FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CULTURE OF ANCIENT ROME

Roman culture was formed under the influence of the cultures of many peoples - from the Etruscans and Greeks to the peoples conquered by Ancient Rome, from whom the Romans learned much. In turn, Roman culture had a huge impact on its barbarian neighbors and on the subsequent development of Europe. This manifested one of the features of the civilizational development of Ancient Rome (753 BC - 476 AD).

Within the framework of the ancient system, the transition from autonomous states-polises to large centralized state-empires was an undeniable progress. The pragmatism of Rome made it possible to use the advantages of the polis system of the "ancient mode of production" not in the polis system.

Two processes were observed in the Mediterranean: Hellenistic centers flourished in its eastern part, and Rome increased its military power in the western part. A small republic on the banks of the Tiber, which eventually became the master of the entire Apennine Peninsula, turned into the 1st century. BC. into a huge empire that swallowed up the entire Mediterranean and the entire ancient world. Before world domination, Rome in its development went through stages from royal power (VII-VI centuries BC), republic (VI-I centuries BC) to empire (I century BC - 476 AD). Etruscan culture was at the origins of ancient Roman civilization, the written monuments of which have not yet been read.

Archaeological discoveries show that the first Etruscan settlements date back to 1500 BC. According to Herodotus, they came from Asia Minor, knew agriculture and construction well. Archaeological monuments on the Apennine Peninsula belong to the Etruscan civilization (I millennium - V-III centuries BC), which preceded the Roman one. At the end of the 7th century BC. Etruscan tribes united in a union of 12 city-states, but in the V-III centuries. BC. were conquered by Rome. The Etruscan cities developed their own urban development system - stone walls and buildings, streets with a clear layout.

However, these structures could not yet be called works of architecture - they were too utilitarian and served the needs of the city. And only after the conquest of Greece, the Romans began to build buildings according to Greek models, but not copying them, but introducing their own originality.

In the 8th century BC. Greeks settled on the Apennine Peninsula. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the ancient Greek and ancient Roman parts of ancient civilization developed in parallel in time. As Publius Virgil Maron wrote in the Aeneid, by the will of the gods, “to Italy, the first from Troy, a fugitive driven by fate, sailed to the shores of Lavinia” (to the western coast of the Apennine Peninsula):

He waged wars for a long time - before he built the city,

He transferred the gods to Latium, where the tribe of the Latins arose,

Cities of Alba ] fathers and walls of high Rome 2 .

Before Rome becomes the capital of a vast empire, many centuries will pass. Carthage will be subjugated, Hellas conquered and, according to the Roman poet Quintus Horace Flaccus, Greece, defeated by wild tribes, will bring art to Latius the Severe. Horace rightly noted that the stern and proud Rome, in the struggle for world domination, bowed her head before the great Greek culture. This did not mean that the Romans did not have their own artistic traditions, but they were poorer than the Greeks. Rome borrowed and adapted not only

Alba Longa - an Italian city, according to legends was considered the progenitor of Rome.

Virgil. Bucoliki. Georgics. Aeneid // BVL. M., 1971. T. 6. S. 123.

to Greek, but also Eastern culture, having done it in a commercially profitable way. And this is another feature of the development of the culture of Ancient Rome.

Having become the largest economic and political center, Rome attracted merchants, artisans, builders, artists, sculptors, writers, scientists. The Greek language in Rome was known as the language of high society and part of the aristocracy. The first Roman historians-chroniclers wrote their works in Greek, the Roman youth enthusiastically listened to the lectures of Greek philosophers.

The largest representative of Greek literature, Polybius (approximately 203-120 BC), having become a sincere admirer of the Roman political system, at the same time actively preached Greek educational ideas in Roman society. In World History, he talked about how the Romans, for a little over half a century (from 220 to 146 BC), managed to destroy Carthage and Corinth and subjugate almost the entire world known at that time to their power thanks to the pragmatism of the state system Rome. Based on Aristotle's theory of the three best types of government, he believed that in Rome there was a happy union of the monarchy in the form of a magistracy, an aristocracy in the senate and democracy in the comitia (people's assembly).

On the pragmatism of Rome at the end of the 19th century. wrote the Russian art historian P.P. Gnedich: “If we compare Hellas with a young, keen artist-poet, then Rome can be compared with a patron of art with great taste, conscious of its world greatness. He does not condescend himself to art, he adapts art to himself, to his needs. The complete absence of artistic imagination did not prevent him from applying art to the everyday, practical aspects of life. He pushed the small, low temples and palaces of Greece into colossal buildings, adapted the elements of ancient art to the real needs of his country, subordinated to the mind and reason what inner feeling and fantasy worked on in Hellas. In Greece there is no trend and no trace. Rome is the epitome of a trend. But his rationality developed with such greatness, with such completeness that his style can be set as a marvelous historical type and can serve as an object of sincere surprise for posterity.

One of the greatest achievements of antiquity - Roman law. In Rome, flexible, legalized and civilized norms of legal relations between private individuals and private individuals with the state were developed, in which the interests of man dominated. Back in the 5th century BC. the laws of the XII tables were written on copper boards - a set of Roman law from about 451-450. BC, some of the articles of which have been preserved. However, the heyday of Roman jurisprudence fell on the II-I centuries. BC, the legal norms of which in the VI century. AD were systematized in Byzantium and are known as the Justinian Codification. Even accounting techniques were regulated by legal norms. The Romans fully understood the management of property, including private estates, which were within a strict legal framework.

Rome created a system of taxation, based on the qualification. The inventory (census) of the population and its property was introduced, according to legend, by Servius Tullius in 550 BC. According to the property status, the population was divided into estates (classes). The property entered in home accounting books by types was subject to assessment: real estate, land, inventory, jewelry, clothing. The census was a solemn event, accompanied by religious ceremonies and took place on the Field of Mars under an oath given by the heads of families.

The state budget of Ancient Rome was formed first at the expense of taxes in kind, and with the advent of coins - in terms of money. The system of taxation included accounting for income, land and population. Taxes were levied not only on property. They, for example, were paid by the owners of gladiatorial schools for the release of slaves to freedom. There were trade and transport duties, and from 403 BC. - even a tax on bachelors. The source of replenishment of the treasury was extraordinary income - interest on government loans, fines, amounts from confiscations of property on denunciations. By the time of the formation of the Roman Empire, a rigid system of tax collection had developed, which did not disdain to use any form of taxation and their collection. According to Roman law, a slave could inform on his master if he deceived the tax department. In Rome, the catchphrase "money does not smell" was born.

The budget was spent in many directions, for the construction of public buildings, the maintenance of the apparatus of officials, religious ceremonies, allowances for the maintenance of children, the payment of military salaries. There was even a fund for preferential lending to landowners.

From the middle of the GU BC. in Rome they began to mint coins - aces and others. In 268 BC Roman silver coins appeared - denarii (10 asses), and then sesterces, which had an exchange rate for Greek obols (denarius - 8 obols, sesterces - 2 obols). The value of the coins was determined by the weight and quality of the metal. The minting of coins was considered an important state business, and they were in charge of the senate and a special collegium.

Banks grew out of money changers, whose activities were governed by Roman law. The movement of money in the bank (expenditure - receipt) was recorded in the income and expenditure book, for which the banker was responsible. The book was not to be corrected. The property of the debtor or the guarantor acted as collateral for the issuance of a loan.

Rome adopted and assimilated the entire pantheon of Greek deities, giving them other names: Zeus became Jupiter, Aphrodite - Venus, Ares - Mars, Artemis - Diana, Demeter - Ceres, Athena - Minerva. Having created its own literature, Rome took a lot from the Greek literary heritage, continuing its traditions. In the plastic arts, the originality of the Roman sculptors manifested itself less: they did not so much continue the Greek traditions as they reproduced and copied Greek models.

In art during the period of the late republic and early empire of Augustus (end of the 1st century BC - beginning of the 1st century AD), i.e. at the zenith of power and glory, there was more external effect than true greatness. The greatness of Rome was maintained by the force of arms, and no power on it can be strong enough for a long time. Firstly, Slave-owning Rome was the last act of the slave-owning society, when its contradictions reached a menacing acuteness. The state was shaken by formidable uprisings of slaves, starting with the famous performance of Spartacus. Secondly, Rome experienced the pressure of barbarian tribes on the outer borders. At the same time, dissatisfied slaves found support from the barbarians, and barbarians from the slaves. Third, the corruption of the Roman elite, the criminality of emperors, the horrors of the terrorist regime under Julius-Claudius, palace conspiracies and intrigues reached such crisis forms that the fall of Rome was inevitable. "The decline of decaying Rome" has become a symbol of social decay and decay.

