Turkic Khagan Istemi, but not for long. The Khazars persistently sought to get out of subordination to the Turkic Khaganate. And when he weakened due to long wars, they, like the Bulgarians of Kubrat, in the 7th century. created their own state Khazar Khaganate. Compared to Great Bulgaria, it turned out to be more viable.

The Kaganate occupied a rather vast territory. It included the steppes and foothills of modern Dagestan and the Kuban region, the Azov lands, partly the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and most of the Crimea.

The original capital of the kaganate was Belenger. It was a large city surrounded by stone and brick walls with semicircular towers up to 10 meters high. The borders of the kaganate expanded, and he himself was subjected to constant attacks by his southern neighbors. In this regard, the city later became the capital Semender. However, the Khazar Khagan did not manage to settle here for a long time.

Arab-Khazar wars and their consequences. The young state of the Khazars becomes a serious opponent of Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate. In the first half of the 8th century Arab-Khazar wars begin. The Arabs, who tried to conquer the world under the flag of Islam, occupied Albania (Azerbaijan) and Armenia, the lands of the southern neighbors of the Khazars. Khazaria was next in line.

One of the largest campaigns took place in 737. Arab troops numbering 120 thousand people, led by the commander Marwan, invaded the territory of the Khazars and surrounded the city of Semender. The conquerors ousted the entire population from the foothills of the Caucasus and the Caspian plain. Many cities and rural settlements of the Khazars were devastated.

The Kagan and his troops were hiding in the north in the Podrnya and on the Lower Volga. Following him, to the north, the tribes, tired of incessant wars, were forced to move. There they captured the lands of the Bulgarians, who remained here with their leader Batbay. Part of the Bulgarians, and with them the tribes of Savirs (Suvars) and Barsils (Bersula), leave these lands and rise up the Volga. In the middle of the USh c. they reach the territory of modern Tatarstan. However, another, quite significant, part of the Bulgarians remained in the Khazar Khaganate. In an effort to save his state, exhausted in constant wars, from complete collapse, the Khazar Khagan concludes a truce with the Arab Caliphate. According to the terms of the contract, he accepts Islam. The new religion is also spreading among the Bulgarians.

Economy and culture of the Khazar Khaganate. The long-awaited calm comes in the country. The new, already third, capital becomes Itil, located near the place where the Volga flows into the Caspian Sea. Itil was then one of the most beautiful and largest cities. One of the tributaries of the Volga divided it into two parts. In one part of the city, the kagan lived in his luxurious palace, and here were the troops loyal to him. Clay huts and yurts huddled next to the Khan's palace. This part of the city was surrounded by a high fence.

Across the river were merchants and artisans. According to one of the ancient manuscripts, there were about 10 thousand Muslims in this part of the city, for whom the Cathedral Mosque and about 30 ordinary mosques were built. Christians, Jews and pagans lived here. Thus, in the Khazar Khaganate it was allowed to profess any religion.

Over time, the Khazar Khaganate became a strong, economically and culturally developed state. Urban planning was at a high level here, animal husbandry, agriculture, and crafts developed. However, trade was of decisive importance for the economic life of the country. The Khazars were among the first in Eastern Europe to issue their own metal money.

One of the most significant indicators of the development of culture is writing. The Khazars were widespread runicletter, brought to Eastern Europe by the peoples of the Turkic Khaganate. Archaeologists often come across clay pots, copper and silver vessels, bone items with signs or even small texts in the runic alphabet. Unfortunately, they are still not deciphered.

The culture and life of the Khazar Khaganate are vividly reflected in archaeological monuments salto-Mayakskaya culture. The territory of its distribution completely coincides with the territory of the Khazarin. The monuments of this culture are diverse: the remains of nomad camps (seasonal camps) along the low banks of rivers, the ruins of cities and fortresses on high capes, burial grounds. They say that there was a process of settlement of nomads and the formation of agricultural and handicraft settlements.

At the beginning of the ninth century Khazars with the participation of Byzantine masters built a fortress city on the left bank of the Don Sarkel. The city was surrounded by brick walls with corner towers and densely built up with semi-dugout dwellings. Sarkel maintained lively trade relations with Byzantium, the Crimea, Transcaucasia and Central Asia.

There are numerous rural settlements. Judging by the discovered plowshares, sickles and scythes, the main part of the Khazarin population led a sedentary lifestyle.

Another page of history was opened by the cemeteries of the Saltov-Mayak culture with different types of burials. Their characteristic features indicate that the Alans (peoples of North Caucasian origin who left their homeland under the onslaught of the Arabs) and Bulgarians lived on the territory of the Don and Azov regions.

QuestionsAndtasks

1. Tell us what peoples occupied the territory of the Caspian and Black Sea steppes. When did they come here? 2. What do you know about the actions of the Bulgarians after the death of Attila? How was the process of their rise? 3. Name the state formations that arose after the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate. 4. Describe the economic activities of the population of Great Bulgaria. 5. Tell us about the fate of the Bulgarians after the collapse of the state. 6. Who are the Khazars? What do they and the Bulgarians have in common? 7. Compare the process of formation of the Khazar Khaganate and Great Bulgaria. 8. Outline the causes and consequences of the Arab-Khazar wars. 9. Describe the economy and culture of the Khazar Khaganate. 10. What was different about the religious policy of the Khazar rulers? 11. Trace the historical ties between the Hun state, the Turkic Khaganate, Great Bulgaria and the Khazar Khaganate. 12. Assess the contribution of the Turks to the achievements of world civilization.

In the old days there was no means of transportation faster and more convenient horse . On a horse they transported goods, hunted, fought; on a horse they went to woo and brought the bride to the house. Without a horse, they could not imagine farming. A delicious and healing drink, koumiss, was obtained (and is still being received) from mare's milk, strong ropes were made from the hair of the mane, and soles for shoes were made from the skin, boxes and buckles were made from the horn coating of hooves. In a horse, especially in a horse, his position was valued. There were even signs by which you can recognize a good horse. The Kalmyks, for example, had 33 such signs.

The peoples that will be discussed, whether Turkic or Mongolian, know, love and breed this animal in their household. Perhaps their ancestors were not the first to domesticate the horse, but perhaps there are no peoples on earth in whose history the horse would play such a big role. Thanks to the light cavalry, the ancient Turks and Mongols settled on a vast territory - the steppe and forest-steppe, desert and semi-desert spaces of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.

On the globe about 40 peoples live in different countries speaking in Turkic languages ; more than 20 -in Russia. Their number is about 10 million people. Only 11 out of 20 have republics within the Russian Federation: Tatars (Republic of Tatarstan), Bashkirs (Republic of Bashkortostan), Chuvash (Chuvash Republic), Altaians (Altai Republic), Tuvans (Republic of Tuva), Khakass (The Republic of Khakassia), Yakuts (The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)); among Karachays with Circassians and Balkars with Kabardians - common republics (Karachay-Cherkess and Kabardino-Balkaria).

The rest of the Turkic peoples are scattered throughout Russia, in its European and Asian regions and regions. This Dolgans, Shors, Tofalars, Chulyms, Nagaibaks, Kumyks, Nogais, Astrakhan and Siberian Tatars . The list can include Azerbaijanis (Derbent Turks) Dagestan, Crimean Tatars, Meskhetian Turks, Karaites, a significant number of whom now live not in their original land, in the Crimea and Transcaucasia, but in Russia.

The largest Turkic people of Russia - Tatars, there are about 6 million people. The smallest - Chulyms and Tofalars: the number of each nation is just over 700 people. northernmost - Dolgans on the Taimyr Peninsula, and southernmost - Kumyks in Dagestan, one of the republics of the North Caucasus. The most eastern Turks of Russia - Yakuts(their self-name - Sakha), and they live in the north-east of Siberia. A most western - Karachays inhabiting the southern regions of Karachay-Cherkessia. The Turks of Russia live in different geographical zones - in the mountains, in the steppe, in the tundra, in the taiga, in the forest-steppe zone.

