Classicism in Russian literature of the 18th century and its originality. Classicism in Russian literature

The main features of Russian classicism

Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative, have speaking names.

The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover (unsuccessful).

At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place (the action takes place in one place), action (1 storyline).

Start

The first classicist writer in Russia was Antioch Kantemir. He was the first to write works of the classic genre (namely, satires, epigrams, and others).

The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:

1st period: literature of the time of Peter the Great; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature - the intensive process of "secularization" (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.

Period 2: 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and the in-depth development of the Russian language.

3rd period: 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.

4 period: the last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the design of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies (1. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration; 2. Idea, idea of ​​presentation, image).

Trediakovsky and Lomonosov

Classicism received the next round of development in Russia under Trediakovsky and Lomonosov. They created the Russian syllabo-tonic system of versification and introduced many Western genres (such as madrigal, sonnet, etc.). The syllabo-tonic system of versification is a system of syllable-stressed versification. It includes two rhythm-forming factors - a syllable and stress - and implies a regular alternation of text fragments with an equal number of syllables, among which stressed syllables alternate in a certain regular way with unstressed ones. It is within the framework of this system that most of the Russian poetry was written.

Derzhavin

Derzhavin develops the traditions of Russian classicism, continuing the traditions of Lomonosov and Sumarokov.

For him, the purpose of the poet is the glorification of great deeds and the condemnation of bad ones. In the ode "Felitsa" he glorifies the enlightened monarchy, which personifies the reign of Catherine II. The smart, fair empress is opposed to the greedy and mercenary nobles of the court: You only don’t offend, You don’t offend anyone, You see foolishness through your fingers, Only you don’t tolerate evil alone ...

The main object of Derzhavin's poetics is a person as a unique individuality in all the richness of personal tastes and predilections. Many of his odes are philosophical in nature, they discuss the place and purpose of man on earth, the problems of life and death: I am the connection of the worlds that exist everywhere, I am the extreme degree of matter; I am the center of the living, The trait of the initial deity; I decay in the dust with my body, I command thunder with my mind, I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god! But, being so wonderful, Where did I come from? - unknown: I couldn't be myself. Ode "God", (1784)

Derzhavin creates a number of samples of lyrical poems in which the philosophical intensity of his odes is combined with an emotional attitude to the events described. In the poem "Snigir" (1800), Derzhavin mourns the death of Suvorov: Why are you starting a song like a military flute, like a sweet snigir? With whom shall we go to war against the Hyena? Who is our leader now? Who is the rich man? Where is strong, brave, fast Suvorov? Severn thunders lie in a coffin.

Before his death, Derzhavin begins to write an ode to the RUIN OF HORROR, from which only the beginning has come down to us: The river of time in its aspiration Carries away all the deeds of people And drowns peoples, kingdoms and kings in the abyss of oblivion. And if anything remains Through the sounds of the lyre and the trumpet, Then eternity will be devoured by the mouth And the common fate will not go away!

The fall of classicism

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In Russian literature of the 18th century, which was undergoing intensive development in the context of the general process of Europeanization of the country, initiated by the reforms of Peter I, the leading direction was classicism(from lat. classicus - exemplary), established in European literature already in the middle of the 17th century. Classicism is a pan-European phenomenon. But in different countries it had its own characteristics. The purpose of the report is to find out what features of European classicism were organically assimilated by Russian literature and what in Russian classicism is due to its national specifics.

Classicism is not only a literary phenomenon, but also a general cultural one. It affected the most diverse aspects of the social and cultural life of European countries, architecture, painting, music, theater and, of course, literature. Modern researchers are unanimous in the opinion that classicism arises and takes shape in certain historical and cultural conditions of transition from feudal fragmentation to a single monarchical state. This largely explains rather later, in comparison with European countries, the emergence of classicism in Russia. After all, its historical prerequisites could have been formed only after the era of Peter I, respectively, the signs of classicism as a literary trend in Russia are noted only in the 30s of the 18th century.

