The first people on earth. Human history

Plan

1. Historical epochs.
2. Acquaintance with history and archeology.

4. Primitive world.
5. Conclusion.

1. Historical epochs.

The history of mankind can be divided into several major eras:

• - primitive history;
• - ancient world history;
• - history of the Middle Ages;
• - the history of modern times;
• - Modern history.

2. Acquaintance with history and archeology

The most ancient era in the history of mankind is called primitive.

How did people find out about primitive people? Scientists carry out excavations, extract from the earth things of ancient people, their bones. Scientists who excavate are called archaeologists.

Archeology - the science of antiquity. It studies the history of society from the remnants of the life and activities of people. Scientists believe that the oldest people, whose “traces” were found in Africa and Asia, lived more than a million years ago. Based on the remains of the skeletons of the most ancient people, it was possible to establish how they looked.

The first known ancestors of humans and monkeys lived more than two million years ago and were called driopithecus.

3. The difference between primitive man and modern.

ancient man was very different from us - modern people - and looked like a large monkey. However, people did not walk on four legs, as almost all animals walk, but on two legs, but at the same time they leaned forward strongly. The man's hands, which hung down to his knees, were free, and he could do simple work with them: grab, hit, dig the ground. The foreheads of the people were low and sloping. Their brains were larger than those of a monkey, but much smaller than those of modern humans. He could not speak, made only a few jerky sounds, with which people expressed fear and anger, called for help and warned each other about danger, ate only what he found.

They were arboreal animals resembling great apes in their structure. Some of them led only an arboreal way of life. It was they who could give rise to a line of animals that later became the ancestor of man.

4. Primitive world.

The most ancient era the history of mankind is called primitive. Primitive (tribal) community. Characterized by collective labor and consumption.

primitive people lived in groups, because it was impossible to cope with the difficulties of life alone. They didn't have to worry about warm clothes. They lived where it is always warm. Primitive people built dwellings to protect themselves from the scorching rays of the sun, bad weather, and predators.

The first tools of labor of people were hands, nails and teeth, as well as stones, fragments and branches from trees. The first people had to hunt, collect various plants, and also learn how to make the first simple tools from sticks, bones and animal horns, and then from stone.

Main occupation of ancient people there were hunting and fishing (occupations for men), which required great strength and dexterity. Ancient man could hardly count to more than five, but he could sit motionless for hours in ambush while hunting or build an ingenious trap for a huge mammoth. Gathering (occupation for women) - the ability to understand different plants and collect edible mushrooms, as well as the exchange of prey - with other tribes.

ancient man together with other animals, he fled from the fire in fear. But then there was a daredevil who began to use the fire left by natural phenomena as a result of thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions, forest fires. Man has not yet been able to make fire himself. And so the big problem was the preservation of fire. The loss of fire was tantamount to the death of the whole family. Later, man learned to make fire, and fire saved him during the period of cooling on Earth. He began to use fire for cooking. He could fry a piece of meat on it, bake root crops on coals and take them out in time so that they do not burn out. Fire gave man what is not in nature.

Within each tribe, certain customs and rules of behavior developed. Living in caves, they painted on the walls. They sculpted from clay or carved people and animals out of stone, decorated dishes. Perhaps they wanted to depict the world in which they lived.

5. Conclusion.

primeval history lasted hundreds, thousands of years. During this time, people settled on all continents except Antarctica. They appeared on the territory of our country about half a million years ago.

Views: 35 517

This question has always worried both scientists and ordinary people. Many scientists still devote their entire lives to studying this issue, never finding an exact answer. And although no one knows for sure yet, in the scientific world they took as a basis the theory of Darwin, who believed that man evolved from apes in a natural way. At the same time, so far no one has found such evidence of the origin of man from animals that are completely irrefutable.

Darwin's theory

In the modern world, Darwin's theory is no longer as strong as it used to be, but still it is the basis for understanding where man came from.

The question of the origin of animal species is considered by such a science as biology. The origin of man is also a question of concern to this science.

The British biologist and geologist Charles Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species in 1859, which is one of the most famous works in the history of the science of biology.

In his book, Darwin outlined the theory on the basis of which he made an assumption about the evolution of living beings. He believed that living beings have evolved over billions of years through natural selection, that is, the strongest survived and adapted to new conditions.

Then, in the book “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection,” he tried to substantiate the theory of Georges-Louis de Buffon, who suggested that the first people on Earth appeared due to evolutionary processes. After Darwin published this work, it was recognized by the entire scientific world.

The descendants of Darwin, the followers of his school - Darwinists, then stated that man originated precisely from the ape. This opinion is currently considered to be the only correct scientific explanation of what the origin of man was. There is still no scientific refutation of this theory.

Scientists believe that the first people on Earth appeared about 7 million years ago from ancient monkeys. Of course, there are also antagonists of this statement. The further evolution of man took place in a very complex way, leaving the right to life only to more advanced species.

Australopithecus

Australopithecus is considered the first link in the human evolutionary chain. In the Republic of Chad, the remains of this species were found, which are more than 6 million years old. The "youngest" Australopithecus was found in South Africa. No more than 900 thousand years have passed since his death. Of all the links found in human evolution, this species lasted the longest period of time.

Australopithecus have pronounced features of both human and ape-like creatures. Their growth was up to one and a half meters, and their weight ranged from 30 to 50 kg. The absence of large fangs suggests that they could not use them as a weapon, therefore, they ate more plant foods than meat. They would not have been able to kill large animals, so they hunted small animals or picked up already dead creatures.

These primates knew how to use primitive tools that did not need to be made: stones, branches, etc. Based on this, Australopithecus is called a “handy man”.

Pithecanthropus

The life of the first people on Earth was clearly not easy, given the weak adaptation to simple survival.

The first remains of a great ape of this species were found on the island of Java, which is located in South Asia. This species existed on planet Earth about 1 million years ago. Australopithecus completely disappeared during the same period. Pithecanthropes also died out about 400 thousand years ago.

Thanks to the found remains, from which it was possible to determine the structure of the skeleton, scientists suggest that this species almost always walked on two legs, for which it was nicknamed "upright man." This was found out due to the fact that the femur of such a primate is very similar to a human.