The ancestral home of the Turkic peoples is the steppes of Central Asia. Starting from the II century. and ending in the 13th century, pressed by their neighbors, they gradually moved to the territory of present-day Russia and occupied the lands where their descendants now live (see the article "From primitive tribes to modern peoples").

The languages ​​of these peoples are similar, they have many common words, but, most importantly, the grammar is similar. As scientists suggest, in ancient times they were dialects of the same language. Over time, the closeness was lost. The Turks settled on a very large area, stopped communicating with each other, they had new neighbors, and their languages ​​could not help but influence the Turkic ones. All Turks understand each other, but, say, Altaians with Tuvans and Khakasses, Nogais with Balkars and Karachays, Tatars with Bashkirs and Kumyks can easily come to an agreement. And only the Chuvash language stands apart in the Turkic family of languages.

Representatives of the Turkic peoples of Russia differ greatly in appearance. . in the east This North Asian and Central Asian Mongoloids -Yakuts, Tuvans, Altaians, Khakasses, Shors.In the west, typical Caucasians -Karachays, Balkars. And finally, the intermediate type refers in general caucasoid , But with a strong admixture of Mongoloid features Tatars, Bashkirs, Chuvashs, Kumyks, Nogais.

What's the matter here? The relationship of the Turks is more linguistic than genetic. Turkic languages are easy to pronounce, their grammar is very logical, there are almost no exceptions. In ancient times, nomadic Turks spread over a vast territory occupied by other tribes. Some of these tribes switched to the Turkic dialect because of its simplicity and over time began to feel like Turks, although they differed from them both in appearance and in traditional occupations.

Traditional farming , which the Turkic peoples of Russia were engaged in in the past, and in some places they continue to be engaged in now, are also diverse. Nearly all were grown cereals and vegetables. Many raised cattle: horses, sheep, cows. Excellent herdsmen have long been Tatars, Bashkirs, Tuvans, Yakuts, Altaians, Balkars. However deer bred and still few are bred. This Dolgans, northern Yakuts, Tofalars, Altaians and a small group of Tuvans living in the taiga part of Tuva - Todzha.

Religions among the Turkic peoples too different. Tatars, Bashkirs, Karachays, Nogais, Balkars, Kumyks - Muslims ; Tuvans - Buddhists . Altaians, Shors, Yakuts, Chulyms, although adopted in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Christianity , always remained secret worshipers of shamanism . Chuvash from the middle of the XVIII century. considered the most Christian people in the Volga region , but in recent years some of them return to paganism : they worship the sun, the moon, the spirits of the earth and the dwelling, the spirits-ancestors, without refusing, however, from orthodoxy .

WHO ARE YOU, T A T A R Y?

Tatars - the most numerous Turkic people of Russia. They live in Republic of Tatarstan, as well as in Bashkortostan, Udmurt Republic and adjacent areas Ural and Volga regions. There are large Tatar communities in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other major cities. And in general, in all regions of Russia, one can meet Tatars who have been living outside their homeland, the Volga region, for decades. They have taken root in a new place, fit into a new environment for them, feel great there and do not want to leave anywhere.

There are several peoples in Russia who call themselves Tatars . Astrakhan Tatars live close to Astrakhan, Siberian- V Western Siberia, Kasimov Tatars - near the city of Kasimov on the river Ok a (on the territory where serving Tatar princes lived several centuries ago). And finally Kazan Tatars named after the capital of Tatarstan - the city of Kazan. All these are different, although close to each other peoples. However just Tatars should be called only Kazan .

Among the Tatars distinguish two ethnographic groups - Mishari Tatars And Kryashen Tatars . The former are known for being Muslims do not celebrate the national holiday Sabantuy but they celebrate red egg day - something similar to the Orthodox Easter. On this day, children collect colored eggs from home and play with them. Kryashens ("baptized") because they are called that because they were baptized, that is, they accepted Christianity, and note not Muslim but Christian holidays .

The Tatars themselves began to call themselves that way quite late - only in the middle of the 19th century. For a very long time they did not like this name and considered it humiliating. Until the 19th century they were named differently: Bulgarly" (Bulgars), "Kazanly" (Kazan), "Meselman" (Muslims). And now many demand the return of the name "Bulgars".

Turks came to the regions of the Middle Volga and the Kama region from the steppes of Central Asia and the North Caucasus, crowded by tribes that moved from Asia to Europe. The migration continued for several centuries. At the end of the IX-X centuries. a prosperous state, the Volga Bulgaria, arose on the Middle Volga. The people living in this state were called Bulgars. Volga Bulgaria existed for two and a half centuries. Here agriculture and cattle breeding, handicrafts developed, there was trade with Russia and with the countries of Europe and Asia.

The high level of Bulgar culture in that period is evidenced by the existence of two types of writing - ancient Turkic runic(1) and later Arabic which came along with Islam in the 10th century. Arabic language and writing gradually replaced the signs of ancient Turkic writing from the sphere of state circulation. And this is natural: the entire Muslim East, with which Bulgaria had close political and economic contacts, used the Arabic language.

The names of remarkable poets, philosophers, scientists of Bulgaria, whose works are included in the treasury of the peoples of the East, have survived to our time. This Khoja Ahmed Bulgari (XI century) - a scientist and theologian, an expert on the moral precepts of Islam; WITH ulaiman ibn Daoud al-Saksini-Suwari (XII century) - the author of philosophical treatises with very poetic titles: "The light of the rays - the truthfulness of secrets", "The flower of the garden, delighting sick souls." And the poet Kul Gali (XII-XIII centuries) wrote the "Poem about Yusuf", which is considered a classic Turkic-language work of art of the pre-Mongolian period.

In the middle of the XIII century. Volga Bulgaria was conquered by the Tatar-Mongols and became part of the Golden Horde . After the fall of the Horde in 15th century . a new state arises in the Middle Volga region - Kazan Khanate . The main backbone of its population is formed by the same Bulgars, who by that time had already experienced the strong influence of their neighbors - the Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordovians, Mari, Udmurts), who lived next to them in the Volga basin, as well as the Mongols, who made up the majority of the ruling class of the Golden Horde.

Where did the name come from "Tatars" ? There are several versions of this. According to the most widespread, one of the Central Asian tribes conquered by the Mongols was called " tatan", "tatabi". In Rus', this word turned into "Tatars", and they began to call everyone: the Mongols, and the Turkic population of the Golden Horde subject to the Mongols, far from being monoethnic in composition. With the collapse of the Horde, the word "Tatars" did not disappear, they continued to collectively call the Turkic-speaking peoples on the southern and eastern borders of Rus'. Over time, its meaning narrowed down to the name of one people who lived on the territory of the Kazan Khanate.

The Khanate was conquered by Russian troops in 1552 . Since then, the Tatar lands have been part of Russia, and the history of the Tatars has been developing in close cooperation with the peoples inhabiting the Russian state.

Tatars excelled in various types of economic activity. They were wonderful s farmers (they grew rye, barley, millet, peas, lentils) and excellent cattle breeders . Of all types of livestock, sheep and horses were especially preferred.

Tatars were famous as beautiful artisans . Coopers made barrels for fish, caviar, sour, pickles, beer. Tanners made leather. Kazan morocco and Bulgar yuft (original locally produced leather), shoes and boots, very soft to the touch, decorated with applique from pieces of multi-colored leather, were especially valued at fairs. Among the Kazan Tatars there were many enterprising and successful merchants who traded throughout Russia.