The agony of imperial Rome lasted a long time. The existing state system delayed the inevitability of collapse and death, But at the same time weakened and deadened outwardly magnificent Roman culture, which survived due to the adaptability of a certain part of its representatives to concrete historical conditions. Heroized statues of Roman high officials, including emperors, appeared. So, the sculpture of Augustus Octavian, Caesar's great-nephew, depicted him as a republican commander, theatrically extending his hand to the troops. Although in reality he was already a princeps (that is, he was the first in the list of senators), who actually held all the power. Augustus only retained the appearance and name of republican forms of government, being, in fact, a Caesar, i.e. a living god in whose honor temples were built and sacrifices were made. Emperor Commodus, who persecuted the senators and demanded honors for himself, as for a god, was depicted in the form of Hercules, with a club and a lion skin on his shoulders.

The prestige of power was maintained not only by military force, but and with the assistance of professional singers and flatterers. Plastic art was involved in these glorifications, but at the same time it was half false, half telling the truth. If the heroized portrait of Caesar Nerva in the guise of Jupiter is mentally freed from divine attributes (posture, an idealized half-naked torso, a wreath on his head), then the wrinkled, hard and rather unpleasant face of an old man remains. In this sense, the Roman sculptural portrait gave a stern and sober characterization of the depicted person, making a kind of contribution to the formation psychological portrait. In this psychologism of the sculptural portrait, the depth of the ongoing crisis was reflected in the public consciousness.

The conquest of Greece and the Hellenistic states was accompanied by the plunder of new Roman provinces, from which the works of prominent Greek sculptors were exported. The massive influx of Greek masterpieces and their mass copying hampered the development of their own creativity. The only exceptions were works in the field of realistic portraiture.

In addition to creating a sculptural portrait, Roman art made a significant contribution to world architecture. Roman architecture was strongly influenced by Etruscan and especially Greek culture. And at the same time, it could not be compared in artistic charm with Greek architecture, in many ways surpassing it in grandiosity, spectacularity and the solution of engineering and technical problems.

From the simple beam structure of the Greek temple, the Romans moved on to the construction of vaults, domes, and arches. Along with the columns, pillars were used, pilasters appeared. In II-I centuries. BC. the Romans began to widely use concrete, vaulted structures. Types of Roman religious and secular buildings have been preserved in world architecture, passing into the Romano-Germanic and Russian-Orthodox civilizations. This and basilicas with vaulted ceilings, subsequently laid the foundation for the architecture of Christian churches, powerful aqueducts(multi-tiered stone bridges with aqueduct), lush triumphal arches, established in honor of military victories, amphitheaters and circuses, where gladiator fights and other mass spectacles took place, terms - complex complexes that combined bath rooms, libraries, places for games and walks. Under Augustus, Rome was replenished with excellent buildings made of marble, and the emperor could rightly say: "I got the city of brick, I leave it marble."

Of the surviving architectural monuments erected in the 1st century. BC-IV c. AD, of interest are the Colosseum, the Pantheon, the baths of Caracalla and Diocletian, the triumphal column of Marcus Aurelius, the triumphal arch of Constantine, the bridge of Hadrian, the aqueduct of Claudius. The famous Colosseum, built in 75-80 years. AD, included an elliptical arena and four tiers of seats for spectators rising like an amphitheater (about 50 thousand) and was intended for gladiator fights, baiting animals and other spectacles. The grandiose structure was built of tuff, the outer walls were finished with travertine, and the stands were covered with marble. During the construction of the Colosseum, brick and concrete were widely used.

No less majestic is the building of the Roman Pantheon, "the temple of all the gods", built around 125 AD. and representing a majestic rotunda, covered with a hemispherical dome (diameter over 43 m) with a hole in the center (diameter about 9 m), through which the interior is illuminated. The entrance to the Pantheon is emphasized by a portico of 16 smooth Corinthian columns (8 along the pediment and the rest in depth). In the Middle Ages, it was turned into a church, and now it is a national mausoleum, where prominent figures of Italian art (Raphael, B. Peruzzi) are buried.

One of the achievements of Roman culture is a kind of literature, the formation and development of which was strongly influenced by Greek literature and Italian folk art. By the period of entry into the Hellenistic period, i.e. by the beginning of the 3rd century. BC, ancient Greek poetry lost many of its literary virtues. However, compared with the ancient Roman, its level remained quite high. Roman literature until the 3rd century. BC. was presented mainly ritual songs(prayer, wedding, funeral), epic(“feast songs” about the exploits of Roman heroes), drama(musical performances developed from choral songs and farcical scenes), prose(oratorical speeches, texts of laws, priestly chronicles). The first step from oral literature to written literature at the turn of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. made by the consul Appius Claudius, who wrote down his speeches and compiled in verse the author's collection of sayings of a moral nature.

During the heyday and crisis of the republic(III-II centuries BC) Roman literature gradually adopted all the main genres of Greek literature: "the first Roman poet", Greek freedman Livy Andronicus, translated into Latin the Odyssey, Greek tragedies and comedies; poets of the national epic Nevius and Ennius created the "Song of the Punic War" (about the struggle of Rome with Carthage from mythological antiquity to their time) and the "Chronicle" - "Annals" in 18 books (a presentation of the history of Rome from Romulus to the present); comedy poets Titus Maccius Plautus And Publius Terence created the actual Roman comedy.

However, playwrights, like actors, were not favored in Rome and treated with contempt. Nevius, who, according to him, tried to speak from the stage in “free language”, ended up in prison. The largest Roman comedians, by virtue of their profession and origin (Nevius - a plebeian, Plautus - from an acting family, Terence - a freedman, a former slave) occupied a low social position in society.

During the fall of the republic(first half of the 1st century BC) Greek culture was finally mastered by Rome and became the basis for the highest flowering of Roman literature. A feature of the development of the culture of this period is its going beyond the boundaries of aristocratic circles and spreading in the middle strata of society, which was facilitated by rhetorical schools 1 , popular philosophical treatises and dialogues.

To popularize Greek philosophy, the Roman politician, orator, classic of Latin artistic and philosophical prose, Mark Tullius Cicero, did a lot. He substantiated the humane essence and high social significance of philosophical science, defended the principle of the unity of philosophical theory and practical activity. In political theory, Cicero considered the best form of government to be the one that combined elements of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He saw such a ratio in the state structure of the Roman Republic. In his views, Cicero came close to the idea of ​​natural law, which was developed in the works of European thinkers in the Middle Ages, and especially during the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.

In an atmosphere of social contradictions and civil wars, rhetoric as the main means of social struggle and poetry as a means of escaping social problems into private life. At the same time, epic and drama lost their significance. As for poetry, it was represented by the didactic poem "On the Nature of Things" by Titus Lucretius Cara, which can be considered the only fully preserved systematic exposition of the materialistic philosophy of antiquity, the lyrics of a number of poets. Among them, one can single out Gaius Valerius Catullus, whose work is distinguished by immediacy and strength of feelings.

During the rise of the empire(second half of the 1st century BC) the first Roman Caesar Augustus paid special attention to the formation of public opinion, which strengthened his power. To this end, he sought to win over to his side famous writers in Rome - Virgil, Horace, Sextus Propertius and others, united in the so-called "Patron's circle", who saw in the new era the atonement for the sins of their ancestors and the revival of the ancient republic. Therefore, their praise of Augustus and his political activities rather characterize this time as an era of curtailment of republican ideals.

The rhetorical school (from the 3rd century BC in Ancient Greece and from the 1st century BC in Rome) is the highest humanitarian school in which young people were prepared for state-political activity. The school studied rhetoric, jurisprudence, history, literature, philosophy.

The most significant figure in the era of the formation of the empire is Virgil. His "Bucolics" expressed longing for the past "golden age", the utopian theme of which merges with the shepherd's theme of happy Arcadia: "Look all around that the coming age is having fun around." In the pictures of shepherd life, the poet seeks peace of mind from the troubles characteristic of that time. In the poem "Georgics" he glorifies labor as the basis of universal harmony, and in the "Aeneid" he glorifies the historical mission of Rome, whose just power pacified the whole world.

I-Shvv. AD - the period of prosperity and crisis of the empire, when Roman culture developed in parallel with Greek, competing with it, spreading its influence in the provinces. Two tendencies have been identified in the literature - oppositionism and semi-official panegyricism. The last great poet of the Augustan era, Publius Ovid Nason, who belonged to the oldest equestrian family, was exiled to the Black Sea region (modern Constanta in Romania) for the apoliticism of his love elegies and poems that was objectionable to the emperor. After luxurious Rome, Ovid ended up in a place that was uncivilized at that time, where “tribes are wild all around: Sarmatians, Besses, and Getae ... they wrap their bodies in furs, in harem pants made of skins, when the cold takes fiercely for the soul ... A barbarian on a frisky The predatory horse makes a raid... Everything that the enemy cannot carry away or steal, he destroys: and the fire devours the modest huts of the villagers” 1 .