Also, during the excavations, their tools were found. They cannot be described as masters of this business, but the Pithecanthropes already at that time understood that sharp sticks and stones were more suitable for hunting and butchering food than untreated wood and cobblestones.

In addition, scientists believe that they managed to learn how to coexist peacefully with fire. That is, they were not as afraid of him as other animals, but they still did not know how to get it on their own.

Pithecanthropes did not yet know how to talk and communicated with their own kind of primates at the level of ordinary ancient monkeys.

Often they are associated with another branch of evolution - synanthropes, which existed at the same time. Scientists believe that they were similar to each other and led a similar lifestyle.

Neanderthal

Neanderthals existed in Europe and Western Asia for hundreds of thousands of years, they were isolated from other branches of great apes.

For the most part, Neanderthals were predators and ate meat. To do this, they had huge jaws, which at the same time did not protrude forward, as in more ancient primates. They even hunted very large animals: mammoths, ancient rhinos, etc.

The brain volume was the same as that of a modern person, although scientists suggest that in some groups of individuals it was even larger.

Due to the fact that they lived during the ice age, these great apes were well adapted to survive in a cold environment. In addition, they had very broad shoulders, a pelvis, and well-developed muscles.

About 40 thousand years ago, Neanderthals as a species of great apes began to die out sharply. And 28 thousand years ago there was not a single living representative of this species. Their extinction is associated with another link in human evolution - the Cro-Magnons, who could hunt and kill them.

Cro-Magnon

Representatives of this species are referred to as "modern man." Modern man, especially representatives of Caucasian races, is considered completely identical to the late Cro-Magnons.

The remains of the Cro-Magnons found tell us that the representatives of the early species were as tall as a tall modern person (about 187 centimeters) and had a large skull.

Cro-Magnons already knew how to express their thoughts with characteristic sounds, which is associated with the appearance of speech. They were all divided into hunters and gatherers, each using stone tools.

Later representatives of the Cro-Magnons already skillfully used fire, built primitive ovens in which pottery was fired. Scientists also suggest that they could use coal for these purposes.

They also advanced far enough in the creation of clothing that both sheltered them from the bites of wild animals and helped keep them warm in the cold seasons.

The feature that distinguishes this species from all the early great apes is the emergence of such a thing as art. Cro-Magnons lived in caves and left various drawings of animals or some life events in them.

Due to the fact that the number of different types of activities began to grow rapidly, more and more differences appeared between the hands and feet. For example, the thumb on the hand developed more and more, with which the Cro-Magnons managed to hold heavy tools just as easily as small objects.

Homo sapiens

This species is the prototype of modern man. It appeared about 28 thousand years ago, as evidenced by the finds of the most ancient people.

Even then, our ancestors learned to express their emotions in coherent speech and increasingly improved their social relationship with each other.

Different climate and weather conditions entailed the formation of different features of a particular race that lived on different continents. It was about 20 thousand years ago that three different races began to appear: Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid.

Thus, in a very condensed form, it is possible to express the evolutionary chain of Darwinists, which can describe the origin of man.

Thanks to scientific research, the similarity of human genes with chimpanzees by 91% has been established.

Refutations of Darwin's theory and the teachings of his followers

Despite the fact that this theory is the foundation for all modern human science, there are also findings by various researchers that refute the understanding accepted by the entire scientific world of where the first people on Earth came from.

The found footprints, which are more than 3.5 million years old, prove that humanoids began to move on straight legs much earlier than primitive labor appeared.

The evolution of man, connected with the origin from the monkey, is unclear if you ask the question about human limbs. Why are human arms so much weaker than legs, while apes have the opposite? What contributed to the weakening of the limbs, since strong hands are clearly more useful for hunting and other work, is not clear.

To date, not all links have been found that could completely unite the ancient ape with modern man.

In addition, there are a number of incomprehensible questions and facts that cannot be answered using the well-known scientific theory of the origin of man.

Religious theory of the origin of man

Every religion that has survived to this day says that man appeared thanks to a higher being. Adherents of such a theory do not believe in all the evidence for the origin of man from animals that exists today. For example, Christians say that man descended from Adam and Eve, the first people God created. Also, everyone knows the phrase: "God created man in his own image."

Regardless of the type of religion, they all claim that a person did not come into the world in a natural way, but is a creation of the Almighty. No one has yet found proof of the origin of man from the Creator.

creationism

There is such a science as creationism. Scientists who are engaged in it are looking for evidence of theories of the origin of man from God and confirmation of information from religious books.

To do this, they use almost sound scientific calculations. For example, they calculated that the ark that Noah built could indeed accommodate all animals (about 20 thousand different species), without taking into account waterfowl.

(excerpt from manuscript)

At the very beginning there is only one Endless Single, Source Total Existing, Absolute, GOD ( Absolute Holy Nothing And Absolute Holy All - receptacle Total Existing, Manifested And Unmanifested), Spirit, Brama, Energy, Almighty ( Supreme, Vyshen, Vishnu), Dazhbog, Brahma.

Depicted as a circle.

The movement of the Absolute from within to the outside - "wakes up" - gives birth to the Manifested World, and vice versa - "falls asleep" - forces it to disappear. The previous creation gradually and progressively dissolves. The visible world decays, its materials dissipate.

This process goes on forever.

Our universe is just one of an endless series.

Spirit comes in two states: Active and Passive.

155 trillion years ago .

In the Active State, when Brahma “wakes up”, a powerful Energy of Consciousness (Thought), (Fire) arises, which turns into Thoughtturbia (flows) active particles of neutrinos, which previously freely flew in Space. These flows are also called Prana - psychic energy. This is the unmanifested matter of the space of the highest dimension, Rule, Subtle or Fiery Worlds.

Neutrinos are stable neutral leptons. Leptons are the smallest physical particles.

Subatomic particles with rest mass approaching zero. Neutrinos are literally everywhere, but due to their very weak interaction with matter, it is incredibly difficult to detect them. They are called ghost particles: every second, trillions of these particles pass through our bodies without leaving any trace. Their speed exceeds the speed of light by 60 nanoseconds.

Thoughtturbias are the Consciousness Body of the Spirit, which is called Tanumahat or Tanu ("tanu" - consciousness, "mahat" - perfection), Raur ("Golden Egg", "Castle of Ra").