TATAR NATIONAL CUISINE

In Tatar cuisine one can distinguish "agricultural" dishes and "cattle-breeding" dishes. The first ones are soups with pieces of dough, cereals, pancakes, tortillas , i.e., what can be prepared from grain and flour. To the second - dried horse meat sausage, sour cream, different types of cheese , a special kind of sour milk - katyk . And if you dilute the katyk with water and cool it, you get a wonderful thirst-quenching drink - ayran . well and belyashi - round pies fried in oil with meat or vegetable filling, which can be seen through a hole in the dough, are known to everyone. festive dish the Tatars considered smoked goose .

Already at the beginning of the X century. the ancestors of the Tatars accepted Islam , and since then their culture has developed within the Islamic world. This was facilitated by the spread of writing based on Arabic script and the construction of a large number of mosques - buildings for holding collective prayers. Schools were created at mosques - mektebe and madrasah , where children (and not only from noble families) learned to read the holy book of Muslims in Arabic - Koran .

Ten centuries of written tradition have not been in vain. Among the Kazan Tatars, in comparison with other Turkic peoples of Russia, there are many writers, poets, composers, and artists. Often it was the Tatars who were the mullahs and teachers of other Turkic peoples. Tatars have a highly developed sense of national identity, pride in their history and culture.

{1 } Runic (from the ancient Germanic and Gothic runa - "mystery*") is the name given to the most ancient Germanic writings, which were distinguished by a special inscription of characters. The ancient Turkic writing of the 8th-10th centuries was also called.

VISIT TO X A K A S A M

In southern Siberia on the banks of the Yenisei River another Turkic-speaking people lives - Khakass . There are only 79 thousand of them. Khakasses - descendants of the Yenisei Kyrgyz who lived more than a thousand years ago in the same area. Neighbors, the Chinese, called the Kyrgyz " hyagas"; from this word the name of the people came - the Khakass. By appearance Khakasses can be attributed to Mongoloid race, however, a strong Caucasoid admixture is also noticeable in them, which manifests itself in lighter skin than other Mongoloids and lighter, sometimes almost red, hair color.

Khakasses live in Minusinsk basin, sandwiched between the Sayan and Abakan ridges. They consider themselves mountain people , although the majority live in the flat, steppe part of Khakassia. Archaeological monuments of this basin - and there are more than 30 thousand of them - testify that a person lived on the Khakas land already 40-30 thousand years ago. From the drawings on the rocks and stones, one can get an idea of ​​how people lived at that time, what they did, who they hunted, what rituals they performed, what gods they worshiped. Of course, it cannot be said that Khakass{2 ) are direct descendants of the ancient inhabitants of these places, but there are still some common features between the ancient and modern population of the Minusinsk Basin.

Khakass - pastoralists . They call themselves " threefold people", because three types of livestock are bred: horses, cattle (cows and bulls) and sheep . Previously, if a person had more than 100 horses and cows, they said about him that he had "a lot of cattle", and they called him a bai. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. The Khakass led a nomadic lifestyle. Cattle were grazed all year round. When horses, sheep, cows ate all the grass around the dwelling, the owners collected property, loaded it onto horses and, together with their herd, went to a new place. Having found a good pasture, they set up a yurt there and lived until the cattle again ate the grass. And so up to four times a year.

Bread they also sowed - and learned this a long time ago. An interesting folk way, which determined the readiness of the land for sowing. The owner plowed a small area and, having exposed the lower half of his body, sat down on the arable land to smoke a pipe. If, while he was smoking, the bare parts of the body did not freeze, it means that the earth has warmed up and it is possible to sow grain. However, other nations also used this method. While working on arable land, they did not wash their faces - so as not to wash away happiness. And when the sowing was over, they made an alcoholic drink from the remnants of last year's grain and sprinkled the sown land with it. This interesting Khakass rite was called "Uren Khurty", which means "to kill an earthworm". It was performed in order to appease the spirit - the owner of the earth, so that he would not "allow" various kinds of pests to destroy the future crop.

Now the Khakass quite willingly eat fish, but in the Middle Ages they were treated with disgust and called it "river worm". To prevent it from accidentally getting into drinking water, special channels were diverted from the river.

Until the middle of the XIX century. Khakass lived in yurts . Yurt- comfortable nomadic dwelling. It can be assembled and disassembled in two hours. First, sliding wooden grates are placed in a circle, a door frame is attached to them, then a dome is laid out from separate poles, while not forgetting about the upper hole: it plays the role of a window and a chimney at the same time. In summer, the outside of the yurt was covered with birch bark, and in winter - with felt. If you properly heat the hearth, which is placed in the center of the yurt, then it is very warm in it in any frost.

Like all pastoralists, the Khakass love meat and dairy products . With the onset of winter colds, cattle were slaughtered for meat - not all, of course, but as much as needed to last until the beginning of summer, until the first milk of cows that went out to pasture. Horses and sheep were slaughtered according to certain rules, dismembering the carcass at the joints with a knife. It was forbidden to break bones - otherwise the owner will have cattle transferred and there will be no happiness. On the day of the slaughter, a celebration was held and all the neighbors were invited. Adults and children are very loved pressed milk foam mixed with flour, bird cherry or lingonberries .

There have always been many children in Khakas families. There is a proverb "A man who has raised cattle has a full stomach, and a man who has raised children has a full soul"; If a woman gave birth and raised nine children - and the number nine had a special meaning in the mythology of many peoples of Central Asia - she was allowed to ride a "consecrated" horse. The horse, on which the shaman performed a special ceremony, was considered consecrated; after him, according to the beliefs of the Khakas, the horse was protected from trouble and protected the entire herd. Not every man was even allowed to touch such an animal.

In general, the Khakass many interesting customs . For example, a person who managed to catch the sacred bird flamingo while hunting (this bird is very rare in Khakassia) could woo any girl, and her parents had no right to refuse him. The groom dressed the bird in a red silk shirt, tied a red silk scarf around its neck and carried it as a gift to the bride's parents. Such a gift was considered very valuable, more expensive than any kalym - a ransom for the bride, which the groom had to pay to her family.

Since the 90s. 20th century Khakass - by religion They shamanists - annually celebrate the national holiday Ada Hoorai . It is dedicated to the memory of the ancestors - everyone who has ever fought and died for the freedom of Khakassia. In honor of these heroes, a public prayer is held, a ritual of sacrifice is performed.

THROAT SINGING OF THE KHAKAS

Khakasses own the art of throat singing . It's called " hai ". The singer does not utter words, but in low and high sounds flying out of his throat, one hears the sounds of an orchestra, then the rhythmic clatter of horse hooves, then the hoarse groans of a dying beast. Undoubtedly, this unusual art form was born in nomadic conditions, and its origins must be sought in ancient times. throat singing is known only to the Turkic-speaking peoples - Tuvans, Khakasses, Bashkirs, Yakuts - and also to a small extent to the Buryats and Western Mongols, in which there is a strong admixture of Turkic blood. It is unknown to other nations. And this is one of the mysteries of nature and history, not yet revealed by scientists. Throat singing is only for men . You can learn it by training hard from childhood, and since far from everyone has enough patience, only a few achieve success.

{2 ) Before the revolution, the Khakasses were called Minusinsk or Abakan Tatars.

ON THE CHULYM RIVER UCHULYMTS EV

On the border of the Tomsk region and the Krasnoyarsk Territory in the Chulym river basin lives the smallest Turkic people in terms of numbers - Chulyms . Sometimes they are called Chulym Turks . But they talk about themselves "Pestyn Kizhiler", which means "our people". At the end of the 19th century there were about 5 thousand people, now there are just over 700. Small peoples living next to large ones usually merge with the latter, perceive their culture, language and self-consciousness. the neighbors of the Chulyms were Siberian Tatars, Khakasses, and from the 17th century - Russians who began to move here from the central regions of Russia. Some of the Chulyms merged with the Siberian Tatars, others merged with the Khakass, and others with the Russians. Those who still continue to call themselves Chulyms, almost lost their native language.