At that time, there were many talented poets and prose writers. But the fate of some of them turned out to be more tragic than the fate of the exile Ovid. The poets Seneca, Lucan and Petronius died from the repressions of Emperor Nero. Seneca, accused of involvement in an uncovered conspiracy, on the orders of Nero opened his veins. Seneca wrote:

I'm not looking for honors; to be a part of the simple Ido people until the last day to own their days 2 .

In the I-II centuries. AD Rome turned out to be the most powerful state in the Mediterranean. The developed ancient Roman economy is the result of an aggressive policy and the use of the resources of the conquered countries. The administration of the empire was strictly centralized, and to control such a vast economy there was an all-encompassing state apparatus. The financial sphere and its legal regulation were taken seriously. Not by chance

Antique lyrics // BVL. T. 4. S. 447, 448. Ibid. S. 460.

in Rome for several centuries the dominant principle was: "Let Rome perish, but the Law prevails."

Considering the features of the development of the culture of Ancient Rome, in no case should we forget that in one of the remote provinces of the empire - in Palestine in the 1st century. AD Christianity is one of the three world religions. On the issue on the origins of Christianity there is no single point of view. One part of the scientists adheres to the traditional theological position about the founding of Christianity by the God-man Jesus Christ who lived in Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperors Augustus and Tiberius (beginning of the 1st century AD) and preached his doctrine. Another part of the researchers of Christianity, dating back to the time of the enlightenment literature of the 18th century, considered all the images of the gods and heroes of Christianity astral-mythological personification, and the image of Jesus Christ - the solar god.

Scientists in the middle of the XIX century. discovered in Christianity numerous coincidences with the ancient Eastern cults. They came to the conclusion that the image of Jesus Christ was formed partly from the combined features of the ancient Eastern gods - Osiris, Mitra, Dionysus, etc., and partly from Hebrew prophecies, in which they also saw astral mythological motifs. The historical personality of Jesus Christ, the researchers of this direction generally denied. Close to them is the position of researchers of Christianity, who believe that early Christianity is a kind of synthesis of Eastern (Jewish) and Western (Helleno-Roman) religious and philosophical ideas. This marked a new stage in the development of religion and made a step forward in comparison with the ancient cults.

Gospel of Matthew. Ch. 19. Verses 23, 30.

Christianity made it possible to rally the diverse masses of people with the common idea of ​​equality, although understood abstractly. Scattered throughout the empire, early Christian communities felt their unity as members of one church. The central idea of ​​Christianity about sinfulness and salvation turned out to be the most important, and the image of Jesus Christ, God the Savior, became the central figure of the Christian cult.

Originated as the religion of the slaves and the oppressed, Christianity embodied the spontaneous protest of the exploited masses against the unjust social system. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the Roman administration for a long time considered it as a negation of the official ideology, which brought repression on Christians. Persons who were executed for their adherence to Christianity were regarded by fellow believers as "holy martyrs" and were revered as "saints".

True, there is a point of view that the scale of the persecution and persecution of Christian communities by the Roman authorities is exaggerated by the Christians themselves, whose leaders were proud of the victims who defended the faith, showing stamina and heroism. Church history has 10 great persecutions that were carried out for political reasons. The Roman emperors saw in the Christian church not only a bearer of protest, but also a dangerous competitor.

However, persecution did not rule out attempts by the Roman authorities to rely on Christian communities and their clergy (charismatics, deacons, bishops, and later metropolitans and patriarchs). Periodic attempts by emperors and provincial leaders to rely on the Christian church led to the emergence of a strong alliance of the empire with Christianity. The Edict of Milan in 313 put an end to the persecution and Christianity became the state religion. The union of the state and Christianity was consolidated in the policy of the Roman emperors, who systematically supported the church in its struggle against heresies.

So, on behalf of Emperor Constantine, invitations were sent to all the bishops, either in the form of a decree or in the form of a private letter, drawn up in a respectful and even pleading tone, to gather in Nicaea in the middle of 325. The state took at its own expense all the expenses of the journey to Nicaea and back, as well as the costs of maintaining both the bishops themselves and the clergy and lay persons accompanying them during the Council. This meeting was formalized as the First Ecumenical Council. By the appointed time, more than 300 bishops arrived in Nicaea for the Council, who condemned the heresy of Arius, who questioned the idea of ​​the consubstantiality of all persons of the Holy Trinity, and adopted 20 canonical decrees and the Creed.

If we believe the ancient Orthodox church historians, then Arius and his supporters were immediately unanimously condemned by the Council. Nevertheless, he sat for another two weeks, which calls into question the view of a unanimous condemnation of Arianism. The Council set out in writing the Creed - in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, established by Jesus Christ in an address to the disciples before his ascension to heaven: “So, go, teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, them to observe all that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you all the days to the end of the age.” The Council decided on the time of the celebration of Easter (it was determined that Easter is celebrated by Christians without fail separately from the Jews and on the first Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal equinox).

At the end of the work of the Council, Emperor Constantine issued a letter in which he urged unanimously to confess the faith established at the Council "as the thought of God, declared by the Holy Spirit through the consent of so many and so great bishops." Since the First Ecumenical Council, Christianity has been recognized as the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Operated in the empire centrifugal forces led in 395 to its division into Western with a center in Rome and Eastern with a center in

Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire lasted until 476 and fell under the blows of the barbarians, the Eastern - until 1453. The destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the barbarians did not mean the disappearance of its inherent economic relations and Roman culture. Her role was so significant that cultural, economic and legal traditions became the basis for the emergence and development of the Romano-Germanic (Western Christian) and Russian Orthodox civilizations.

The phenomenon of the "Greek miracle"

The ancient Greeks managed to achieve unprecedented heights almost simultaneously and in many areas of culture. Borrowed source material has been refined or reworked, brought to classic heights and perfection.

Monuments of architecture of Ancient Greece

Acropolis in Athens Reconstruction

Theater of Dionysus in Athens Reconstruction

Architectural monuments of ancient Rome

Imperial Roman Forum

Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. 432-440 gg. Incision

The emergence of European civilizations (IV-XVIII centuries)

• Magistracy (from Latin magistrates - chief) - in ancient Rome, the highest government positions, as well as the totality of persons who occupied them (dictator, consul, praetor, censor, etc.).
• The principle of Arianism: the denial of the divine essence of Christ as the identical essence of God the Father. Christ is a man born of a mortal, dead and ascended.
• Gospel of Matthew. Ch. 28. Verses 19-20.

Rome is the heart of Italy. It is undoubtedly the most popular Italian city in terms of tourism, with which only Milan can be compared. This brief overview contains the main attractions of Rome.

In a city full of ancient monuments and the Christian faith, it is difficult to decide where to start the tour. You can make your own itinerary, but there are certain places that are included in the list of the most prominent landmarks in Italy and throughout Europe, such as the Colosseum and the Pantheon. Try to explore Rome in such a way that you don't visit too many ancient monuments or churches in a row. Alternate these sights in Rome with some other places - the Spanish Steps, or the Trevi Fountain. Rome is so big that it can easily squeeze all the juice out of you, so try not to rush, periodically relax in cafes or parks.

Roman Colosseum and Arch of Constantine

The most significant and most "prominent" attraction of Rome is, of course, the Colosseum - it's hard not to notice such a hulk. Colosseum and Arch of Constantine. The largest surviving Roman structure, the Colosseum is still an excellent model for sports arenas - modern football stadium designs clearly follow this oval Roman plan. Construction was started by Vespasian in 72, and his son Titus added a fourth level to the Colosseum. The opening took place in 80 with a series of great games. The Colosseum was large enough for theatrical performances, festivals, circus numbers or games, which were watched by dignitaries from the lowest level, aristocratic Roman families from the second, and the population from the third and fourth. Near the Colosseum is the Arch of Constantine - a triumphal arch established by the Senate in honor of the emperor, as "the liberator of the city and the herald of peace" after his victory in the battle of 312.

Roman forum

Not far from the Colosseum are the ruins of the Roman Forum, carefully guarded by the state. The Roman Forum in the middle of a vibrant modern city allows you to plunge into the history of ancient Rome, several millennia ago. Once the forum was the center of Roman life and government, retaining to this day only a small part of its original splendor. However, its columns and arches still impress, especially considering that for many centuries the history of the Forum has been the history of the Roman Empire and the Western world. Roman political and religious life was entirely concentrated here, along with courts, markets and gathering places for local residents. After the seventh century, the buildings fell into ruins and the stones were used to build other buildings. It was only during excavations in the 18th and 19th centuries that ancient buildings were discovered under 10 meters of rubble and earth. It was possible to partially restore the Temple of Antoninus Pius, the Temple of the Dioscuri of Castor and Pollux, the Temple of Saturn, the Triumphal Arch of Septimius Severus, the arch of Titus and the Temple of Vesta.