Fire and the Light generated by it (“Let there be Light”) fill the Thoughtturbias, intertwine with each other, life flows in them Spirit .

The interweaving of Fire and Light forms the Primary Fiery Matter - Paraplasma ("para" means primary), God Ra, God of the Sun).

Fire is bright and bright, but invisible without the presence of Matter. Brahma “sees and feels” Itself only in Matter.

The energy of Consciousness (Thought) spreads and permeates everything in space, volumetric “fields” continuously pulsing in its vortex motion and prana flows form unmanifested Matter in it (vacuum, “emptiness” with a sufficiently high concentration of energy in it). The ancients, calling "vacuum" "ether", quite rightly asserted that it "flows".

The passive state of the Spirit, although initially similar to the first, is qualitatively different from it. This state is Knowledge and manifests Itself by Radiance and Radiance, is called the Body of the Position of the Spirit in Itself and manifests itself in Nature as a lepton field. It is called Naguatma or Nag ("nag" - knowledge, "atma" - Spirit).

In the Inactive State of the Spirit, neutrinos fly freely in Space.

Light creates tension in the Body of Consciousness, and tension creates vibration (Heat). When Heat is combined with tension, Tincture is obtained (color saturation, spectrally dissected Light). Differentiation of Fire and Light always goes according to seven types of vibrations. This is Spectrum. Hence the sacredness of the number seven.

Heat and Tincture, intertwining in the Body of Consciousness, condense it with themselves. Raur acquires a new quality - also to generate Fire (energy).

Heat and Tincture absorb Light, are saturated with Light, and, in turn, are absorbed by Fire, simultaneously generating Fire and releasing it from Raur.

The fire, released from Raur, - the "Golden Egg" - passes into the Space of Naguatma. The fire carries information about what happened. This Information is hostile to Naguatma, because it carries the Will of active action. The nature of the Naguatma is passive. Therefore, Naguatma, in order not to be destroyed, encloses Fire in Himself, that is, granulates It in its Space - separate quantum focuses of information-energy corpuscle-holograms of Fire are formed, which are Paraprotoplasm.

Under the action of internal, uniform for all granules praelectric forces, the granules evenly layer the Space in their chaotic motion, form incredibly huge “dust-like” unformed nebulae. This is how the Primary Chaos (Space) is born.

Thus, myriads of holograms appear in Space (transformations of wave fields based on the interference of waves) - Information of the Spirit about Itself, which become the First Material Body of the Consciousness of the Spirit. This is the "Word of the Lord" - the energy-informational Field of the Spirit, Higher Mind of the Spirit (Logos), Rod, Ra, Atum . "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with GOD, and the Word was God."". Information-holographic field expressed in holographic equivalent.

This is the First Division in Nature. It is symbolized by the number "1" - Essence.

In Matter, the body of the Logos manifests itself as neutrons and protons.Common name for protons and neutrons- nucleons. They are the two main components of atomic nuclei.

The Energy of Consciousness enters the Higher Mind, dresses it like flesh, animates Him, and He realizes Himself, but is not independent. Thus the Logos receives its Consciousness, though similar to the Consciousness of the Absolute, but not identical to It. The Consciousness of the Logos only fulfills the Will of the Absolute. By this Will, the Logos attaches the Body (Rays) of His Consciousness (the entire layer of the information-energetic Field) to the Rays of Brahma's Consciousness.

The Logos becomes the first fiery flesh of the Energy of Consciousness, A-Protoplasm. Now the A-Protoplasm is no longer a Paraplasm, but it is also not the Protoplasm of the Subtle World.

Paraplasm, Protoplasm, Ectoplasm are more subtle than the plasma of reality.

He does as the Spirit tells him to. Each time after the Passive state, Brahma creates a New Logos and a New World. Only Brahma is Eternal. Everything that is created by Him is mortal, and His faces are changeable.

IN cutting moment V The space of holograms of information and energy fields is passive Naguatma also releases energy, but of a different quality, a "substance", the name of which Amoy-Nga (Stribog, Shiva) . This "substance" becomes the energy substance (basis) of the Soul of GOD.

The Soul of Brahma is not His Consciousness. It simply supplements the Consciousness, enters with it V close relationship, but does not merge with it. The Soul is not a Thought either, although it resembles it, it colors the Thought. It is through the Soul that the Spirit perceives His Thoughts and understands them.

Naguatma already contains two layers of Rays, and a New Field of holograms appears in Space - Protoplasm - the first substance of the Secondary Matter. These are other facets. This is how the information-energy Field of the Cosmos is born - Cosmic Mind -

our God, Creator Father manifested universe,Cosmic Mind, Sogol, Demiurge,Brahman, Svarog (“To bungle” still means to create in a miraculous, masterful way. Cooking and “harp” is possible only with the help of fire and water (“var” - Skt. water)), Svyatovit, Zeus.It has two levels of Consciousness - the Consciousness of the Spirit and the Granular Consciousness of the Logos. In Sogol, both Levels of Consciousness mergeVOne, qualitatively different from both, and form a new one - Sogol's Consciousness.Energy Consciousness of God - Urar.

The spirit already has its two Minds - the HighestVLogos and CosmicV Sogol.

God in the traditional understanding of people is actually the position of the current state of the universe.

The Spirit and His Three Faces: the Higher Mind (Logos), the Cosmic Mind (God) and the Soul of the Spirit are the Fiery World - the Divine World, which has no Forms.

The described process is the First Creation of the World - the Creation of Fiery Matter.

The Higher Mind and the Cosmic Mind is an information-holographic code and a program for the development of the Universe and matter in general.

Classification of spaces according to the level of matter

The space of the 8th level is the Absolute.

Space of the 7th level - Monad;

The space of the 6th level is nirvana (the space of the spirit);

The space of the 5th level is buddhi (the space of intuition);

The space of the 4th level is manas (the space of thoughts);

The space of the 3rd level is prana (the space of feelings, emotions);

The space of the 2nd level is the ether (energy space);

The space of the 1st level is the visible world (physical space).

Classification of spaces according to the number of dimensions

The Absolute is ten dimensions.