Chulyms - fishermen and hunters . At the same time, they catch fish mainly in the summer, and hunt mainly in the winter, although, of course, they know both winter ice fishing and summer hunting.

Fish was stored and eaten in any form: raw, boiled, dried with and without salt, crushed with wild roots, fried on a spit, mashed caviar. Sometimes the fish was cooked by placing the skewer at an angle to the fire so that the fat flowed out and it dried out a little, after which it was dried in an oven or in special closed pits. Frozen fish was mainly for sale.

Hunting was divided into hunting "for oneself" and hunting "for sale". ". For themselves they beat - and continue to do so now - elk, taiga and lake game, put snares on squirrels. Elk and game are indispensable in the food of the Chulyms. Sable, fox and wolf were hunted for the sake of fur skins: Russian merchants paid well for them. Bear meat was eaten themselves, and the skin was most often sold to buy guns and cartridges, salt and sugar, knives and clothes.

Still Chulyms are engaged in such an ancient activity as gathering: wild herbs, garlic and onions, wild dill are collected in the taiga, in the floodplain, along the banks of lakes, dried or salted, and added to food in autumn, winter and spring. These are the only vitamins available to them. In autumn, like many other peoples of Siberia, the Chulyms go out with their whole families to collect pine nuts.

Chulyms knew how make cloth out of nettles . Nettles were collected, tied into sheaves, dried in the sun, then kneaded with hands and crushed in a wooden mortar. All this was done by children. And the yarn itself from cooked nettles was made by adult women.

On the example of Tatars, Khakasses and Chulyms, one can see how the Turkic peoples of Russia are distinguished- in appearance, type of economy, spiritual culture. Tatars outwardly most similar on Europeans, Khakasses and Chulyms - typical Mongoloids with only a slight admixture of Caucasoid features.Tatars - settled farmers and pastoralists , Khakass -pastoral nomads in the recent past , Chulyms - fishermen, hunters, gatherers .Tatars - Muslims , Khakasses and Chulyms once accepted Christianity , and now return to the ancient shamanic cults. So the Turkic world is both united and diverse at the same time.

CLOSE RELATIVES OF BURYATY AND KALMYKI

If Turkic peoples in Russia more than twenty Mongolian - only two: Buryats and Kalmyks . Buryats live in Southern Siberia on the lands adjacent to Lake Baikal, and further to the east . In administrative terms, this is the territory of the Republic of Buryatia (the capital is Ulan-Ude) and two autonomous Buryat districts: Ust-Orda in the Irkutsk region and Aginsky in the Chita region . Buryats also live in Moscow, St. Petersburg and in many other large cities of Russia . Their number is more than 417 thousand people.

The Buryats formed as a single people by the middle of the 17th century. from the tribes that lived on the lands around Lake Baikal more than a thousand years ago. In the second half of the XVII century. these territories became part of Russia.

Kalmyks live in Lower Volga region in the Republic of Kalmykia (capital - Elista) and neighboring Astrakhan, Rostov, Volgograd regions and Stavropol Territory . The number of Kalmyks is about 170 thousand people.

The history of the Kalmyk people began in Asia. His ancestors - Western Mongolian tribes and nationalities - were called Oirats. In the XIII century. they were united under the rule of Genghis Khan and, together with other peoples, formed the vast Mongol Empire. As part of the army of Genghis Khan, they participated in his campaigns of conquest, including those against Rus'.

After the collapse of the empire (end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries), unrest and wars began on its former territory. Part Oirat taishas (princes) subsequently asked for citizenship from the Russian tsar, and during the first half of the 17th century. in several groups they moved to Russia, in the steppes of the Lower Volga region. The word "Kalmyk" comes from the word halmg", which means "remnant". So they called themselves those who, having not converted to Islam, came from Dzungaria{3 ) to Russia, unlike those who continued to call themselves Oirats. And since the 18th century the word "Kalmyk" became the self-name of the people.

Since then, the history of the Kalmyks has been closely connected with the history of Russia. Their nomad camps protected its southern borders from sudden attacks by the Turkish Sultan and the Crimean Khan. The Kalmyk cavalry was famous for its speed, lightness, and excellent fighting qualities. She participated in almost all the wars waged by the Russian Empire: Russian-Turkish, Russian-Swedish, the Persian campaign of 1722-1723, the Patriotic War of 1812.

The fate of the Kalmyks as part of Russia was not easy. Two events were especially tragic. The first is the departure of a part of the princes dissatisfied with the policy of Russia, together with their subjects, back to Western Mongolia in 1771. The second is the deportation of the Kalmyk people to Siberia and Central Asia in 1944-1957. on charges of aiding the Germans during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. Both events left a heavy imprint in the memory and in the soul of the people.

Kalmyks and Buryats have a lot in common in culture , and not only because they speak close and understandable to each other languages ​​that are part of the Mongolian language group. The point is also different: both peoples up to the beginning of the 20th century. were engaged nomadic pastoralism ; in the past were shamanists , and later, although at different times (the Kalmyks in the 15th century, and the Buryats at the beginning of the 17th century), adopted Buddhism . Their culture combines shamanic and Buddhist features, rites of both religions coexist . There is nothing unusual about this. There are many peoples on earth who, officially considered Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, nevertheless continue to follow the pagan tradition.

Buryats and Kalmyks are also among such peoples. And although they have many Buddhist temples (before the 20s of the XX century, the Buryats had 48 of them, the Kalmyks - 104; now the Buryats have 28 temples, the Kalmyks - 14), but they celebrate traditional pre-Buddhist holidays with special solemnity. For the Buryats, this is Sagaalgan (White month) - New Year's holiday, which occurs on the first spring new moon. Now it is considered Buddhist, services are held in its honor in Buddhist temples, but, in fact, it was and remains a national holiday.

Every year, Sagaalgan is celebrated on different days, as the date is calculated according to the lunar calendar, and not according to the solar one. This calendar is called the 12-year animal cycle, because each year in it bears the name of an animal (the year of the Tiger, the year of the Dragon, the year of the Hare, etc.) and the “named” year is repeated every 12 years. In 1998, for example, the year of the tiger began on February 27th.

When Sagaalgan comes, it is supposed to eat a lot of white, i.e. dairy, food - cottage cheese, butter, cheese, foam, drink milk vodka and koumiss. That is why the holiday is called "White month". Everything white in the culture of the Mongolian-speaking peoples was considered sacred and was directly related to holidays and solemn ceremonies: white felt, on which the newly elected khan was raised, a bowl with fresh, freshly milked milk, which was brought to the honored guest. The horse that won the race was sprinkled with milk.

And here Kalmyks celebrate the New Year on December 25 and call it "dzul" , and the White month (in Kalmyk it is called "Tsagaan Sar") is considered by them as a holiday of the onset of spring and was not connected with the New Year in any way.

At the height of summer Buryats celebrate Surkharban . On this day, the best athletes compete in accuracy, shooting from a bow at felt balls - targets ("sur" - "felt ball", "harbakh" - "shoot"; hence the name of the holiday); horse races and national wrestling are arranged. An important moment of the holiday is the sacrifice to the spirits of the earth, water and mountains. If the spirits were appeased, the Buryats believed, they would send good weather, abundant grasses to pastures, which means that the cattle would be fat and well-fed, people would be full and contented with life.

Kalmyks have two similar holidays in summer: Usn Arshan (blessing of water) and Usn Tyaklgn (sacrifice to water). In the dry Kalmyk steppe, much depended on water, so it was necessary to make a sacrifice to the spirit of water in a timely manner in order to win its favor. At the end of autumn, each family performed the rite of sacrifice to fire - Gal Tyaklgn . A cold winter was approaching, and it was very important that the "owner" of the hearth and fire be kind to the family and provide warmth in the house, yurt, wagon. A ram was sacrificed, its meat was burned in the fire of the hearth.