Pantheon

One of the most memorable sights of Rome is the Pantheon, visited by millions of tourists every year. This building is easily recognizable from space, because a huge hole gapes in the center of its dome. This is the best-preserved monument of Roman antiquity, amazingly intact during its 2000 years of history. The Pantheon retained its greatness despite the fact that Pope George III removed the gilded bronze mosaics from the roof, and Pope Urban VIII dismantled the bronze roof, melting it down for guns for the Castle of St. Angel.


The Pantheon was restored after a fire in 80 with the help of unique masonry, confirming the extremely high technical skill of Roman builders. Its 43-meter dome is the highest achievement of Roman architecture, as if floating in the air without any visible support. The nine-meter central span is the only source of light in the building. The harmonious effect of the interior is the result of the ideal proportions of the Pantheon: its height matches its diameter. Despite the fact that the first Christian emperors forbade the use of this pagan temple for worship, in 609 Pope Boniface IV dedicated it to all Christian martyrs, and since then the Pantheon has become the burial place of Italian kings and other famous Italians, including the painter Raphael.

Castel Sant'Angelo

Another amazing Roman building that strikes with the unusualness of its forms is the Castel Sant'Angelo.

Vittoriano

It is impossible to ignore the symbol of the unification of Italy - Vittoriano, nicknamed "The Typewriter" for his appearance. The imposing memorial in honor of the first king is a magnificent monument, a monumental structure and one of the most impressive Roman landmarks. The National Monument to Victor Emmanuel II was created between 1885 and 1911 to commemorate the success of the national liberation movement of the Risorgimento and the achievement of Italian independence in 1870. This huge structure, 135 meters long and 130 meters wide, rises to 70 meters. Next to the Vittoriano is the Altar of the Fatherland and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. In the eastern part of the monument is the Museum of the Renaissance, dedicated to the Italian independence movement.

Piazza Navona

Walking around Rome, it is impossible not to get to the two main squares of this city - the Piazza Navona decorated with fountains and the round Piazza del Popolo, from which you can get into a huge park called Villa Borghese. These are the must-see places in Rome. One of Rome's most characteristic baroque squares, Piazza Navona still retains the remains of the Roman stadium built here by Emperor Domitian. This place was used for festivals and races during the Middle Ages and has been restored in the Borromini Baroque style. He designed a magnificent series of palaces and the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone on the western side of the Navona, which became the prototype for many other churches in Italy.


The crypt of Sant'Agnese has the remains of a Roman mosaic floor. Despite the fact that Borromini designed the square itself and the surrounding facades, it was his main rival Bernini who created the central attraction of Navona - the beautiful baroque fountain of Fiumi. The powerful fountain represents four rivers of different continents - Nile, Ganges, Danube and La Plata. The other two fountains in Piazza Navona are the 16th century Del Moro in front of Pamphili Palace and the 19th century Neptune Fountain. Today, the square is constantly filled with Romans, tourists, street artists, souvenir stalls, cafes, and during December one of the best Christmas markets in Rome takes place here. Between the Piazza and the Pantheon is the Church of San Luigi di Francesca with three major masterpieces by Caravaggio.

San Giovanni in Laterano

Also, one cannot ignore the famous Roman Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano, which is one of the oldest Christian churches in the world. As you would expect from a Pope's Episcopal Church, San Giovanni in Laterano is one of the most impressive churches in Rome. After centuries of change, it still retains its original form from the time of Constantine the Great. The façade of the church is a fine example of the Baroque period, along with the mosaics in the apse and a fine wooden ceiling from the 16th century. The octagonal baptistery of San Giovanni Fonte became the model for later structures throughout Europe. In Laterano is the oldest Christian baptistery in the world. In the Church of Santa Santa on the other side of the square is the Holy Staircase with 28 steps, which were moved to Rome in the fourth century from Pilate's palace in Jerusalem.

Trevi Fountain

Although I do not argue with the fact that the Colosseum is the undeniable symbol of Rome, for me the most amazing and beautiful place in this ancient city is the Trevi Fountain. One of Rome's most popular attractions, this 17th-century masterpiece has been immortalized in films and novels. Throwing a coin into the Trevi Fountain is a tradition that guarantees a return visit to the city. Initially, an aqueduct was created on this site, delivering water to the baths of Marcus Agrippa, the great patron of the arts of the first century BC. The largest fountain in Rome was built by Nicolo Salvi for Pope Clement XII between 1732 and 1751. Trevi is surmounted by a statue of the sea god Neptune on horseback. The water descends along numerous statues, figures and artificial rocks, and is collected in a large pool, always filled with coins.

Spanish Staircase

At the foot of the Spanish Steps there is also an interesting fountain - the Barcaccia Fountain. Oddly enough, the construction of the Spanish Steps was financed by the French ambassador, and it leads to the French church of Trinita di Monti. The staircase, however, takes its name from the Plaza de España in one of the quarters of Rome. The oval Barcaccia Fountain at the foot of the stairs was designed by Pietro Bernini, son of the great Baroque architect Lorenzo Bernini. Trinita di Monti, built by Louis XII in 1502, still retains some of the original Gothic arches, and Rome's most fashionable shopping street leads southwest of Piazza di Spagna. Its famous Caffe Greco is famous for famous artists, writers and musicians who frequented it.

Sights of Rome and the Vatican

The Vatican is the smallest independent state in the world, with an area of ​​less than half a square kilometer. Outside the Vatican walls are the palace and gardens, the Cathedral and St. Peter's Square. This area is ruled by the Pope, the supreme head of the Roman Catholic Church. The compact space of the Vatican is of great tourist interest, with numerous museums and the largest basilica. In St. Peter's Basilica are masterpieces by Michelangelo, Pieta, sculptures and altars by Bernini and many other valuables. The main attraction of the Vatican is the Sistine Chapel, the magnificent ceiling of which is decorated with frescoes - the most famous work of Michelangelo. It is worth paying attention to the Raphael Rooms, the Borgia Chambers, the Vatican Library and many museums, including the Art Gallery, the Museum of Secular Art, the Etruscan Museum and others. Their collections cover everything from ancient times to 20th century art reflecting important religious themes.

Catacombs and Appian Way

The catacombs of San Callisto and San Sebastiano along the Appian Way amaze with their size and complex multi-level networks of passages and tunnels. Below ground are six sacred chapels, built between 290 and 310 with pagan and early Christian wall paintings. San Sebastiano is one of the seven pilgrimage churches in Rome, created in the fourth century on the site of old cemeteries and catacombs. The catacombs of Domitilla are the largest in Rome, with 15 kilometers of underground passages and an underground basilica. More than 80 tombs and a second-century fresco "The Last Supper" have been preserved here. The Appian Way is one of the oldest and most important Roman highways. It was built around 300 BC and extended to the port of Brindisi around 190 BC. Along the road, you can see the ruins of aqueducts that supplied water to the city. Among the cypress trees on both sides of the road are the remains of graves belonging to aristocratic Roman families. The most prominent of these is the tomb of Caecilia Metellus and her husband.

Baths of Diocletian

The baths of Diocletian were so huge that to this day they contain two surviving churches, part of the Carthusian monastery and the largest museum. Michelangelo used the extensive tepidarium (hot baths) as the basis for his church of Santa Maria dell'Angeli and the National Museum of Rome. The most valuable treasures of antiquity are stored here: Greek and Roman sculptures, pre-Christian and later sarcophagi, beautiful mosaics and frescoes. The 16th century church of San Bernardo alle Terme was created in a rotunda at the corner of the Diocletian Baths. Its dome is similar to the dome of the Pantheon, but half the size.

Palatine Hill

Strategically located above the Tiber, the Palatine Hill is proof of the earliest settlement of Rome. Archaeological finds in front of the Temple of Cybele prove human activity as early as the ninth century BC. Several centuries later, the hill was chosen by emperors and great aristocratic families for their palaces. The Farnese Gardens were created in the 16th century for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese with many terraces, pavilions, lawns, flower beds, trees and fountains. The special decoration of the Palatine Hill is the Chamber of Libya, the semi-underground Cryptoporticus, Domus Flavius, Domus Agustana and the most impressive Baths of Septimius Severus. The Palatine Hill is a great place to explore the sights of Rome, combining a park with magnificent ancient Roman ruins.

Forum of Trajan

The largest and best preserved forum of the Roman Empire, the Forum of Emperor Trajan was created at the beginning of the second century and included an impressive complex of buildings and monuments: a temple, a basilica, a series of markets and three monuments in honor of the emperor. During the Middle Ages, new buildings were built in the forum area, including the Militia Tower, the churches of Santa Maria di Loreto and Santissimo Nome di Maria. Modern streets were also laid. The ruins of the Ulpia Basilica are at the far end of Trajan's Forum, with a Hall measuring 130 by 125 meters and two libraries. Between the libraries, a magnificent monument to the Roman sculptors has been preserved - Trajan's Victory Pillar, 38 meters high, made of marble from the Greek island of Paros. It is covered with a 200 meters long spiral frieze, with over 2,500 scenes from the Trajan Wars, fighting soldiers, galloping horses and Roman military equipment. At the base of the pillar was a golden urn with the ashes of Emperor Trajan, under which the Roman Empire reached its highest point of development. Impressive red-brick walls and rows of semi-circular covered markets rise behind the forum on the slopes of the Quirinale ledge.