Monad - nine dimensions;

Nirvana - eight dimensions;

Buddhi - seven dimensions;

Manas - six dimensions;

Prana - five dimensions;

Ether is four-dimensional;

The visible world is three-dimensional.

The atoms of unmanifested Matter, receiving the energy of Thought, begin to move and become solid, the very first atoms of hydrogen (the Universe acquires the features of the manifested world, Reality), differentiate into molecules, condense gaseous matter when moving in space.

The monad envelops the atom and animates it.

At the same time, heat is generated and the condensed matter becomes gaseous radiant suns.

The idea of ​​the Monads of living beings in the final analysis of their development is the Idea of ​​a Man of the Subtle World, or a Heavenly Angel (a Cosmic Man).

Everything in Nature, including the atom, is restrained and held in the desired state by a force field, which is nothing but Nag - a lepton field. The strength of leptons is so great that it restrains the self-destruction of atoms and significantly softens the effect of their destruction, if this occurs.

The movement of the Absolute from within to the outside gives birth to the Manifested World, but on the contrary, it forces it to disappear. This process goes on forever. Our universe is just one of an endless series.

All the planets at their birth were comets and suns, then they gave off their heat.

The matter (electrons) of the ether is incommensurably (a hundred million times) thinner than the dense atomic matter of the physical world.

The worlds that give birth to their people and their animals are countless. None of them bear any resemblance to the other. Everyone has a dual nature - physical and spiritual.

The Infinite Mind with the help of the Logos (separation of Fire and Light into small components in the lepton field, the information-energy field expressed in the holographic equivalent) creates in Its Space a new Body - a field that is denser and has other qualities - Protoplasm, created in the image and the likeness of Rule.

From Protoplasm, smaller bodies arise, which become Monads and enliven the World. The substance of the Monad is Protoplasm. Hence the world of living beings, planetary, cosmic, individual, is so diverse.

Each Star, each Planet is an Essence, Thought-forms of the Spirit (active or passive), which have received a different shell, in contrast to a person.

2.88 trillion years ago . The emergence of black holes.

The previous Universe is the one that existed in the last Age of Brahma, i.e. before the Big Bang. The Law of Eternal Return operates in the Universe. Its essence is that the situation will be repeated forever, until it is realized and worked out.

20 billion years ago. Then we all failed the Creator's exam, and during the Quantum Transition between the Fifth and Sixth Races of the Fourth Circle of Eternity, the Earth exploded. It was in that universe. Then everything died.

6th c.

The Slavs continued to spread to the west, through the passages in the Carpathians to Tisza. Hpart of the Cossacks went to Scandinavia, where they became Vikings ( The word "Viking" comes from " vikingr ”, which, according to the most common version, is associated with the Scandinavian designation of bays and fjords, and also coincides with the name of the Norwegian region Vic) -Normans. The Cossacks who settled in Scandinavia by means of the Russian language designated their new social status, calling themselves NORMANS: NOR (north) MANS (leaders), i.e. northern leaders (later added letter n - from Nord and mann , that is, "northern people", it. Normannen, French Normands ), because the North Germanic tribes reached out to them svei, having moved to the southeast of the Scandinavian Peninsula and laying the foundation for modern Sweden and, of course, the Pomeranian Rus, who resisted Christianization. It is logical and natural that the Normans called the conquered territory Rus. The Cossacks destroyed the "bases" of the local sea robbers and won a foothold to fight the pirates and the Vatican Christianizers.

The steppe watershed spaces were captured by the Avars, who dominated the steppes east of the Carpathians, the Magyars and the Pechenegs.

The Avars came to Europe and settled in it as an conquering alien tribe with a fortified military camp. They surrounded their places of location for a long distance with ditches, trenches and fences, and the area strengthened in this way was called “hring”. The center of the hring, where the kagan's dwelling and where the government offices were located, was surrounded by a special wall of oak and beech trees. The system of the Avar and Bulgarian fortified camp can now be observed in Bulgaria, near Preslav, where ancient Bulgarian military settlements were discovered by excavations of the Russian Archaeological Institute in Constantinople. The Avar hrings were located at a short distance from each other, so that in case of danger it was easy to send a message from one to another. In the main hring between the Danube and the Tisza, spoils of war and the treasury were kept. Although the Avars had no culture and did not leave the primary stages of tribal life, they cannot be denied a significant development of the military class and military affairs; thanks to these advantages, they easily gained predominance over the Slavs, who became their tributaries and military allies.

The island of Ruyan (Rügen) occupies an area of ​​almost 1000 square kilometers, its chalk cliffs look out to the sea, its entire coast is indented with deep and secluded bays and coves, in which it was so convenient to hide the boats of the Slavic Varangians.

Slavic tribe wounds (Ruyan, ruins)(Vendi) formed a priestly caste in its midst (like the Indian Brahmins or the Babylonian Chaldeans) and not a single serious military-political issue was resolved by other Slavic tribes without advice from wounds. The wounds (ruans) owned the runic script of the Vendian tradition, the graphics of which differed markedly from the known older and younger runes (probably the term itself wounds derived from the Slavic hurt, that is, carve runes on wooden planks). An extremely rich people, strong and terrible on the waters for all the surrounding inhabitants.

Historical Varangians-Obodrites territorially intertwined with the most militant and valiant Russian tribe - the ruins. Moreover, Rugiya or Ruyania and its center Arkona were considered the mystical center of Rus', the source of the Slavic world. It is no coincidence that pagan storytellers place the world tree on the island of Ruyan (Buyan), over the crown of which stretches Iriy, the military Paradise of the Rus.

Slavs spread and up the Danube and between the Vistula and Oder. mixed in 6-7 centuries with the Geto-Dacian tribes, settled in Greece. From the east, from the borders of present-day Mongolia, a powerful stream of proto-Turkic tribes rushed to the west. At the same time, they formed a strong confederation called the Turkic Khaganate and which extended over a vast area from Mongolia to the Volga. There was a clear hierarchical structure in the kaganate, headed by the khakan, who had unlimited power and was equated by nomads with the Chinese emperor. Later, the Turkic Khaganate split into two parts, of which the so-called Western Turkic Khaganate ruled over the territory from Altai to the Volga, and then extended its power to part of the Ciscaucasia. The flourishing of urban planning in Rus' (there are almost no cities in Europe).