Elements of the poetics of French classicism apply to all other national literatures in which this literary trend is present. But in Russian classicism these general theoretical provisions found a kind of refraction, as they were due to the historical and national features of the formation of a new Russian culture of the 18th century. As already noted, classicism came to Russia much later; the whole historical and cultural process of the country's general Europeanization left its mark on it. Russian literature of that era is firmly connected with the best traditions of ancient Russian literature: its patriotism, reliance on folk art, high spirituality. educational ideas, which began to penetrate into Russia in the middle of the 18th century, contributed to the growth of interest in the human person, the formulation of the problem of the justice of laws, the need to spread education and the development of science. At the same time, the decisive role in the transformation of the state on this kind of basis was assigned to the enlightened monarch, whose ideal the Russian classicists saw in Peter I. But in modern times they did not find such a person, therefore great importance was attached to the social and moral education of autocrats in their works: an explanation of their duties towards their subjects, a reminder of their duty to the state, etc. On the other hand, the negative phenomena of Russian reality of this era were subjected to satirical ridicule and exposure, which further strengthened the connection of Russian classicism with modernity and gave it satirical poignancy. Unlike European, Russian classicism is associated with folk traditions and oral folk art. He often uses material Russian history and not antiquity. The ideal of the Russian classicists is a citizen and a patriot striving to work for the good of the Fatherland. He must become an active creative person, fight against social vices and, in the name of duty, give up personal happiness.

theoretical understanding of classicism in Russia received in the works M. V. Lomonosov And V. K. Trediakovsky . In all countries, an important contribution of classicism to the development of literature was not only the streamlining of the system of genres and artistic forms, but also the development of a harmonious and clear language of works. Boileau remarked: “So choose your language carefully. / Cannot speak like a young man, an old man.” Not without reason, both in France and in Russia, the formation of classicism began with reforms of the language and system of versification. In Russia, the systematization of the rules and norms of the literary language was carried out by Trediakovsky and Lomonosov (the theory of "three calms"). The first stage of the reform of versification was carried out by Trediakovsky in the treatise “A New and Brief Method for Compiling Russian Poems with Definitions of the Previously Appropriate Titles”, published in 1735. The second stage of the reform of Russian versification was carried out by Lomonosov in the "Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry", which he, then studying in Germany, sent from Marburg to St. Petersburg with the text of his first solemn ode "On the Capture of Khotin" in 1739. , Lomonosov is convinced that “Russian poetry should be composed according to the natural property of our language; and that which is very unusual for him should not be brought in from other languages. Combining the syllabic and tonic principles of versification in the concept of the foot, Trediakovsky comes to the discovery and scientific justification syllabo-tonic system of versification. Lomonosov, developing the ideas of Trediakovsky, comes to the idea of ​​the need to introduce another rhythmic determinant of verse: not only by the type of rhythm (iambic, trochee, etc.), but also by length. So in his "Letter ..." the concept is added size, although Lomonosov does not use the term "size" himself, but only lists the existing sizes, denoting them in Greek terms. Thus, in Russian poetry, the syllabic-tonic principle of versification was approved, which maximally corresponds to the peculiarities of the Russian language and is still the fundamental principle of Russian versification. Trediakovsky in this reform is the discoverer, the author of the theoretical justification and the first experience of the practical application of the principle, Lomonosov is the systematizer who extended the scope of its application to all poetic practice without exception.

regulation genre system Russian literature carried out A. P. Sumarokov , who in 1748 published the didactic message “Two epistles” based on the traditions of Horace and Boileau (the first one is about the Russian language, and the second about poetry), subsequently combined by him under the title “Instruction to those who want to be a writer”. For all its orientation towards the European tradition of classicism, Sumarokov's aesthetic code was quite original in describing literary genres, since it was oriented towards the Russian literary process. Moreover, in a number of cases, his theoretical descriptions of genres preceded their real appearance in Russian literature, which, of course, also contributed to its development.

It is significant that the theorists of Russian classicism acted as recognized leaders of its artistic practice. To a lesser extent, this applies to Trediakovsky, but the significance of Lomonosov's poetic activity, especially in the genre of odes, and Sumarokov in the genre of tragedy, comedy and fable is indisputable. In the genre of satire, the work of A. D. Kantemir stands out, and in the genre of the epic poem, focused on Virgil's Aeneid, M. M. Kheraskov, the creator of Rossiyada. material from the site

The later period of the development of classicism in Russia is marked by the work of such outstanding figures of Russian literature, who had a significant impact on its further development, such as G. R. Derzhavin, D. I. Fonvizin, I. A. Krylov. But their work testifies, rather, to overcoming the rigid regulatory rules of classicism and preparing for a new stage in the development of Russian literature. So, remaining on the positions of classicism, the famous comedian Count D. I. Fonvizin and the great fabulist I. A. Krylov widely introduce realistic elements into their works. G. R. Derzhavin, introducing a personal element into his poetry, destroys the usual genre norms, creating, as he himself defined, new genres of “mixed” or “angry” odes, as well as Anacreontic poems written on an odic plot, messages with features of ode and elegy.