Buryats and Kalmyks are extremely respectful and even affectionate towards the horse. This is one of the characteristic features of nomadic societies. Any poor man had several horses, the rich owned large herds, but, as a rule, each owner knew his horses "by sight", could distinguish them from strangers, and gave nicknames especially to his beloved. Heroes of all heroic legends (epos Buryat - "Geser ", Kalmyks - "Jangar ") had a beloved horse, which was called by name. He was not just a mount, but a friend and comrade in trouble, in joy, on a military campaign. battlefield, obtained "living water" to bring back to life. The horse and the nomad were attached to each other from childhood. If at the same time a boy was born in the family, and a foal in the herd, the parents gave him to his son at full disposal. They grew up together, the boy fed, watered and walked his friend. The foal learned to be a horse, and the boy - a rider. This is how the future winners of the races, dashing riders grew up. Short, hardy, with long manes, the Central Asian horses grazed in the steppe all year round on pasture. They were not afraid no cold weather, no wolves, fighting off predators with strong and accurate blows of hooves.The excellent war cavalry more than once put the enemy to flight and caused amazement and respect both in Asia and in Europe.

"TROIKA" IN KALMYK

Kalmyk folklore surprisingly rich in genres - here and fairy tales, and legends, and the heroic epic "Dzhangar", and proverbs, and sayings, and riddles . There is also a peculiar genre that is difficult to define. It combines a riddle, a proverb and a saying and is called a "three line" or simply "troika" (no-Kalmyks - "gurvn"). The people believed that there were 99 such "threes"; in fact, there are probably many more. The youth loved to arrange competitions - who knows them more and better. Here are some of them.

Three of what is fast?
What is the fastest in the world? Horse legs.
An arrow, if it is dexterously thrown.
And thought is fast when it is smart.

Three of what is full?
In the month of May, the freedom of the steppes is full.
A child is fed, that is fed by his mother.
A well-fed old man who raised worthy children.

Three of those who are rich?
The old man, since there are many daughters and sons, is rich.
The skill of the master among the masters is rich.
The poor man, at least in that there are no debts, is rich.

In three lines, improvisation plays an important role. A participant in the competition can come up with his own “troika” right off the bat. The main thing is that the laws of the genre are observed in it: first there must be a question, and then an answer consisting of three parts. And, of course, meaning, worldly logic and folk wisdom are necessary.

{3 ) Dzungaria is a historical region on the territory of modern Northwest China.

TRADITIONAL BOOT COSTUME

Bashkirs , who for a long time maintained a semi-nomadic lifestyle, widely used leather, skins and wool for making clothes. Underwear was sewn from Central Asian or Russian factory fabrics. Those who early switched to a sedentary lifestyle made clothes from nettle, hemp, linen canvas.

Traditional male costume consisted of shirts with a turn-down collar and wide trousers . Over the shirt they wore a short sleeveless jacket and going out into the street caftan with a standing collar or a long, almost straight dressing gown made of dark fabric . Know and mullahs went to dressing gowns made of motley Central Asian silk . In the cold time of the Bashkirs dressed in spacious cloth robes, sheepskin coats or sheepskin coats .

Skullcaps were everyday headwear for men. , in the elderly- dark velvet young- bright, embroidered with colored threads. They put on over skullcaps in the cold felt hats or cloth-covered fur hats . In the steppes, during snowstorms, warm fur malachai, which covered the back of the head and ears, saved.

The most common shoes were boots : the bottom was made of leather, and the leg was made of canvas or cloth fabrics. On holidays they were changed to leather boots . Met at the Bashkirs and bast sandals .

Woman suit included dress, bloomers and sleeveless jacket . The dresses were detachable, with a wide skirt, they were decorated with ribbons and braid. It was supposed to be worn over the dress short fitted sleeveless jackets, sheathed with braid, coins and plaques . Apron , which at first served as work clothes, later became part of the festive costume.

Headdresses varied. Women of all ages covered their heads with a scarf and tied it under their chin. . Some young Bashkirs under scarves wore small velvet caps embroidered with beads, pearls, corals , A elderly- quilted cotton hats. Sometimes married Bashkirs worn over a scarf high fur hats .

PEOPLE OF THE SUN RAYS (Y KU T Y)

The people, who in Russia are called Yakuts, call themselves "Sakha"." , and in myths and legends it is very poetic - "people of the sun's rays with reins behind their backs." Their number is more than 380 thousand people. They live in the north Siberia, in the basins of the Lena and Vilyui rivers, in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Yakuts , the northernmost pastoralists of Russia, breed cattle and small cattle and horses. Kumys from mare's milk and smoked horse meat - favorite foods in summer and winter, on weekdays and holidays. In addition, the Yakuts are excellent fishermen and hunters . Fish are caught mainly with nets, which are now bought in a store, and in the old days they were woven from horsehair. They hunt large animals in the taiga, and game in the tundra. Among the methods of extraction there is known only to the Yakuts - hunting with a bull. The hunter sneaks up on the prey, hiding behind the bull, and shoots at the beast.

Before meeting the Russians, the Yakuts almost did not know agriculture, they did not sow bread, did not grow vegetables, but they were engaged in gathering in the taiga : they harvested wild onions, edible herbs and the so-called pine sapwood - a layer of wood located directly under the bark. She was dried, crushed, turning into flour. In winter, it was the main source of vitamins that saved from scurvy. Pine flour was diluted in water, a mash was made, to which fish or milk was added, and if they were not, they ate it just like that. This dish has remained in the distant past, now its description can only be found in books.

The Yakuts live in a country of taiga paths and full-flowing rivers, and therefore their traditional means of transportation have always been a horse, a deer and a bull or a sleigh (the same animals were harnessed to them), boats made of birch bark or hollowed out from a tree trunk. And even now, in the age of airlines, railways, developed river and sea navigation, people travel in remote areas of the republic just like in the old days.

The folk art of this people is surprisingly rich . The Yakuts were glorified far beyond the borders of their land by the heroic epic - olonkho - about the exploits of ancient heroes, wonderful women's jewelry and carved wooden goblets for koumiss - chorons , each of which has its own unique ornament.

The main holiday of the Yakuts - Ysyakh . It is celebrated on Konya June, on the days of the summer solstice. This is the holiday of the New Year, the holiday of the Revival of nature and the birth of a person - not a specific one, but a person in general. On this day, sacrifices are made to the gods and spirits, expecting patronage from them in all upcoming affairs.

RULES OF THE ROAD (YAKUT VARIANT)

Are you ready for the road? Be careful! Even if the path ahead of you is not very long and difficult, the rules of the road must be observed. And each nation has its own.

The Yakuts had a rather long set of rules for "leaving home" , and everyone tried to observe it, who wanted his journey to be successful and he returned safely. Before leaving, they sat down in a place of honor in the house, facing the fire, and threw firewood into the stove - they fed the fire. It was not supposed to tie shoelaces on a hat, mittens, clothes. On the day of departure, the household did not rake the ashes in the oven. According to the beliefs of the Yakuts, ashes are a symbol of wealth and happiness. There is a lot of ashes in the house - it means that the family is rich, little - poor. If you scoop up the ashes on the day of departure, then the departing person will not be lucky in business, he will return with nothing. A girl getting married, when leaving her parents' house, should not look back, otherwise her happiness will remain in their house.

To keep everything in order, sacrifices were made to the "owner" of the road at crossroads, mountain passes, watersheds: bundles of horsehair were hung, pieces of matter torn from the dress, copper coins and buttons were left.

On the road, it was forbidden to call the objects taken with them by their real names - it was supposed to resort to allegories. There was no need to talk about the upcoming actions along the way. Travelers who stop on the banks of the river never say that they will cross the river tomorrow - there is a special expression for this, translated from Yakut approximately like this: "Tomorrow we will try to ask our grandmother there."