Baths of Caracalla

Baths and baths have always occupied a special place among the sights of Rome. Built in 216, the Baths of Caracalla were much more than just public baths. They were a full-fledged sports center, with hot and cold baths, a swimming pool, dry and steam saunas, a gymnastics hall, social rooms, gardens, a library, a hairdresser's, and shops. The large and imposing structure covered an area of ​​300 square meters, a complex of gigantic halls whose domes were supported by huge pillars. The baths could accommodate up to 1,500 people at a time. Their floors and walls were covered with marble, mosaics and frescoes.

The ancient culture of Rome, which existed in the period from the 8th century. BC. and until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 476 AD, gave the world its own vision of a system of ideals and values. For this civilization, love for the Motherland, dignity and honor, reverence for the gods and faith in one's own uniqueness were paramount. This article presents main aspects, capable of describing such a unique phenomenon as the culture of Ancient Rome, briefly.

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Ancient Roman culture

According to chronological data, the history of the culture of Ancient Rome can be divided into three main periods:

• royal (8th–6th centuries BC);
• republican (6th-1st centuries BC);
• imperial (1st century BC - 5th century AD).

The royal period of ancient Rome is considered the most primitive in terms of Roman culture. However, at that time the Romans already had own alphabet. At the end of the 6th century, the first ancient schools began to appear, in which children studied Latin and Greek, writing and arithmetic for 4–5 years.

Attention! During that short period of ancient history, which lasted from 753 to 509. BC, seven kings managed to ascend the Roman throne: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tull Hostilius, Ankh Marcius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, Lucius Tarquinius the Proud.

The Republican period is characterized by the penetration of ancient Greek culture into the life of Ancient Rome. At this time they begin to develop philosophy and law.

The most prominent Roman philosopher of that time was Lucretius (98-55), who in his work "On the Nature of Things" urged people to stop being afraid of superstition and God's punishment.

He gave a completely logical explanation for the appearance of man and the universe. An innovation in the system of Roman law was the introduction of the concept of "legal entity", which strengthens the position of private owners.

In the imperial period of the development of ancient culture, everything Greek was abandoned. Roman uniqueness develops. This is clearly seen in the culture and architecture of that time: the Colosseum and the Pantheon. For the first time, attempts are being made to study the activity of the brain. The experiments were carried out by the famous doctor Galen in ancient times. Are being created medical training schools. Religion has also changed. The Roman emperor was now recognized as a deity, who ascended to heaven after death.

Ancient Roman heritage

Many achievements of Ancient Rome in the field of civilization and culture, created in the ancient period, are still popular all over the world:

• Water pipes. Aqueducts were used back in Babylon, but in ancient Rome they began to be used not only for irrigation, but also for domestic needs. Water pipelines were also carried out to industrialists: places where resources were extracted and handicraft quarters. Surviving aqueducts built in antiquity on the territory of modern Europe can be found in Germany, France and Italy.
• Sewerage. It became a necessary element of large Roman cities. Drainage systems were used both to drain water during rain, and sewage of various kinds. Antique cesspools are still used today, however, only to remove water after a downpour.
• Citizenship. The main legacy of ancient Rome. It was the Romans who established the procedures for obtaining citizenship. All free people were considered legal residents of the Empire, regardless of where they were born and in what territory of the state they live.
• Republic. The republican form of government, created in Rome in the ancient period, put the beginning of the creation of a modern type of power. It was the Romans who began to share the reins of government, since, in their opinion, its concentration in the hands of one ruler could be fatal for all citizens. The Romans managed to maintain harmony between the strata of society for a long period of time thanks to delegation. However, ironically, it was the republican form of government that buried the Roman state.
• Cultural monuments of Ancient Rome. This rich heritage includes Roman buildings, sculptures, literary works, and philosophical works.

Art

The artistic culture of ancient Rome was very similar to the Greek of the same period. But this also has its advantages. Thanks to the Romans managed to save many works of ancient painting that were copied from Greek artists.

Sculptures from the Romans acquired emotions. Their faces reflected the state of mind, thanks to which the sculpture came to life. It was in ancient Rome that such a literary movement as the novel appeared.

The unified Greco-Roman culture of the ancient period gave rise to many writers, playwrights and poets. A new direction in literature was born - the novel. Among the famous satirists of that time, it is worth noting Plautus and Terence.

Their comedies have been preserved to this day. Livius Andronicus became the first tragedian in Rome and translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Among the poets, it is worth noting Lucilius, who wrote poems on everyday topics. Most often in his works, he ridiculed the obsession with wealth.

During the time of Cicero in Ancient Rome philosophy gains popularity. There are such trends as Roman Stoicism, the main idea of ​​which was the achievement of a moral and spiritual ideal by a person, and Roman Neoplatonism, which preached the ascent of the human soul to unity with a certain ecstasy.

In the field of astronomy, the ancient scientist Ptolemy is famous, who created the geocentric system of the world. He also wrote a number of works on optics, mathematics and geography.

Architecture of Ancient Rome

The ancient Roman era left majestic monuments of ancient architecture that can be seen today.

Coliseum. A huge amphitheater, the construction of which began in 72 AD. and ended only after 8 years. Its second name, the Flavian amphitheater, is associated with the ruling dynasty, whose representatives were the initiators of the construction. The total capacity of the Roman Colosseum was more than 50 thousand people.

Note! Most often, prisoners of war participated in gladiator fights. Their lives depended on how colorfully they were able to demonstrate their capabilities and to what extent they won over the public. If a gladiator made a strong impression, the spectators of Rome let him live and gave him a thumbs up. If the audience wanted death, then the thumb calmly fell down.

Triumphal Arch of Titus. The initiator of the construction of the monument was the Roman emperor Domitian, shortly after the death of his predecessor Titus. This ancient monument was built in 81 AD. in honor of the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 AD. The arch is known for its convex relief within the span. It depicts a procession of Roman soldiers with trophies captured in Jerusalem.

Pantheon. A majestic structure built by Emperor Hadrian in 126 AD. The Pantheon is a temple dedicated to all the gods. Perfectly preserved to this day in its original form, this cultural monument of the ancient period is unique in its proportionality and visual lightness. From above, the Roman temple is decorated with a dome with a hole in the center for sunlight to enter.

cultural traditions

The brightest and most peculiar traditions of the Roman culture of the ancient period are presented in marriage ceremony.

On the eve of the wedding, the girl, as if saying goodbye to childhood, had to donate her toys and clothes. The head was tied with a red shawl, the bride was dressed in a white tunic, which was tied with a belt of sheep's wool.

The wedding dress in ancient Rome was red, which was worn over a tunic. A bright yellow veil was thrown over the head, which matched the color of the shoes.

herself the ceremony was accompanied pig sacrifice. It was determined by her insides whether a marriage would be happy. And if so, then the one who performed the divination ceremony gave his permission.

Already in the days of the ancient period, marriage contracts were drawn up, in which the bride's dowry and the procedure for dividing property in the event of a divorce were prescribed. The contract was read aloud in front of ten witnesses, after which these witnesses put their signatures.

Specificity

Despite the fact that Ancient Rome imitated Greece in many ways, it had characteristic distinctive features in culture. If the Greeks occupied territories by distributing their goods, then Rome led hostilities, completely depriving the conquered territory of independence.

Once every five years, a population survey was conducted - qualification. The activity of the population was valued both in wartime and in peacetime.

The toga was considered the national dress in Rome. That is why the Romans were called "togatus". The eternal companion of Ancient Rome was the army, which stood outside the state. Features of the culture of Ancient Rome allowed it to become the basis for the subsequent flourishing of Europe.

musical culture

The musical culture of the ancient antique period was no different from the artistic one in the sense that it also completely copied the Greek one.

Singers, musicians, dancers were invited from Greece. It was popular to perform the odes of Horace, the poems of Ovid, accompanied by the music of the cithara and tibia.

However, later in ancient Rome, musical performances lost their original appearance and acquired an exceptionally spectacular character. The musicians' performances were accompanied by theatrical performances. Even gladiatorial fights were accompanied by the sounds of trumpets and horns.

During the ancient period, they were very popular music teachers. A letter from the poet Martial to his friend has survived to this day, in which he says that if he becomes a music teacher, then his career is guaranteed.

Pantomime became a new trend in art. It was performed by a dancer-soloist to the sounds of a choir and a large number of musical instruments.

The last emperor of Rome, Domitian, at the end of the 1st century. AD arranged a "Capitol competition" between soloists, poets and musicians. The winners were crowned with laurel wreaths.