Later, at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, and especially in the first quarter of the 19th century, classicism was already perceived as an outdated phenomenon, slowing down the development of Russian literature. Romantics entered into a fierce struggle with its strict rules, and in Pushkin's work he is ridiculed as an obvious anachronism. Nevertheless, it should be noted that classicism played an important role in the history of Russian literature, allowing the introduction of Russian art into the circle of the pan-European cultural process and streamlining and systematizing those artistic phenomena that had been accumulated in previous periods. And in this the conquests of classicism remain indisputable.

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Among the artistic styles of no small importance is classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and appeared in almost all types of European and Russian art. Often came into conflict with the Baroque, especially at the stage of formation in France.

The age of classicism in each country is different. First of all, it developed in France - back in the 17th century, a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism was already beginning in other states. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundations for its further development.

What is classicism as a direction?

The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means "exemplary". The main principle was manifested in the appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as a norm to which one should aspire. The authors of works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, conciseness, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator sought to find his place for everything, clear and strictly defined.

The main features of classicism

All types of art were characterized by the following features that help to understand what classicism is:

• a rational approach to the image and the exclusion of everything related to sensuality;
• the main purpose of a person is to serve the state;
• strict canons in everything;
• established hierarchy of genres, the mixing of which is unacceptable.

Specification of artistic features

An analysis of individual types of art helps to understand how the “classicism” style was embodied in each of them.

How classicism was realized in literature

In this art form, classicism was defined as a special direction in which the desire to re-educate with a word was clearly expressed. The authors of works of art believed in a happy future, where justice, freedom of all citizens, and equality would prevail. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature certainly required the observance of three unities: action (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit into a day), place (there was no movement in space). J. Moliere, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia) received more recognition in this style.

The development of classicism in Russia

The new artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, in contrast to Western European, relied more on national traditions. It was in this that his originality manifested itself.

Initially, it came to architecture, where it reached its greatest heights. This was due to the construction of a new capital and the growth of Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, suburban noble estates. Special attention deserves the creation of architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoye Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the spit of Vasilyevsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.

The peak of the architects' activity can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the project of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.

No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schluter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of garden and park art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything is striking in its proportionality and purity of execution.

Literary direction in Russia

The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. Its founders were V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov.

However, the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov made the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is. He developed a system of three calms, which determined the requirements for writing works of art, and created a sample of a solemn message - an ode, which was most popular in the literature of the second half of the 18th century.

The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy "Undergrowth". In addition to the obligatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the following points belong to the features of Russian comedy:

• a clear division of heroes into negative and positive ones and the presence of a reasoner expressing the position of the author;
• the presence of a love triangle;
• the punishment of vice and the triumph of good in the finale.

The works of the era of classicism as a whole have become the most important component in the development of world art.

"Class!" - we talk about what arouses our admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin, the word classicus and means "exemplary".

Classicismcalled the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the XVII-XIX centuries.

What about as a sample? Classicism developed the canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict trend in art, it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical, random signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect C. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When you can only like this and nothing else? Do not rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, to give direction, to show samples and to sweep aside everything insignificant and not deep.
But the canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. in the visual arts and in music: the norms that had taken root over the course of several centuries had outlived their usefulness and were torn apart.
However, we have already jumped ahead. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of genres of classicism. We will only say that as a certain trend, classicism was formed in France in the 17th century. A feature of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.

Hierarchy of genres of classicism

In classicism, a strict hierarchy of genres is established, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Consider the hierarchy of genres on the examples of various types of art.

Literature

Nicolas Boileau is considered the greatest theorist of classicism, but the founder is Francois Malherba, who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art".

Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy had to be respected three unities: the unity of time (the action must take place within one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (there must be one storyline in the work). The French tragedians Corneille and Racine became the leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy. The main idea of ​​their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov at the monument "1000th Anniversary of Russia" in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of "three calms".

"The theory of three calms" M.V. Lomonosov

The doctrine of the three styles, i.e. The classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, which distinguishes between high, medium and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three "styles" according to Lomonosov:
1. High - solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Medium - elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly compositions.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: the ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism, an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. This we find in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires A.D. Cantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, odes to M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin.
At the end of the XVIII century. the tendency to see in art the main force of human education intensified. In this regard, a literary trend arises sentimentalism, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared the main thing in human nature. The French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin - let's remember his famous "Poor Lisa"!
But in the direction of classicism, works were created in the 19th century. For example, "Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboyedov. Although in this comedy there are already elements of romanticism and realism.