According to the beliefs of the Yakuts, objects thrown or found on the road acquired a special magical power - good or evil. If a leather rope or a knife was found on the road, they were not taken, as they were considered "dangerous", but a horsehair rope, on the contrary, was a "happy" find, and they took it with them.

They are settled on the vast territory of our planet, ranging from the cold Kolyma basin to the southwestern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The Turks do not belong to any particular racial type, even among the same people there are both Caucasoids and Mongoloids. They are mostly Muslims, but there are peoples who profess Christianity, traditional beliefs, and shamanism. The only thing that connects almost 170 million people is the common origin of the group of languages ​​that the Turks now speak. Yakut and Turk - they all speak related dialects.

Strong branch of the Altai tree

Among some scholars, disputes still do not subside over which language family the Turkic language group belongs to. Some linguists singled it out as a separate large group. However, the most generally accepted hypothesis today is the version about the entry of these related languages ​​into the large Altaic family.

A great contribution to these studies was made by the development of genetics, thanks to which it became possible to trace the history of entire peoples in the wake of individual fragments of the human genome.

Once a group of tribes in Central Asia spoke the same language - the ancestor of modern Turkic dialects, but in the 3rd century. BC e. a separate Bulgar branch separated from the large trunk. The only people who speak the languages ​​of the Bulgar group today are the Chuvash. Their dialect is noticeably different from other related ones and stands out as a special subgroup.

Some researchers even propose to place the Chuvash language in a separate genus of the large Altai macrofamily.

Southeast direction classification

Other representatives of the Turkic group of languages ​​are usually divided into 4 large subgroups. There are disagreements in the details, but for simplicity, we can take the most common way.

Oguz, or southwestern, languages, which include Azerbaijani, Turkish, Turkmen, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz. Representatives of these peoples speak very similarly and can easily understand each other without an interpreter. Hence the huge influence of strong Turkey in Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan, whose inhabitants perceive Turkish as their native language.

The Turkic group of the Altai family of languages ​​also includes the Kypchak, or northwestern, languages, which are spoken mainly on the territory of the Russian Federation, as well as representatives of the peoples of Central Asia with nomadic ancestors. Tatars, Bashkirs, Karachays, Balkars, such peoples of Dagestan as Nogais and Kumyks, as well as Kazakhs and Kirghiz - they all speak related dialects of the Kypchak subgroup.

The southeastern, or Karluk, languages ​​are solidly represented by the languages ​​of two large peoples - the Uzbeks and the Uighurs. However, for almost a thousand years they developed separately from each other. If the Uzbek language has experienced a colossal influence of Farsi, the Arabic language, then the Uyghurs, the inhabitants of East Turkestan, have brought a huge amount of Chinese borrowings into their dialect over the years.

Northern Turkic languages

The geography of the Turkic group of languages ​​is wide and varied. Yakuts, Altaians, in general, some indigenous peoples of northeastern Eurasia, are also combined into a separate branch of a large Turkic tree. Northeastern languages ​​are quite heterogeneous and are subdivided into several separate genera.

The Yakut and Dolgan languages ​​separated from the single Turkic dialect, and this happened in the 3rd century BC. n. e.

Tuvan and Tofalar languages ​​belong to the Sayan group of languages ​​of the Turkic family. Khakasses and residents of Gornaya Shoria speak the languages ​​of the Khakass group.

Altai is the cradle of the Turkic civilization, the indigenous inhabitants of these places still speak the Oirot, Teleut, Lebedin, Kumandin languages ​​of the Altai subgroup.

Incidents in a slender classification

However, not everything is so simple in this conditional division. The process of national-territorial delimitation, which took place on the territory of the Central Asian republics of the USSR in the twenties of the last century, also affected such subtle matter as language.

All residents of the Uzbek SSR were called Uzbeks, a single version of the literary Uzbek language was adopted, based on the dialects of the Kokand Khanate. However, even today the Uzbek language is characterized by pronounced dialectism. Some dialects of Khorezm, the westernmost part of Uzbekistan, are closer to the languages ​​of the Oguz group and closer to Turkmen than to literary Uzbek.

Some areas speak dialects that belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kipchak languages, hence the situations when a Ferghana native hardly understands a native of Kashkadarya, who, in his opinion, godlessly distorts his native language, is not uncommon.

The situation is approximately the same with other representatives of the peoples of the Turkic group of languages ​​- the Crimean Tatars. The language of the inhabitants of the coastal strip is almost identical to Turkish, but the natural steppe people speak an dialect closer to the Kypchak ones.

Ancient history

For the first time, the Turks entered the world historical arena in the era of the Great Migration of Nations. In the genetic memory of Europeans, there is still a shudder before the invasion of Attila's Huns in the 4th century. n. e. The steppe empire was a motley formation of numerous tribes and peoples, however, the Turkic element was still predominant.

There are many versions of the origin of these peoples, however, most researchers place the ancestral home of today's Uzbeks and Turks in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, in the area between Altai and the Khingar Range. This version is also followed by the Kyrgyz, who consider themselves the direct heirs of the great empire and are still nostalgic about this.

The neighbors of the Turks were the Mongols, the ancestors of today's Indo-European peoples, the Ural and Yenisei tribes, the Manchus. The Turkic group of the Altaic family of languages ​​began to take shape in close cooperation with close peoples.

Confusion with Tatars and Bulgarians

In the first century A.D. e. individual tribes begin to migrate towards southern Kazakhstan. In the 4th century, the famous Hun invasion of Europe took place. It was then that the Bulgar branch separated from the Turkic tree and an extensive confederation was formed, which was divided into the Danubian and Volga. Today's Bulgarians in the Balkans now speak Slavic and have lost their Turkic roots.

The reverse situation occurred with the Volga Bulgars. They still speak Turkic languages, but after the invasion of the Mongols they call themselves Tatars. The conquered Turkic tribes living in the steppes of the Volga took the name of the Tatars, a legendary tribe that had long disappeared in wars, with whom Genghis Khan began his campaigns. They also called their language Tatar, which they used to call Bulgar.

Chuvash is considered the only living dialect of the Bulgar branch of the Turkic group of languages. The Tatars, another descendant of the Bulgars, actually speak a variant of the later Kipchak dialects.

From Kolyma to the Mediterranean

The peoples of the Turkic language group include the inhabitants of the harsh regions of the basin of the famous Kolyma, the resort beaches of the Mediterranean, the Altai mountains and the steppes of Kazakhstan, which are flat as a table. The ancestors of today's Turks were nomads, along and across the Eurasian continent. For two thousand years they interacted with their neighbors, who were Iranians, Arabs, Russians, Chinese. During this time, an unimaginable mixture of cultures and bloodlines occurred.

Today it is even impossible to determine the race to which the Turks belong. Residents of Turkey, Azerbaijanis, Gagauz belong to the Mediterranean group of the Caucasian race, there are practically no guys with slanted eyes and yellowish skin. However, the Yakuts, Altaians, Kazakhs, Kirghiz - they all carry a pronounced Mongoloid element in their appearance.

Racial diversity is observed even among peoples who speak the same language. Among the Tatars of Kazan you can meet blue-eyed blonds and black-haired people with slanted eyes. The same is observed in Uzbekistan, where it is impossible to deduce the appearance of a typical Uzbek.

Faith

The majority of Turks are Muslims who practice the Sunni branch of this religion. Only in Azerbaijan adhere to Shiism. However, individual peoples either retained ancient beliefs or became adherents of other major religions. Most of the Chuvash and Gagauz profess Christianity in its Orthodox form.

In the northeast of Eurasia, individual peoples continue to adhere to the faith of their ancestors; among the Yakuts, Altaians, Tuvans, traditional beliefs and shamanism continue to be popular.

During the time of the Khazar Khaganate, the inhabitants of this empire professed Judaism, which continues to be perceived as the only true religion by today's Karaites, fragments of that mighty Turkic state.