The contribution of ancient Rome to world culture

The contribution of Ancient Rome to the development of modern European civilization is undeniable. The Romans in the ancient period created the Latin alphabet, which was used by all of medieval Europe. Created in Rome civil law system, civic values ​​are defined: patriotism, belief in one's own identity and greatness. In the same place, Christianity historically developed, which greatly influenced the subsequent stages of the development of mankind. The Romans introduced concrete. They taught the world how to build bridges and aqueducts.

Sculpture and art as part of the culture of Ancient Rome

Culture and History of Ancient Rome briefly

Conclusion

The greatest men in history praised ancient Rome and its culture in their quotes. So, Napoleon said: "The history of Rome is the history of the whole world." Obviously, if the Roman Empire had been able to withstand the onslaught of the "barbarian" tribes in 476, then the Renaissance would have appeared to the world much earlier. The contribution of Ancient Rome to world culture is so great that it remains to be studied for a long time.

Ruins of Ancient Rome.

In the first millennium BC. e. a state arose around the city of Rome, which began to expand its possessions at the expense of neighboring peoples. This world power lasted for about a thousand years and lived off the exploitation of slave labor and conquered countries. Rome owned all the lands adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, both in Europe and in Asia and Africa. Therefore, art, especially architecture, was called upon to show the whole world the power of state power. Endless wars, the thirst for conquest, in which Rome matured and grew, demanded the exertion of all forces, therefore the basis of Roman society was firm discipline in the army, firm laws in the state and firm power in the family. Above all, the Romans put the ability to rule over the world. Virgil stated:

You rule the peoples powerfully, Roman, remember!
Behold, your arts will be: the conditions to impose the world,
Spare the downtrodden and overthrow the proud!
("Aeneid")

The Romans subjugated the entire Mediterranean, including Hellas, but Greece itself captivated Rome, because it had a strong influence on the entire culture of Rome - in religion and philosophy, in literature and art.

Etruscan she-wolf who, according to legend, brought up Romulus and Remus (Etruscan casting)

The legend says that the usurper Amulius seized the throne of his brother, the king of Alba Longa, Numitor, the grandfather of the twins Romulus and Remus, and ordered the babies to be thrown into the Tiber. The father of the twins, Mars, saved his sons, and they were fed by a she-wolf sent by God. The boys were then brought up by the shepherd Faustul and his wife, Akka Larentia. When the brothers grew up, they killed Amulius, returned power to their grandfather, and founded the city in the place where the she-wolf found them. During the construction of the walls of the new city, a quarrel broke out between the brothers, and Romulus killed Remus. The city was built and named after Romulus by Rome, and Romulus himself became its first king. Part of the culture was borrowed by the Romans from other peoples. Much - among the Etruscans, but most of all - among the Greeks. The Romans borrowed from the Etruscans gladiator fights, stage games, the nature of sacrifices, faith in good and evil demons. The Romans, like the Etruscans, preferred sculpture from the arts, and not sculpture, but modeling - from clay, wax, bronze.

Building decorated with semi-columns

However, the main predecessor of Roman art was still Greece. Even the Romans took many of their beliefs and myths from the Greeks. The Romans learned to build arches, simple vaults and domes from stone.
They learned to build more diverse structures, for example, the round Pantheon building - the temple of all the gods, it had a diameter of more than 40 meters. The Pantheon was covered with a giant dome. which has been a model for builders and architects for centuries.
From the Greeks, the Romans adopted the ability to build columns. In honor of the generals, the Romans built triumphal arches.
Buildings intended for the entertainment of the Roman nobility were distinguished by special magnificence. The largest Roman circus - Coliseum, accommodated 50,000 spectators. It was an amphitheater - in a similar way and now they build circuses and stadiums.
Roman baths, which were called baths, were also original places of recreation and entertainment. There were washrooms, changing rooms, swimming pools, exercise rooms, sports fields, and even libraries. The spacious halls were covered with vaults and domes, the walls were lined with marble.
On the edge of the squares, large judicial and commercial buildings were often built - b a z and l and k. In Rome, both the palaces of the rulers and multi-storey houses for the poor were created. Romans with average incomes lived in separate houses, which surrounded an open courtyard - and there was a pool for rainwater in the middle of the atrium. Behind the house was a courtyard with columns, a garden, a fountain.

Triumphal Arch of Emperor Titus

In 81, in honor of Emperor Titus and his victory over Judea, a single-span, 5.33 m wide, Triumphal Arch was erected on the sacred road leading to the Capitoline Hill. The marble arch was 20 meters high. An inscription dedicated to Titus was carved above the span, and the arch was also decorated with reliefs depicting the victorious procession of the Romans, made in complex turns and movements.

Pantheon - inside view

The Pantheon was erected under the emperor Hadrian (117-138). The temple is built of stone, brick and concrete. The round building has a height of 42.7 m and is covered by a dome 43.2 m in diameter. From the outside, the building is quite modest, it is decorated only with a portico with Corinthian columns made of red granite. But the interior was a model of technical excellence and luxury. The floor of the temple is paved with marble slabs. The wall is divided in height into two tiers. In the lower tier there were deep niches, in which there were statues of the gods. The upper part is dissected by pilasters (rectangular ledges) made of colored marble. The lighting of the temple is solved by a hole in the dome, a "window" with a diameter of 9 m, the so-called eye of the Pantheon. The floor under this "eye" has a barely visible slope for water to drain.

Pantheon outside

The name of the building speaks for itself - "pantheon", a temple to the pantheon of the ancient Roman gods. It should be noted that the building that still stands today is not the first temple on this site. Under Emperor Augustus, the first temple was built, but then it burned down in a fire in ancient Rome. In memory of the first builder, an associate of the Emperor Augustus, Mark Agrippa, the inscription “M. Agrippa l f cos tertium fecit.

Colosseum outside

Under the emperors Vespasian and Titus, in 75-82. a huge amphitheater for gladiator fights was built - the Colosseum (from the Latin "colosseum" - colossal). In plan, it was an ellipse, 188 m long, 156 m wide, 50 m high. The wall is divided into three tiers. At the top they pulled an awning from rain and sun. Below were statues. The arena could accommodate up to 3,000 pairs of gladiators. The arena could be flooded with water and then naval battles were played out.

Colosseum inside

Aqueduct

The Roman Aqueduct is an aqueduct, but at the same time functional and elaborate, perfect art. Above there was a channel, separated by a cornice, below - arches, even lower - visually isolated from the arches of the support. Long, uninterrupted horizontal lines hid the height and emphasized the infinity of the aqueduct that stretched into the distance.

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome

Sculpture was first imported from Greece. Then they began to copy it from Greek. However, there was also an independent, Roman sculpture. These were sculptural portraits and relief images, monuments to emperors and generals.

Portrait of a Roman

Portrait of a young man

relief sculpture

Statue of Emperor Augustus from Prima Port.

The period of the reign of Octavian Augustus is called by ancient historians the "golden age" of the Roman state. The established "Roman world" stimulated a high rise in art and culture. The emperor is depicted in a calm, majestic pose, his hand is raised in an inviting gesture; he seemed to appear in the garb of a general before his legions. Augustus is depicted bare-headed and bare-legged, a tradition in Greek art depicting gods and heroes naked or semi-naked. The face of Augustus bears portrait features, but is nonetheless somewhat idealized. The whole figure embodies the idea of ​​greatness and power of the empire.

Trajan's Column in Rome

A column built by the architect Apollodorus in honor of Emperor Trajan has survived to this day. The height of the column is more than 30 meters, it is composed of 17 drums of Carrara marble. A spiral staircase runs inside the column. The column ended with a bronze figure of Trajan, which in the 16th century was replaced by a statue of the Apostle Peter. The column is lined with slabs of Parian marble, along which a bas-relief stretches in a spiral of 200 meters, depicting in historical sequence the main events of Trajan's campaign against the Dacians (101-107): the construction of a bridge across the Danube, the crossing, the battle with the Dacians, their camp, the siege fortresses, the suicide of the leader of the Dacians, the procession of prisoners, the triumphant return of Trajan to Rome.

Fragment of Trajan's Column

At the end of the 4th and in the 5th century, the "great migration of peoples" took place - a large tribe of Goths settled on the territory of the Roman Empire, they were ardently supported by the rebellious slaves and the peoples enslaved by Rome. Hordes of nomadic Huns sweep through the empire like a destructive whirlwind. The Visigoths, then the Vandals capture and sack Rome itself. The Roman Empire is falling apart. And in 476 the final blow was dealt to Rome and power passed to the barbarian squads. The Roman Empire fell, but its culture left an indelible mark on human history.

There are 2 main ways to see the sights of Rome - on your own and as part of an organized tour. Both of these methods have their pros and cons. As a rule, most tourists visit the free sights of Rome on their own, and paid ones as part of an excursion.

Free attractions in Rome include monuments, architecture, central streets, buildings, parks, bridges, promenade and nature.