Painting

Since the definition of "classicism" is translated as "exemplary", then some kind of model is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. It was the highest example. There was also a reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance, which also saw a model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected the conflicts of the individual and society, the ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which testify to the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors. So wrote, for example, N. Poussin.

Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin "Self-portrait" (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings are based on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.

N. Poussin "Dance to the Music of Time" (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. It circles (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the two-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of the fleeting human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, while the old face is turned to the past. The winged, gray-bearded old man, to the music of which the round dance is spinning, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby who holds an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, the goddess of dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers in her path.

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin, State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist depicted in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a formal portrait, traditional for classicism. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a statesman, this is evidenced by his uniform and awards.
But at the same time, this is a famous poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which have already been actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, it is Karl Bryullov. His work came at a time when classical works of form were filled with the spirit of romanticism, this combination was called academism. In the middle of the XIX century. the young generation gravitating towards realism began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was facilitated, among other things, by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many sculptures of Hellenism became known.
Classicism reached its highest incarnation in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1757-1822)

A. Canova "Self-portrait" (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Louvre in Paris and in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Canova "Three Graces". Saint Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group "Three Graces" refers to the late period of creativity of Antonio Canova. The sculptor embodied his ideas of beauty in the images of the graces - ancient goddesses personifying female charm and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two extreme faces face each other (and not the viewer) and the girlfriend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged into an embrace, they are united by the interweaving of hands and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II legislators and others.

F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator, he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a bone carver of the Kholmogory carved bone.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition, it was customary to depict models naked, while the norms of morality modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.

B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order- a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. It includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of the elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

London's Osterley Park mansion. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov.

Carl Barthalomeo-Rossi(1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
Rossi's outstanding architectural and urban planning skills are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with its adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff building and the triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the Senate and Synod buildings (1829). -1834), Alexandrinsky Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two uniform long buildings of Theater Street (now the street of the architect Rossi).

The building of the General Staff on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)

Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. It was required from her: the balance of parts of the work, the careful finishing of details, the development of the main canons of the musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, the classical composition of parts of the sonata and symphony was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the XVII century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the works of I.S. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reformist operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are nevertheless associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart and L. van Beethoven.

Note

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of "classical music" is much broader. It includes not only the music of the period of the era of classicism, but also the music of the past in general, which has withstood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.

New Russian literature takes a big step forward in the 30-50s of the 18th century. This is due to the active work of the first major writers - representatives of the new Russian literature: A. D. Kantemir (1708–1744), V. K. Trediakovsky (1703–1769), A. P. Sumarokov (1717–1777) and especially the brilliant figure of Russian science and culture Lomonosov. These four writers belonged to different strata of society (Kantemir and Sumarokov - to the noble elite, Trediakovsky was a native of the clergy, Lomonosov - the son of a peasant). But all of them fought against the supporters of pre-Petrine antiquity, stood up for the further development of education, science, and culture. In the spirit of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment (as the 18th century is usually called), they were all supporters of the so-called enlightened absolutism: they believed that progressive historical development could be carried out by the bearer of supreme power - the king. And as an example of this, they set the activity of Peter I. Lomonosov in his laudatory poems - odes (from the Greek word meaning "song"), addressed to the kings and queens, gave them, drawing the ideal image of an enlightened monarch, a kind of lesson, urged them to follow the paths of Peter . Cantemir in accusatory poems - satires - sharply ridiculed adherents of antiquity, enemies of education, science. He scourged the ignorant and mercenary clergy, boyar sons, proud of the antiquity of their kind and having no merit to the fatherland, arrogant nobles, greedy merchants, bribe-taking officials. Sumarokov attacked the despot-kings in tragedies, opposing them with the ideal bearers of royal power. "Evil kings" were angrily denounced in the poem "Tilemakhida" by Trediakovsky. Progressive ideas, which to a greater or lesser extent imbued the activities of Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, significantly increase the social weight and significance of the new Russian literature they create. From now on, literature is moving to the forefront of social development, becoming, in its best manifestations, an educator of society. It was from that time that works of fiction systematically appeared in print, attracting the sympathetic attention of an ever wider circle of readers.

New forms are created for new content. Through the efforts of Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov and Sumarokov, in accordance with the development of advanced European literatures, the first major literary trend, which became dominant throughout almost the entire 18th century, was formed - Russian classicism.