IN 6th - 10th c. in Pomerania (Baltic coast of Germany) among the Slavs there were numerous small tribes: Pyzhichians, Volynians (on the island of Wolin and the land adjacent to it), vyzhychane (prissane) , ... The population of almost the entire steppe part of Eastern Europe was subjected to Turkization, while the dominant Slavs were established in the forest-steppe. Only in the Central Caucasus, a powerful array of the Alanian ethnos survived, which recovered after the Hun pogrom and recreated its political union - the Alanian Union.

Guzy (Oghuz in ancient Turkic ) created an empire that stretched from China to the Black Sea.

The direct descendants of the Oghuz are modern Turks , Azerbaijanis And Gagauz , in the past also Seljuks.

500 g. Serzhen is elected Grand Duke of Kyiv ( Serezhen ) (son of Verenza). From this name came the names Sergei, Seryozha. Ruled for 10 years. Defeat from the Khazars (Volga Rus), who created a powerful military-trade union in the south of the empire with control of trade routes to India and China.

The city of Itil, built at the mouth of the Volga, not far from the dead and sunken Asgard, becomes the capital of a strange and only autonomous state formation on the territory of the Russian Empire. The Lower Volga began to be called the "Itil River" or the "Khazar River". Taxation of tribute. Gradually, the Itil Union of Rusalim captures the southwestern trade routes of the empire.

Slavic ancestors Slovaks live in the area of ​​the current Slovakia.

At the beginning of the 6th century, the Russian army and navy more than twenty times, almost annually, make military campaigns in the Balkans and the Mediterranean Sea and wipe out Byzantium - the remnants of the Roman Empire hostile to us. Since that time, only the Russian Empire remains in the world. In the victories over Byzantium, the Grand Duke of Kiev Serzhen became famous for centuries.

504 Anastasius built the Long Walls from Silivria to Derkon to protect Constantinople and its environs. G a noble structure between the Black and Marmara Seas at a distance of about 40 versts from Constantinople (Derkon-Silivria line)). But this structure, amazing in terms of the use of enormous forces and means, did not achieve its goal and did not always stop the bold and courageous enemy, who broke through the walls and often devastated the suburbs of the capital.

505 The Lombards capture the plain between the Tisza and the Danube and destroy the powerful state of the East German tribe of the Heruli existing there.

508 Clovis makes Paris his capital.

510 United Borussia (near Belarus, on the coast of the Baltic (Latin name for Prussia)) and Ruskolan elect Prince Svetoyar, the last of the Kievichi dynasty, at a veche.

520 The throne of the Vandal kingdom was occupied by Hilderic. He maintained partnership relations with Justinian, the de facto emperor of the Byzantine Empire.
However, Hilderic was very dissatisfied with the vandal nobility. There were many reasons: this was friendship with Byzantium, as well as the fact that the Berber tribes very much annoyed the kingdom, despite the fact that the vandals could not give them a proper rebuff. On top of that, Hilderic completely severed relations with Italy. All this led to the fact that his own cousin nephew Gelimer with the governors took him into custody, de facto depriving him of power and declaring himself a leader.
Justinian took advantage of this devastation. They sent a large army to the Vandal kingdom. We are talking about a sea expedition, which included about 600 ships (about 100 military, the rest were transport). About 30,000 troops (including cavalry troops) moved towards Carthage. For Gelimer, who ruled the Vandals at that time, a catastrophic situation developed. At the same time, he tried to eliminate internal conflicts by force. And he was not able to repulse the threat from the outside. Thus, it turned out that Gelimer had to beat off two blows at once.
There were several battles. The vandals fought desperately for more than a year. But the defeat at Decimus and Tricamare seriously weakened Gelimer. He was forced to flee. On Mount Papua, he resisted the Byzantines all winter. The Moors helped him in this. They resisted to the last, showing remarkable talent in military ingenuity. And they had a lot of courage.

The Indian monk Bodhidharma joined the Shaolin monastery, who taught the rest of the monks the art of kung fu to make them more resilient and capable of ascetic feats. At first, it was just a special set of physical exercises - a self-defense system based on this complex was developed a little later.

525 Founding of the kingdom East England.

530 The military campaign of the Russian and mercenary squads of the Itil Khagan to India and the defeat in the battle of Kahor (Kangxi Province in South India) with Indians and Persians (before Cahor was a country with 1500 cities, but then all of them in As a result of the wars with the Hephthalites, they were destroyed, plundered and fell into disrepair).

532 conquest francs Burgundian kingdom.

534 On the Danube, the Slavs defeated the strategist Khalabudiya, a ruthless Roman warrior.

The Turks of Altai expelled the Avars, and partly exterminated them.

In the spring, Gelimer, with his small army, nevertheless surrendered and became a prisoner. Byzantium destroyed an ally who became an enemy - the Russian commander Belisarius (Velizar-Velisar - meaning "great king" or Veliyar - meaning "great-ardent", "great warrior"), put an end to the Kingdom of the Vandals. The most ancient family of the Rus, which originated from the Venets, the Vends, ceased to exist. A significant part of the vandals were captured and sold into slavery. The rest disappeared into the local population, giving rise in North Africa to tribes of warlike, tall Caucasian "Africans", whom many travelers, despite their swarthy skin, compared in appearance and character with Russian Cossacks.

A powerful eruption of the Krakatoa volcano in Indonesia, which covered the entire planet with sulfur.

Kingdom Burgundians annexed to the state francs.

536 Belisarius took Rome.

Cooling on the planet due to the fall of a 600 m meteorite off the coast of Australia in the Gulf of Carpentaria, which released a colossal dust cloud into the atmosphere. Dust clouds covered the sky for a long time, and our whole world plunged into twilight for decades.

Because of the climate catastrophe, terrible disasters hit the Earth: from drought, famine and epidemic diseases, the population of the Earth has sharply decreased. The most severe cooling on our planet in the last two thousand years has come. “The sun shone as faintly as the moon for a whole year,” wrote the historian Procopius of Caesarea, a Byzantine writer and historian. VI century. People suffered from hunger, they were mowed down by diseases. The inhabitants of Rome described the "bluish sun", in which even at noon objects did not cast a shadow. An endless year stretched painfully long without the sun, without heat and light. Large cities fell into decay, Byzantium in 536 was subjected to constant looting and destruction.