Paid attractions in Rome are museums, performances, theaters, nightclubs, restaurants, bars, amusement parks, etc.

The benefit of paid Rome sightseeing is that if you take a sightseeing tour of Rome, you will be able to see a large number of major attractions in one day, as you will be transported by bus from one attraction to another. For large groups, as a rule, there are discounts, and taking an organized tour, you can still save. It can also be very interesting to listen to a Russian-speaking guide who has been living in Italy for several years and knows the country like the back of his hand.

Where to go and what to see in Rome

Photos with names and descriptions of the sights of Rome. The most interesting places in Rome that a tourist must visit.

The Colosseum is the central arena of Ancient Rome, where gladiators fought, where prisoners were given to be torn to pieces by animals, where water battles of ships were held, for which the arena was filled with water from the Tiber River, and where other brutal performances took place. The Colosseum was opened in the year 80 after the birth of Christ and in honor of its opening, the Great Games were held, which lasted more than 90 days.

The amphitheater Colosseum means "colossus", which indicates its large size. The Colosseum also had the name "Amphitheater of the Flavians", who were the ruling dynasty of Roman emperors.

2 thousand years ago it was the largest building in the world, the stands of which could accommodate 55,000 spectators.

At the beginning of the fifth century, when Christianity gained real strength, gladiator fights ceased to be held and the premises began to be used as a stable, warehouse and shelter. Today, the Colosseum is a mandatory item in the program of every tourist.

The Colosseum is located in Rome at Piazza del Colosseo.
You can get to the Colosseum by metro line B, get off at the Colosseum station.

Pantheon in Greek means "temple of all gods" and was built in Rome in the second century AD. The Pantheon was built when ancient Roman architecture was in its infancy. Initially, ancient Roman gods were sung here, but at the beginning of the 7th century, a Christian temple was made from the Pantheon. Throughout its existence, the Pantheon has undergone restorations and thanks to this, it has been well preserved to this day.

The dome of the Pantheon weighs 5,000 tons and has not yet collapsed to this day. In the dome of the Pantheon there is a hole with a diameter of 9 meters, so rain and snow penetrate through it into the building. The remains of Raphael and other famous people were buried in the Pantheon. Pilgrims from all over the world flock to see this masterpiece of architecture with their own eyes.

The Pantheon is opened for tourists at 9 am and it is better to see it immediately after the opening, while there are still few tourists. The Pantheon closes at 7pm.

The entrance is free.
Address of the Pantheon: Piazza della Rotonda, Rome.
You can get to the Pantheon by metro line A, get off at Barberini station.

The Vatican is a mini city-state, the seat of the Pope and the main center of the Catholic Church. Citizens of the Vatican are only 8 hundred people, which include ministers of the church. The Vatican covers an area of ​​only 0.45 square kilometers. Tourists in the Vatican are most attracted by: St. Peter's Basilica, museums that provide access to collections of paintings, sculptures and other art objects.

The relics collected in the Vatican Museums show the history of the development of this mini-state. Here are collected the clothes of the Pope, cars, carriages and other antiques.

The Etruscan Museum of the Vatican will show you archaeological excavations such as Roman art, Etruscan vases and bronze jewelry.

In the Egyptian Museum of the Vatican, you can see mummies and sarcophagi, a statue of Pharaoh Mentuhotep, stone masks and other items.

In the Apostolic Palace of the Vatican, artistic masterpieces are collected, which also includes the Stanzas of Raphael.

The Pinacoteca contains paintings of religious themes, paintings by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio and others.

In the Belvedere Court are the palaces of Innocent VII and Nicholas.

The central place in the Vatican is occupied by the Sistine Chapel, decorated with frescoes by Michelangelo, Botticelli and Perugino.

The Vatican Library houses a collection of printed and handwritten books that have been collected over many centuries.

It is best to visit the Vatican Museums with a guide and in clothing that covers the chest, shoulders, elbows and knees. Some Vatican Museums are only accessible by appointment.

The Vatican Museums are open Monday to Saturday from 09.00 to 18.00, except Sundays and holidays.

Address of the Vatican: Viale Vaticano.

How to get to the Vatican: by metro from Termini train station on line A to the S Pietro stop.

St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is the spiritual heart of the Catholic Church. The Pope of Rome conducts masses in it. Peter's Basilica was built in the 4th century on the site where Nero's circus used to be. Initially, the holy relics of the Apostle Peter were kept in the basilica. Only in the 15th century, a huge building of the temple was created on the site of the basilica. St. Peter's is the brainchild of Raphael, Michelangelo, Maderno, Peruzzi and others. In front of the cathedral is St. Peter's Square with 284 columns. There is an ancient Egyptian obelisk made of granite, magnificent fountains, sculptures of the holy apostles Paul and Peter, the residence of the Pope.

How to get to St. Peter's Square: Take the metro line B to the Ottaviano San-Pietro station.

Vittoriano is an architectural complex built from 1885 to 1935 in honor of the first king of united Italy, Victor Emmanuel II. In front of the Vittoriano Palace is the tomb of the Unknown Soldier, where the Eternal Flame burns and the guard of honor replaces each other. Not all Romans like this white marble palace, but tourists are happy to come here.

The Vittoriano monument is located in Rome on Piazza Venezia, near the Capitoline Hill. It was designed by Giuseppe Sacconi in the Empire style. The monument also includes a 12-meter bronze statue of the king on horseback.

Building height: 70 meters.
Nearest metro: Colosseo, Cavour.

Castel Sant'Angelo, also called the Mausoleum of Hadrian and the Sorrowful Castle, was built on the banks of the Tiber River in the Adriano Park. The construction of the Castel Sant'Angelo began in 139 AD. Its height is 48 meters and at the time of construction it was the tallest building in Rome. Castel Sant'Angelo consists of the Donjon tomb, a square courtyard with a wall and a bridge over the river, decorated with sculptures.

The castle served as the home of the Pope, warehouse, prison and tomb. Now the castle houses the Military History Museum.

The castle was named after an event that happened to Pope Gregory in the 4th century, when the Archangel Michael appeared to him. Under the emperor Hadrian, a bridge was built from the castle across the Tiber River, along which you can reach the Champ de Mars.

The Roman Forum was built in the center of Ancient Rome and at first a market functioned on it, but then political decisions were made on it.

The Roman Forum is located between the Palatine, Velia, Capitol, Esquiline, Quirinal and Viminal hills.

At the Roman Forum in Ancient Rome, they passed laws, elected consuls, and met emperors after the war.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the forum was destroyed, and only fragments of its former grandeur have survived to this day, where an open-air museum now operates.

Address: Via della Salaria Vecchia, 5/6.

The Roman Forum is open every day from 8.00 to 17.00, and from April to October - until 17.30.

Trajan's Forum was the last imperial forum built in Rome, designed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The Forum of Trajan was created in accordance with the order of Emperor Trajan. It was decorated with trophies won in Dacia in 106. Trajan's Forum was opened in 112, and Trajan's Column was erected in 113. the forum was a large square surrounded by a market, the temple of Emperor Trajan, the Latin and Greek libraries. The 38-meter marble column of Trajan, inside which they made the tomb of the emperor and his wife, has survived to this day.

The baths of Emperor Septimius Bassian Caracalla in Rome are officially called the baths of Antoninian. The Baths of Caracalla began to be built in 212 AD and finished in 217, when the emperor of Caracalla died. The courtyard of the term of Caracalla was square and reached a length and width of 400 meters, the dimensions of the thermal building were 150 by 200 meters. In addition to the baths and pools, there was a library. They came to the terms to communicate, negotiate and learn the news mixed with gossip.

Today, the Baths of Caracalla are what remains of the ancient Roman baths along the Appian Way.

The triumphal arch of Constantine was installed in Rome in 315 between the Colosseum and the Palatine on Via Triumphalis. The arch is dedicated to the victory of Emperor Constantine over rival Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312.

During the construction of the Arch of Constantine, decorative elements were used that were removed from older buildings. The triumphal arch of Constantine is the only arch in Rome that commemorates the victory in the civil war.

Interestingly, it was under Emperor Constantine that Christianity became the official religion in the Roman Empire and the capital was moved to Constantinople.

The Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano is a cathedral church built in Rome in 324. In the hierarchy of Catholic churches, she ranks first and even St. Peter's in the Vatican is below her.

The Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano is one of the 4 basilicas in Rome with the title "Basilica maior", which means "Elder Basilica". It was included in the list for pilgrims, which includes 7 basilicas in Rome.

The Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano was built during the reign of Emperor Constantine under Pope Sylvester I. The relics of six popes and the apostles Paul and Peter are buried in the temple.

You can get to the Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano by metro, the nearest stations are Re Di Roma and Ponte Lungo.