Vocabulary

Along with world civilization, the Turkic languages ​​also developed, absorbing the vocabulary of neighboring peoples and generously endowing them with their own words. It is difficult to count the number of borrowed Turkic words in the East Slavic languages. It all started with the Bulgars, from whom the words “kap” were borrowed, from which arose “temple”, “suvart”, transformed into “serum”. Later, instead of "serum" they began to use the common Turkic "yogurt".

The exchange of vocabulary became especially lively during the Golden Horde and the late Middle Ages, during active trade with the Turkic countries. A huge number of new words came into use: donkey, cap, sash, raisins, shoe, chest and others. Later, only the names of specific terms began to be borrowed, for example, snow leopard, elm, dung, kishlak.

Inner Asia and Southern Siberia are the small homeland of the Turks, this is the territorial “patch”, which eventually grew into a thousand-kilometer territory on a global scale. The geographical composition of the area of ​​the Turkic peoples took place, in fact, over two millennia. The Proto-Turks lived in the trap of the Volga as early as the III-II millennium BC, they constantly migrated. Ancient Turkic "Scythians" and Huns" were also an integral part of the Ancient Turkic Khaganate. Thanks to their ritual structures, today we can get acquainted with the works of ancient early Slavic culture and art - this is precisely the Turkic heritage.

The Turks were traditionally engaged in nomadic pastoralism, in addition, they mined and processed iron. Leading a sedentary and semi-nomadic way of life, the Turks in the Central Asian interfluve in the VI century formed Turkestan. Existing in Central Asia from 552 to 745, the Turkic Khaganate in 603 was divided into two independent Khaganates, one of which included modern Kazakhstan and the lands of East Turkestan, and the other was the territory that included present-day Mongolia, Northern China and Southern Siberia.

The first, Western, Khaganate ceased to exist half a century later, conquered by the Eastern Turks. The leader of the Turgeshes, Uchelik, founded a new state of the Türks - the Turgesh Khaganate.

Subsequently, the Bulgars, Kyiv princes Svyatoslav and Yaroslav were engaged in the combat "formatting" of the Turkic ethnos. The Pechenegs, who devastated the southern Russian steppes with fire and sword, were replaced by the Polovtsy, they were defeated by the Mongol-Tatars ... Partly the Golden Horde (Mongol Empire) was a Turkic state, which later disintegrated into autonomous khanates.

There were many other significant events in the history of the Turks, among which the most significant is the formation of the Ottoman Empire, which was facilitated by the conquests of the Ottoman Turks, who seized the lands of Europe, Asia and Africa in the 13th-16th centuries. After the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which began in the 17th century, Peter's Russia swallowed up most of the former Golden Horde lands with Turkic states. Already in the 19th century, East Transcaucasian khanates joined Russia. After Central Asia, the Kazakh and Kokand khanates, together with the Emirate of Bukhara, became part of Russia, the Mikin and Khiva khanates, together with the Ottoman Empire, were the only conglomerate of Turkic states.