537 Rome completely surrounded gothswho pitched six military camps under the walls of the city. The city protects Belisarius.

542 Plague in Constantinople. Started in Egypt, then in Palestine.

543 Goto-Slav war. The Goths attacked Voronezh, where there was a small detachment of the boyar (bo-yar - “big Aryan”) Pride, who accepted an unequal battle and defeated the Goths. However, ashes remained of the city. A handful of Russian warriors, both undefeated, left him. Before leaving, the soldiers swore an oath not to forget their homeland and to liberate the “blessed Russian land”.

The Goths, led by King Triedoreus, attacked Golun and Kyiv. Many Russians died. Among them is Attila. executed Prince of Kievan Rus- Svyatoyar. T his sons - Pirogoshch, Radogoshch (Radogosta) and Mosk, who then reigned on the Danube and in the Carpathians, returned and took revenge. Then a small part of the people left Kyiv, who gathered in the Ilmer forests in the settlements of Novgorod-Slavs (hunters and fishermen).

And then Great Rus' began to be created from the north. Then they were joined by the Slovenes, who fled from the Avars, the Rus, who fled from the Khazars, and the Wends, who fled from the Germans. In Novgorod in the same years, the family of Vladimir the Ancient began to rule (he reigned nine tribes before Burivoi).

Part of the Ruskolan fled to the Don and Kuban, under the protection of the Don Russ and aces. The ancient Vedic Ruskolan on the Don and the North Caucasus fell. Many genera of Russ and Alans left these lands. But those who remained rose again, built cities and temples, and were still a formidable force.

547 The Ostrogoths left Rome and the Byzantines occupied it.

548 Completion of the most brutal suppression of the uprising in Africa of soldiers and slaves against the chiefs and slavery of Byzantium. Accession of North Africa to Byzantium.

550 On Taman and at the mouth of the Don, an uprising of part of the Rus, Ases and neighboring tribes broke out against the power of the Goths and Emperor Justinian. First of all, the Abkhazians revolted, as well as hascoons. The uprising was suppressed by Justinian himself, who devastated the country of Ases and Russ. The Romans took captive the wives of the chiefs with all their offspring, they destroyed the walls of the fortification to the ground. Byzantine-friendly power was established. Then the king of the Alans and Russ became the king of Saros (carries the Semitic root "sar", i.e. "ruler". The prince's name may simply be the title "king of the Ases", " sar-i-os" ).

The Volyn principality was ruled by Prince Antes Mezamir (Mezenmir), the son of Idar (Alano-Ironian). Mezamir's mother was from the Slavic family. At first he fought with the Goths, he won. Then they had to repel the invasion of the Huns (obviously, the Bulgars of Zabergan). And then the Antes fought with the combined forces of the Huns and Goths. And again, the opponents were defeated, thanks to the Berendeys, who arrived in time to help the Rus.

550-551 gg. The death of a significant part of the population of the Byzantine Empire due to epidemics.

Slavs spread south - crossed the Danube and 9 V. occupied "the whole of Hellas", and some of them moved to Asia Minor.

551 g. The Kutigurs, coming from Taman and the Black Sea steppes, passed the Antian lands without obstacles and broke into Thrace, but were repelled.

The Byzantines stepped up their pressure on the peoples of the North Caucasus. Fichtel and Tridentine Alps. The first duke whose name is mentioned in the sources was Gariballd I. The territory of present-day Bavaria was inhabited by three tribal groups: Bavarians, Franks and Swabians. Northern Bavaria was under Frankish rule, the south was dominated by the Alemanni and Bavarians, separated by the Lech River.

2.1. Primitive world and the birth of civilization. Sources of information about primitiveness

The primitive history of mankind is reconstructed from a whole range of sources, since not a single source alone is able to provide us with a complete and reliable picture of this era. The most important group of sources - archaeological sources - allow the use of
10

follow the material foundations of human life. Objects made by a person carry information about himself, about his occupations and the society in which he lived. According to the material remains of a person, you can get information about his spiritual world. The complexity of working with this type of sources lies in the fact that far from all objects related to man and his activities have come down to us. Items made of organic materials (wood, bone, horn, clothing) are usually not preserved. Therefore, historians build their concepts of the development of the human community in the primitive era on the basis of materials that have survived to this day (flint tools, pottery, dwellings, etc.). Archaeological excavations contribute to the acquisition of knowledge about the very beginning of human existence, because the tools made by man were one of the main signs that separated him from the animal world. Ethnographic sources make it possible, with the help of a comparative historical method, to reconstruct the culture, way of life, and social relations of the people of the past. Ethnography explores the life of relic (backward) tribes and nationalities, as well as remnants of the past in modern societies. For this, such scientific methods are used as direct observations of specialists, analysis of the records of ancient and medieval authors, which contribute to the acquisition of some ideas about the societies and people of the past. There is one serious difficulty here - one way or another, all the tribes and peoples of the earth were influenced by civilized societies, and researchers should remember this. We also have no right to talk about the complete identity of the most backward societies - the tribes of the aborigines of Australia and the primitive bearers of similar cultures. Ethnographic sources also include folklore monuments, which are used to study oral folk art.
Anthropology studies the bones of primitive people, restoring their physical appearance. Based on the bone remains, we can judge the volume of the brain of a primitive person, his gait, body structure, diseases and injuries. Anthropologists can reconstruct the entire skeleton and appearance of a person
11

on a small fragment of bone and, thus, to restore the process of anthropogenesis - the origin of man.
Linguistics deals with the study of language And revealing within its framework the most ancient layers that were formed in the distant past. Using these layers, one can not only restore the ancient forms of the language, but also learn a lot about the life of the past - material culture, social structure, way of thinking. Reconstructions of linguists are difficult to date and they are always distinguished by a certain hypothetical character.
There are, in addition to the main ones listed above, many other auxiliary sources. These are paleobotany - the science of ancient plants, paleozoology - the science of ancient animals, paleoclimatology, geology and others. The researcher of primitiveness must use the data of all sciences, studying them comprehensively And offering your own interpretation.
Periodization and chronology of primitive history. Periodization is a conditional division of the history of mankind into time stages in accordance with certain criteria. Chronology is a science that allows you to identify the time of existence of an object or phenomenon. There are two types of chronology: absolute and relative. Absolute chronology accurately determines the time of the event (at such and such a time: year, month, day). Relative chronology only establishes the sequence of events, noting that one of them happened before the other. This chronology is widely used by archaeologists in the study of various archaeological cultures.
To establish the exact date, scientists use methods such as radiocarbon (according to the content of the carbon isotope in organic residues), dendrochronological (according to tree rings), archeomagnetic (baked clay items are dated) and others. All these methods are still far from the desired accuracy and allow us to date events only approximately.
There are several types of periodization of primitive history. Archaeological periodization as the main criterion uses a consistent change of tools. Main stages:
12