San Paolo Fuori le Mura is one of the 4 main basilicas in Rome. San Paolo Fuori le Mura was built in the southern part of Rome behind the Aurelian Walls and is included in the list of seven basilicas of Rome for pilgrims. The holy relics of the Apostle Paul are buried in the basilica, so the flow of pilgrims and tourists is huge. In 1980, the Basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura was inscribed on the World Heritage List.

The basilica was built by decree of the Emperor Constantine on the burial site of the Apostle Paul in the 4th century AD.

The Basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura is located at Via Ostiense 186, Rome, Italy.

The Church of Santa Maria Maggiore is one of the 4 main Catholic churches in Rome and is included in the list of seven pilgrimage basilicas for pilgrims.
The architectural style of the church belongs to the Romanesque and Baroque styles.
The author of the project is Liberius, and the founder is Sixtus III.
The Temple of Santa Maria Maggiore was founded in 356, and construction lasted from 440 to 1750.
In the 14th century, a 75-meter bell tower was completed.

Address: Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore 42.
You can walk to the temple from the Termini train station along Cavour street.
It works every day from 7.00 to 19.00.

The Church of Il Gesu is the central temple of the Jesuits in Rome, and it is here that the remains of the Grand Master Ignatius Loyola are buried. Michelangelo worked on the initial design of the church, but he approached the head of the Jesuit order. In 1561, the architect Giacomo Barozzi began to implement his project.
The style of the church belongs to the Baroque.

The Jesuit order existed until the end of the 18th century and a large fortune was kept in the temple of Il Gesu. Then the temple of Il-Gesu was taken away from the Jesuits, but after 1814 the building was returned.

The Church of Il Gesu is located in the small square of Il Gesu in the center of Rome.

Piazza Navona is a Roman square built in the shape of a rectangle on the site of the stadium of Domitian (1st century). From the 15th century to 1869, a city market functioned here. Piazza Navona was built up in the 17th century in the Baroque style. Since the 16th century, houses for ambassadors, cardinals, bankers and other nobility began to be built in the area of ​​​​the square.

Piazza Navona overlooks 2 churches, including the church of St. Agnes, and several palaces, including the Palazzo Pamphili.

In the center of Piazza Navona is the Fountain of the Four Rivers with an obelisk, which symbolizes the power of the Pope. Around the obelisk there are sculptures symbolizing the rivers of 4 continents.

The Piazza del Popolo in Rome has always been of strategic importance, since the road leading to the northern provinces departed from it. Translated from Italian, "Piazza del Popolo" means "People's Square".

On the square are the Egyptian obelisk of Ramses II and the temple of Santa Maria del Popolo. The architect Valadier worked on the appearance of the square in the 19th century.

Piazza del Popolo was created in the form of an oval 100 by 165 meters. In the north of the square there is a gate - Porta del Popolo, which in ancient times was part of the Aurelian wall.

Villa Borghese is a Roman landscape park located on the Pincio hill. It is the third largest public park in Rome and covers an area of ​​80 hectares.

History says that in the 17th century, Cardinal Scipione Borghese created a park on the site of the vineyards, decorated with antique statues.

In the 19th century, the park was decorated in the English style. The mistress of the estate in those days was Elena Borghese.

In 1903, the Villa Borghese park was bought by Italian government officials and donated to Rome. Later, children's attractions were installed in the park. You can climb to the Villa Borghese park along the famous Spanish Steps, as well as from Popolo Square.

In the Villa Borghese park there are: the Borghese Gallery, the National Museum of Villa Giulia, the National Gallery of Modern Art, the Globe Theatre, the Pietro Canonica House Museum, the Carlo Bilotti Museum.

Villa Medici occupies the slope of the Roman Pincio hill, slightly lower than Villa Borghese. In ancient times, the gardens of Lucullus grew on this territory, and there was a villa where Empress Messalina passed away. In the Middle Ages, vineyards stretched on this area.

In 1576, the Pincio slope was sold to Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici, the future ruler of Florence. The Mannerist style villa was designed by Bartolomeo Ammannati. When the last member of the Medici family passed away, the villa was given to the House of Lorraine. Napoleon Bonaparte gave the Medici villa to the French Academy in Rome, and since that time those who have been awarded the Rome Prize have lived there.

Exhibits of ancient culture are exhibited on the territory of the garden. The cardinal bought 170 antique statues from the nobility of Rome and decorated the villa with them.

The catacombs of Rome are a grid of ancient catacombs that were used for burial during early Christianity. The total number of catacombs in Rome is more than 60 pieces, and most of them are located underground along the Appian Way. The catacombs of Rome are underground passages in the form of a labyrinth. In the walls of the catacombs there are rectangular niches for the burial of the dead. Until today, only a few niches have remained closed, while the rest are empty.

The first followers of Christ were hiding in the catacombs. Religious ceremonies and gatherings of believers were held here.

The Pyramid of Cestius is an ancient Roman mausoleum built on the Aventine in Rome in the shape of an irregular pyramid. Near the pyramid of Cestius are the gates of San Paolo.

It is believed that the pyramid of Cestius was built in the 1st century BC. The mausoleum is intended for the burial of Praetor Gaius Cestius Epulus. The construction of the pyramid coincided with the period of the conquest of Egypt, and when "Egyptian style" was fashionable in ancient Rome. At that time, obelisks and sculptures were taken out of the Nile Valley. Dimensions of the Pyramid of Cestius: height - 37 meters, width - 30 meters.

big circus

The Circus Maximus in Rome is an ancient hippodrome located between the Palatine Hill and the Aventine Hill. During the Roman Empire, chariot races were held here. Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar expanded the circus to an impressive size, and this allowed more than 250,000 people to watch the races at a time. Standing places were intended for commoners, and lodges for patricians.

The Circus Maximus in Rome is 600 meters long and 150 meters wide.

The Appian Way was created by order of the censor Appius Caecus in 312 BC, and was supposed to complement the Latin Way, which connects Rome with the colony of Cala near Capua.

The Appian Way is the central ancient public road of Rome. Later, the Appian Way was extended to Brundisium and connected Rome with Egypt, Greece and Asia Minor.

On both sides of the Appian Way there are such historical monuments as: tombs, villas, Christian catacombs, medieval towers, Jewish catacombs, Renaissance and Baroque buildings.

Trastevere area

The Trastevere district in Rome is a network of medieval streets on the west bank of the Tiber River, south of the Vatican. Trastevere is located on the eastern slope of Janiculum.

In ancient times, the Etruscans lived on this bank of the Tiber, then it was settled by Jews and Syrians.

The centerpiece of the Trastevere area is the Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere, built in the 3rd century. The Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere was built in the 5th century. Both churches house paintings and sculptures by famous masters.

Trastevere Station is located in the south of Trastevere.

In the evening, the Trastevere area is loved by tourists and the inhabitants of Rome themselves, as there are bars and restaurants.

spanish stairs

The Spanish Steps in Rome have 138 steps leading from the Spanish Square to the temple of Trinita dei Monti, located on the top of the Pincio hill.

Spanish Square housed the representation of the kings of Spain. The French diplomat Etienne Geffier believed that it was necessary to connect the Trinita dei Monti church and the Spanish Square, and for this purpose he bequeathed his fortune.

The architects of the project were Alessandro Specchi and Francesco de Sanctis. The construction of the Spanish Steps lasted from 1723 to 1725.

On the Spanish Square there is a fountain in the form of a boat "Barkaccia".

The Trevi Fountain is the largest fountain in Rome, reaching a height of 25.9 meters and a width of 49.8 meters.

The Trevi Fountain was created in the Baroque style from 1732 to 1762. The project belongs to the architect Nicolo Salvi. The fountain is located next to the facade of the Palazzo Poli.

Legend has it that whoever throws a coin into the Trevi Fountain will return to Rome. If he throws two coins, then a love meeting awaits him. If three, then - a wedding. If four, then - wealth. If five, then separation.

Every year, public utilities take out coins worth 1.4 million euros from the fountain.

The second legend says that on the right side of the Trevi Fountain there are "tubes of lovers", and those who drink water from them will love each other and live happily ever after.

Attractions of Rome on the map

Sightseeing in Rome on your own To explore the free sights of Rome, download to your phone a map of Rome and Italy, where all the sights of Rome are already marked. Most often, experienced travelers use the Maps.me mobile application for this, where most of the sights of Rome are indicated with photos, names and descriptions in Russian. To view paid attractions in Italy and Rome, select your favorite excursion in Rome or attraction from the list above and click on it. On the next web page you can read a detailed description of the tour in Rome, select the date of the tour and click on the "Order" button. After that, you need to select the desired tour time, number of people, enter your name, email address and phone number, and click on the "Submit" button. After that, the price of the excursion in Rome will be calculated and you will be able to book it online on the Tripster official website. Payment for excursions in Rome on the Tripster.ru website is carried out in one of the ways convenient for you, for example, using VISA or MasterCard bank cards. The sights of Italy are very popular among tourists from all over the world and the sights of Rome are especially popular.