The founders and followers of classicism considered the main purpose of literature to serve the “benefit of society”. State interests, duty to the fatherland, should, according to their concepts, unconditionally prevail over private, personal interests. In contrast to the religious, medieval worldview, they considered the highest in a person to be his mind, the laws of which artistic creativity should also fully obey. They considered the most perfect, classical (hence the name and the whole direction) examples of beauty to be the wonderful creations of ancient, that is, ancient Greek and Roman art, which grew on the basis of religious ideas of that time, but in the mythological images of gods and heroes essentially glorified beauty, strength and prowess of man. All this constituted the strengths of classicism, but they also contained its weakness, limitations.

The exaltation of the mind was due to the belittling of feelings, direct perception of the surrounding reality. This often gave the literature of classicism a rational character. Creating a work of art, the writer tried in every possible way to get closer to antique samples and strictly follow the rules specially developed for this by the theoreticians of classicism. This hampered the freedom of creativity. And the obligatory imitation of the creations of ancient art, no matter how perfect they were, inevitably separated literature from life, the writer from his modernity, and thus gave his work a conditional, artificial character. The most important thing is that the socio-political system of the era of classicism, based on the oppression of the people, in no way corresponded to reasonable concepts of natural, normal relations between people. Such a discrepancy made itself felt especially sharply in autocratic-feudal Russia of the 18th century, where instead of enlightened absolutism, the most unrestrained despotism reigned. Therefore, it was in Russian classicism, which was not accidentally started by the satyrs of Cantemir, that accusatory, critical themes and motives began to develop intensively.

This was especially pronounced in the last third of the 18th century. - a time of further strengthening of feudal oppression and the tyrannical dictatorship of the feudal nobility, headed by Empress Catherine II.

A critical attitude towards lack of rights, arbitrariness and violence corresponded to the moods and interests of broad sections of Russian society. The social role of literature is increasingly increasing. The last third of the century is the most flourishing period in the development of Russian literature of the 18th century. If in the 1930s and 1950s writers could be counted on the fingers, now there are dozens of new writers' names. Writers-nobles occupy a predominant place. But there are also many writers from the lower classes, even from among the serfs. Empress Catherine II herself felt the increased importance of literature. She began to be very actively engaged in writing, trying in such ways to win over public opinion, to manage the further development of literature herself. However, she failed. A few and for the most part insignificant authors took her side. Almost all the major writers, figures of Russian education - N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin, young I. A. Krylov, A. N. Radishchev, the author of the comedy "Yabeda" V. V. Kapnist and many others - entered in a bold and energetic struggle against the reactionary literary camp of Catherine and her lackeys. This fight was fought in very difficult conditions. The works of writers objectionable to the queen were banned by censorship, and sometimes they were publicly burned by the "hand of the executioner"; their authors were severely persecuted, imprisoned, sentenced to death, exiled to Siberia. But, despite this, the advanced ideas that filled their work more and more penetrated the consciousness of society.

Literature itself is remarkably enriched thanks to the activity of progressive writers, for the most part. New literary genera and types are being created. In the previous period, literary works were written almost exclusively in verse. Now the first examples of artistic prose are emerging. Dramaturgy is developing rapidly. The development of satirical genres (types) acquires a particularly wide scope: satires are intensively written not only in verse, but also in prose, satirical fables, the so-called iroikomic, parodic poems, satirical comedies, comic operas, etc. In the work of the largest poet of the 18th century . Derzhavin's satirical principle penetrates even into a laudatory, solemn ode.

18th century satirists still follow the rules of classicism. But at the same time, pictures and images of real life are increasingly reflected in their work. They are no longer conditionally abstract in nature, as in the so-called high genres of classicism (odes, tragedies), but are directly taken from contemporary Russian reality. The works of critical writers - Novikov, Fonvizin, Radishchev - were direct predecessors of the work of the founders of Russian critical realism of the 19th century. - Pushkin, Gogol.

18th century satire still limited politically. Sharply denouncing the malevolent landowners who brutally treat their peasants, the satirists did not oppose the savagery and absurdity of the right of some people to own other people as their working cattle. Scourging the arbitrariness, violence, bribery, injustice that reigned in the country, the satirists did not connect them with the autocratic-feudal system that gave rise to all this. In the words of the remarkable Russian critic Dobrolyubov, they condemned "abuses of what in our concepts is already evil in itself." For the first time, the first Russian revolutionary writer Radishchev attacked indignantly not only individual abuses, but all the evils of autocracy and serfdom as a whole.