1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) - is divided into lower (earliest in time), middle and upper (late). The Paleolithic began more than 2 million years ago, ended around the 8th millennium BC. e.;
2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) - VIII-V millennium BC. e.;
3. Neolithic (New Stone Age) — V— III thousand BC e.;
4. Eneolithic (Copper Stone Age) - a transitional stage between the Stone and Metal periods;
5. bronze age - III— II thousand BC e.;
6. Iron Age - begins in the 1st millennium BC. e.

These dates are very approximate. And different researchers offer their options. In addition, these stages occurred at different times in different regions.
Geological periodization.
The history of the Earth is divided into four eras. The last era is the Cenozoic. It is divided into Tertiary (began 69 million years ago), Quaternary (began 1 million years ago) and Modern (began 14,000 years ago) periods. The Quaternary period is divided into the Pleistocene (preglacial and glacial epochs) and Holocene (postglacial epoch).
Periodization of the history of primitive society. There is no unity among researchers on the issue of periodization of the history of the most ancient society. The most common is the following: 1) the primitive human herd; 2) tribal community (this stage is divided into the early tribal community of hunters, gatherers And fishermen and a developed community of farmers And pastoralists); 3) primitive neighbor (proto-peasant) community. The era of primitive society ends with the appearance of the first civilizations.
The origin of man (anthropogenesis). IN Modern science has several theories of the origin of man. The most reasoned is the labor theory of the origin of man, formulated by F. Engels. Labor theory emphasizes the role of labor in the formation of teams of the first people, their rallying and the formation of new ties between them. According to this concept, labor activity influenced the development of a human hand, and the need for new means of communication led to the development of language. The appearance of man is thus associated with the beginning of the production of tools.
13

The process of anthropogenesis (human origin) went through three stages in its development: 1) the appearance of human anthropoid ancestors; 2) the appearance of ancient and ancient people; 3) the emergence of a modern type of man. Anthropogenesis was preceded by intensive evolution of higher apes in different directions. As a result of evolution, several new species of monkeys arose, including driopithecus. Dryopithecines are descended from Australopithecus, whose remains are found in Africa.
Australopithecus was distinguished by a relatively large brain volume (550-600 cubic cm), walking on its hind limbs, and using natural objects as tools. Their fangs and jaws were less developed than those of other monkeys. Australopithecus were omnivores and hunted small animals. Like other anthropomorphic monkeys, they united in herds. Australopithecus lived 4 - 2 million years ago.
The second stage of anthropogenesis is associated with the Pithecanthropus ("monkey-man") and related Atlanthropus and Sinanthropus. Pithecanthropes can already be called the most ancient people, since they, unlike Australopithecus, made stone tools. The volume of the brain in Pithecanthropus was about 900 cubic meters. cm, and in Sinanthropus - a late form of Pithecanthropus - 1050 cubic meters. see Pithecanthropes retained some of the features of monkeys - a low vault of the skull, a sloping forehead, and the absence of a chin protrusion. The remains of pithecanthropes are found in Africa, Asia and Europe. It is possible that the ancestral home of man was in Africa and Southeast Asia. The oldest people lived 750-200 thousand years ago.
The Neanderthal was the next step in anthropogenesis. They call him ancient man. The volume of the Neanderthal brain is from 1200 to 1600 cubic meters. cm - approaches the volume of the brain of a modern person. But in the Neanderthal, unlike modern man, the structure of the brain was primitive, the frontal lobes of the brain were not developed. The hand was coarse and massive, which limited the Neanderthal's ability to use tools. Neanderthals spread widely across the Earth, inhabiting different climatic zones. They lived 250-40 thousand years ago. Scientists believe that the ancestors of modern man were not all
14

Neanderthals; part of the Neanderthals represented a dead end branch of development.
The man of the modern physical type - the Cro-Magnon man - appeared at the third stage of anthropogenesis. These are people of high stature, with a straight gait, with a sharply protruding chin. The volume of the Cro-Magnon brain was equal to 1400 - 1500 cubic meters. see Cro-Magnons appeared about 100 thousand years ago. Probably, their homeland was Western Asia and adjacent areas.
At the last stage of anthropogenesis, racegenesis occurs - the formation of three human races. Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid races can serve as an example of people's adaptation to the natural environment. Races differ in skin color, hair, eyes, features of the structure of the face and physique, and other features. All three races developed in the Late Paleolithic, but the process of race formation continued in the future.-
Origins of language and thought. Thinking and speech are interconnected, so they cannot be considered separately from each other. These two things happened at the same time. Their development was demanded by the labor process, during which human thinking was constantly developing, and the need to transfer the acquired experience contributed to the emergence of the speech system. The sound signals of monkeys served as the basis for the development of speech. On the surface of the casts of the inner cavity of the skulls of Sinanthropes, an increase in the parts of the brain responsible for speech was found, which makes it possible to speak with confidence about the presence of developed articulate speech and thinking in Sinanthropes. This is quite consistent with the fact that the Sinanthropes practiced developed collective forms of labor (driven hunting) and successfully used fire.
In Neanderthals, the size of the brain sometimes exceeded the corresponding parameters in a modern person, but poorly developed frontal lobes of the brain, which are responsible for associative, abstract thinking, appeared only in Cro-Magnons. Therefore, the system of language and thinking, most likely, finally took shape in the Late Paleolithic era simultaneously with the appearance of the Cro-Magnons and the beginning of their labor activity.
15