The ancient Turks are the ancestors of many modern Turkic peoples, including the Tatars. The Turks roamed the Great Steppe (Dashti-Kypchak) in the expanses of Eurasia. Here they conducted their economic activities, on these lands they created their own states. The Volga-Ural region, located on the periphery of the Great Steppe, has long been inhabited by Finno-Ugric and Turkic tribes. In the second century AD, other Turkic tribes also migrated here from Central Asia, known in history as the Huns. In the 4th century, the Huns occupied the Black Sea region, then invaded Central Europe. But, over time, the Hun union of tribes broke up and most of the Huns returned to the Black Sea region, joining other local Turks.
The Turkic Khaganate, created by the Turks of Central Asia, existed for about two hundred years. Among the peoples of this kaganate, written sources point to the Tatars. It is noted that this is a very numerous Turkic people. The tribal association of the Tatars, located on the territory of modern Mongolia, included 70 thousand families. The Arab historian pointed out that due to their exceptional greatness and authority, other tribes also united under this name. Other historians also reported about the Tatars living on the banks of the Irtysh River. In frequent military clashes, the opponents of the Tatars usually turned out to be the Chinese and Mongols. There is no doubt that the Tatars were Turks, and in this sense they are close relatives (and to a certain extent can also be attributed to the ancestors) of the modern Turkic peoples.
After the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate, the Khazar Khaganate came into power. The possession of the kaganate extended to the Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the Crimea. The Khazars were an association of Turkic tribes and peoples and "were one of the remarkable peoples of that era" (L. N. Gumilyov). Exceptional religious tolerance flourished in this state. For example, in the capital of the state, Itil, located near the mouth of the Volga, there were Muslim mosques, prayer houses of Christians and Jews. Seven equal judges worked: two Muslims, a Jew, a Christian and one pagan. Each of them resolved the lawsuits of people of the same religion as him. The Khazars were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, agriculture and gardening, and in the cities - crafts. The capital of the kaganate was not only a center of handicrafts, but also of international trade.
In the years of its heyday, Khazaria was a powerful state, and it was not for nothing that the Caspian Sea was called the Khazar Sea. However, the military actions of external enemies weakened the state. The attacks of the troops of the Arab Caliphate, the principality of Kyiv and the hostile policy of Byzantium turned out to be especially tangible. All this led to the fact that at the end of the tenth century Khazaria ceased to exist as an independent state. One of the main components of the Khazar people were the Bulgars. Some historians of the past pointed out that the Scythians, Bulgars and Khazars are one and the same people. Others believe that the Bulgars are the Huns. They are also mentioned as Kipchaks, as Caucasian and North Caucasian tribes. In any case, the Bulgar Turks have been known from written sources for almost two thousand years. There are many interpretations of the word "Bulgar". According to one of them, 6ulgars are river people or people associated with fishing. According to other versions, “Bulgars” can mean: “mixed, consisting of many elements”, “rebels, rebels”, “wise men, thinkers”, etc. The Bulgars had their own state formation - Great Bulgaria in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, with the capital - r. Phanagoria, on the Taman Peninsula. This state included lands from the Dnieper to the Kuban, part of the North Caucasus and the steppe expanses between the Caspian and Azov seas. Once the Caucasus Mountains were also called the chain of the Bulgar mountains. The Azov Bulgaria was a peaceful state, and often fell into dependence on the Turkic Khaganate and Khazaria. The state reached its greatest prosperity under the rule of Kubrat Khan, who managed to unite the Bulgars and other Turkic tribes. This khan was a wise ruler who achieved remarkable success in ensuring a peaceful life for his fellow citizens. During his reign, Bulgar cities grew, crafts developed. The state received international recognition, relations with geographical neighbors were relatively stable.
The position of the state deteriorated sharply after the death of Kubrat Khan in the middle of the 7th century, and the political and military pressure of Khazaria on Bulgaria intensified. Under these conditions, there were several cases of resettlement of significant masses of Bulgars to other regions. One group of Bulgars headed by Prince Asparukh moved west and settled on the banks of the Danube. A large group of Bulgars, led by the son of Kubrat Kodrak, went to the middle Volga region.
The Bulgars who remained in the Sea of ​​Azov ended up as part of Khazaria along with the Lower Volga Bulgars-Saksins and with other Turks of the state. However, this did not bring them eternal peace. In the 20s of the 7th century, Khazaria was attacked by the Arabs, during which the large Bulgarian cities of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov were captured and burned. Ten years later, the Arabs repeated their campaign, this time they plundered the Bulgar lands in the vicinity of the Terek and Kuban rivers, captured 20 thousand Barsils (the travelers of the century as part of the Bulgar people singled out Barsils, Esegels and, in fact, Buggars). All this caused another massive campaign of the Bulgar population to their fellow tribesmen in the Volga region. Subsequently, the defeat of Khazaria was accompanied by other cases of Bulgar migration to the middle and upper reaches of the Itil (the Itil River, in the understanding of that time, began with the Belaya River, included part of the Kama and then the Volga).
Thus, mass and small migrations of the Bulgars to the Volga-Ural region took place. The choice of the resettlement area is quite understandable. Here several centuries ago the Huns lived and their descendants continued to live, as well as other Turkic tribes. From this point of view, these places were the historical homeland of ancestors for certain Turkic tribes. In addition, the Turkic peoples of the middle and lower Volga region maintained constant close ties with the kindred peoples of the Caucasus and the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov; the developed nomadic economy more than once led to the mixing of different Turkic tribes. That's why. the strengthening of the Bulgar element in the middle Volga region was quite an ordinary phenomenon.
The increase in the Bulgar population in these areas led to the fact that it was the Bulgars who became the main forming element of the Tatar people, formed in the Volga-Ural region. At the same time, it should be taken into account that no more or less large people can trace their genealogy from only one single tribe. And the Tatar people in this sense is not an exception, among its ancestors one could name more than one tribe, and also indicate more than one influence (including Finno-Ugric). However, it is the Bulgars that should be recognized as the main element in the composition of the Tatar people.
Over time, the Turkic-Bulgarian tribes began to make up a fairly large population in this region. If, moreover, we take into account their historical experience in state building, then there is nothing surprising in the fact that the state of Great Bulgaria (Volga Bulgaria) soon arose here. In the initial period of its existence, Bulgaria in the Volga region was, as it were, a union of relatively independent regions, vassal dependent on Khazaria. But, in the second half of the 10th century, the supremacy of a single prince was already recognized by all specific rulers. There was a common system of paying taxes to the common treasury of a single state. By the time of the collapse of Khazaria, Great Bulgaria was a fully formed single state, its borders were recognized by neighboring states and peoples. In the future, the zone of political and economic influence of Bulgaria extended from the Oka to the Yaik (Urals). The lands of Bulgaria included areas from the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama to the Yaik and the lower reaches of the Volga. The Khazar Sea became known as the Bular Sea. “Atil is a river in the region of the Kipchaks, it flows into the Bulgar Sea,” wrote Mahmud Kashgari in the 11th century.
Great Bulgaria in the Volga region became a country of settled and semi-sedentary population and had a highly developed economy. In agriculture, the Bulgars used iron plowshares to plows already in the 10th century, the Bulgar Saban plow provided plowing with a layer turnover. The Bulgars used iron tools for agricultural production, grew more than 20 types of cultivated plants, were engaged in gardening, beekeeping, as well as hunting and fishing. Handicraft reached a high level for that time. The Bulgars were engaged in jewelry, leather, bone carving, metallurgical, pottery production. They were familiar with iron smelting, and began to use it in production. The Bulgars also used gold, silver, copper and their various alloys in their products. “The Bulgarian kingdom was one of the few states of medieval Europe, in which, in the shortest possible time, conditions were created for the high development of handicraft production in a number of industries” (A.P. Smirnov).
Since the 11th century, Velikaya Bulgaria has been the leading trading center in Eastern Europe. Trade relations developed with the closest neighbors - with the northern peoples, with the Russian principalities and with Scandinavia. Trade with Central Asia, with the Caucasus, with Persia, with the Baltics unfolded. The Bulgarian merchant fleet ensured the export and import of goods by waterways, and by land trade caravans went to Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The Bulgars exported fish, bread, timber, walrus teeth, furs, specially processed leather “Bulgari”, swords, chain mail, etc. From the Yellow Sea to Scandinavia, jewelry, leather and fur products of Bulgar craftsmen were known. The minting of own coins, begun in the 10th century, contributed to the further strengthening of the position of the Bulgarian state as a recognized center of trade between Europe and Asia.
Bulgars, in their bulk, adopted Islam as early as 825, i.e. almost 1200 years ago. The canons of Islam, with their call for spiritual and physical purity, for mercy, etc., found a special response among the Bulgars. The official adoption of Islam in the state has become a powerful factor in the consolidation of the people into a single organism. In 922 Almas Shilki, the ruler of the Great Bulgaria, received a delegation from the Baghdad Caliphate. A solemn prayer service was held in the central mosque of the capital of the state - in the city of Bulgape. Islam became the official state religion. This allowed Bulgaria to strengthen trade and economic relations with the developed Muslim states of that time. The position of Islam soon became very stable. Western European travelers of that time noted that the inhabitants of Bulgaria are a single people, "holding the law of Mukhammetov more firmly than anyone else." Within the framework of a single state, the formation of the nationality itself has also been basically completed. In any case, the Russian chronicles of the 11th century note here a single, Bulgar people.
Thus, the direct ancestors of modern Tatars were formed as a nationality in the Volga-Ural region. At the same time, they absorbed not only related Turkic tribes, but also partially local Finno-Ugric ones. The Bulgars more than once had to defend their lands from the encroachments of greedy robbers. The incessant attacks of the seekers of easy money forced the Bulgars even to move the capital; in the 12th century, the city of Bilyar, located at some distance from the main water artery - the Volga River, became the capital of the state. But, the most serious military trials fell on the lot of the Bulgar people in the XII century, which brought the Mongol invasion to the world.
Within three decades of the XIII century, the Mongols conquered a significant part of Asia and began their campaigns on the lands of Eastern Europe. The Bulgars, conducting intensive trade with Asian partners, were well aware of the danger posed by the Mongol army. They tried to create a united front, but their call for neighbors to unite in the face of a deadly threat fell on deaf ears. Eastern Europe met the Mongols not united, but disunited, divided into warring states (Central Europe made the same mistake). In 1223, the Mongols utterly defeated the combined forces of the Russian principalities and the Kipchak warriors on the Kalka River and sent part of their troops to Bulgaria. However, the Bulgars met the enemy on the distant approaches, near the Zhiguli. Using a skillful ambush system, the Bulgars, led by Ilgam Khan, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mongols, destroying up to 90% of the enemy troops. The remnants of the Mongol army retreated to the south, and “the land of the Kypchaks was freed from them; whoever escaped from them returned to his own land ”(Ibn al-Athir).
This victory brought peace to Eastern Europe for a while, and trade that had been suspended was resumed. Apparently, the Bulgars were well aware that the victory won was not final. They began active preparations for defense: cities and fortresses were fortified, huge earthen ramparts were poured in the area of ​​the Yaik, Belaya rivers, etc. At the then level of technology, in such a short period of time, such work could be carried out only with a very high level of organization of the population. This serves as an additional confirmation of the fact that by this time the Bulgars were a single, close-knit people, united by a common idea, the desire to preserve their independence. Six years later, the Mongols attacked again, and this time the enemy failed to penetrate the main territory of Bulgaria. The authority of Bulgaria, as a real force capable of resisting the Mongol invasion, became especially high. Many peoples, primarily the Lower Volga Bulgars-Saksins, Cumans-Kipchaks began to move to the lands of Bulgaria, thereby contributing their share to the composition of the ancestors of modern Tatars.
In 1236 the Mongols made their third campaign against Bulgaria. The subjects of the country fought fiercely, defending their state. For a month and a half, the Bulgars selflessly defended the besieged capital - the city of Bilyar. However, the 50,000th army of the Bulgar Khan Gabdulla Ibn-Ilgam could not resist the onslaught of the 250,000th Mongol army for a long time. The capital has fallen. The following year, the western lands of Bulgaria were conquered, all fortifications and fortresses were destroyed. The Bulgars did not reconcile themselves to the defeat, the uprisings followed one after another. Bulgars almost 50 years of hostilities against the conquerors, which forced the latter to keep almost half of their troops on the territory of Bulgaria. However, it was not possible to restore the full independence of the state, the Bulgars became subjects of the new state - the Golden Horde.