appropriating economy. The appropriating economy, in which people exist by appropriating the products of nature, is the oldest type of economy. Hunting and gathering can be distinguished as the two main occupations of people of antiquity. Their ratio was not the same at different stages of the development of human society and in different natural and climatic conditions. Gradually, a person masters new complex forms of hunting - driven hunting, traps and others. For hunting, butchering carcasses, gathering, stone tools (made of flint and obsidian) were used - axes, side-scrapers, pointed-points. Wooden tools were also used - digging sticks, clubs and spears.
During the early tribal community, the number of tools increases. New stone processing technologies are emerging, marking the transition to the Upper Paleolithic. Now man has learned to chip off thin and light plates, which are then brought to the desired shape with the help of chips and squeezing retouching - a method of secondary stone processing. New technologies required less flint, which facilitated the advance into previously uninhabited areas poor in flint.
In addition, new technologies have led to the creation of a number of specialized tools - scrapers, knives, chisels, small javelin tips. Bone and horn are widely used. Spears, darts, stone axes, spears appear. Fishing plays an important role. The productivity of hunting has increased dramatically as a result of the invention of the spear thrower - a plank with an emphasis that allows you to throw a spear at a speed comparable to the speed of an arrow from a bow. The spear thrower was the first mechanical tool that supplemented the muscular strength of a person. The first so-called gender and age division of labor takes place: men are mainly engaged in hunting and fishing, and women are engaged in gathering and housekeeping. The children helped the women.
At the end of the Late Paleolithic, the era of glaciation began. During the glaciation, wild horses and reindeer become the main prey. For hunting these animals, driven methods were widely used, allowing for
16

a short time to kill a large number of beasts. They provided the ancient hunters with food, skins for clothes and dwellings, horn and bone for tools. Reindeer make seasonal migrations - in summer they move to the tundra, closer to the glacier, in winter - to the forest zone. While hunting deer, people simultaneously explored new lands.
With the retreat of the glacier, living conditions have changed. The deer hunters followed them along the retreating glacier, the rest were forced to adapt to hunting small animals. The Mesolithic era has begun. During this period, a new microlithic technique appears. Microliths are small flint objects that were inserted into wooden or bone tools and formed the cutting edge. Such a tool was more versatile than solid flint items, and in terms of sharpness it was not inferior to metal items.
A huge human achievement was the invention of the bow and arrow, a powerful, rapid-fire ranged weapon. Takeke boomerang was invented - a curved throwing club. In the Mesolithic era, man tamed the first animal - a dog, which became a faithful assistant in hunting. Fishing methods are being improved, nets, a boat with oars, and a fishing hook appear. In many places, fishing is becoming the main branch of the economy. The retreat of the glacier and the warming of the climate lead to an increase in the role of gathering.
A man of the Mesolithic era had to unite in small groups that did not stay in one place for a long time, wandering in search of food. Dwellings were built temporary and small. In the Mesolithic, people move far to the north and east; having crossed the land isthmus, the place of which is currently occupied by the Bering Strait, they populate America.
Manufacturing economy. The manufacturing economy arose in the Neolithic era. The last stage of the Stone Age is characterized by the appearance of a new technique of the stone industry - grinding, sawing and drilling of stone. Tools were made from new types of stone. During this period, such a tool as an ax was widely distributed.
17

One of the most important inventions of the Neolithic was ceramics. The manufacture and subsequent firing of pottery allowed a person to facilitate the preparation and storage of food. Man has learned to produce a material that is not found in nature - baked clay. The invention of spinning and weaving was also of great importance. Fiber for spinning was produced from wild plants, later from sheep wool.
In the Neolithic era, one of the most significant events in the history of mankind takes place - the emergence of animal husbandry and agriculture. The transition from an appropriating to a producing economy was called the Neolithic revolution. The relationship between man and nature becomes fundamentally different. Now man could independently produce everything necessary for life and became less dependent on the environment.
Agriculture arose from highly organized gathering, in the process of which man learned to care for wild plants in order to obtain a larger harvest. Collectors used sickles with flint inserts, grain grinders, and hoes. Gathering was a woman's occupation, so agriculture was probably invented by a woman. Regarding the place of origin of agriculture, scientists come to the conclusion that it arose in several centers at once: in Western Asia, Southeast Asia and South America.
Animal husbandry began to take shape as early as the Mesolithic era, but constant movement prevented hunting tribes from breeding any animals other than dogs. Agriculture contributed to a greater sedentary population of the human population, thereby facilitating the process of domestication of animals. At first they tamed young animals caught during the hunt. Among the first animals to suffer this fate were goats, pigs, sheep and cows. Hunting was a male occupation, so cattle breeding also became a male prerogative. Cattle breeding arose somewhat later than agriculture, since the maintenance of animals required a solid forage base; it also appeared in several foci, independent of each other.
Animal husbandry and agriculture at first could not compete with highly specialized hunting.
18

whose And fishing industry, but gradually the production economy comes to the fore in a number of regions (primarily in Western Asia).
Public relations in primitive times. Developmentfamilies. Primitive herd.
Ancient people, who appeared at the dawn of the human era, were forced to unite in herds in order to survive. These herds could not be large - no more than 20-40 people - because otherwise they would not be able to feed themselves. The leader of the primitive herd was the leader, who advanced due to personal qualities. Separate herds were scattered over vast territories and had almost no contact with each other. Archaeologically, the primitive herd corresponds to the Lower and Middle Paleolithic.
Sexual relations in the primitive herd, according to a number of scientists, were disordered. Such relationships are called promiscuity. According to other scientists, a harem family existed within the framework of the primitive herd, and only the leader participated in the process of reproduction. The herd, as a rule, consisted of several harem families.
Early tribal community. The process of transformation of the primitive herd into a tribal community is associated with the growth of the productive forces that rallied the ancient collectives, as well as with the appearance of exogamy. Exogamy is the prohibition against marrying within one's own group. Gradually, an exogamous dual-clan group marriage took shape, in which members of one clan could only marry members of another clan. At the same time, from the very birth, men of one kind were considered husbands of women of another kind, And vice versa. At the same time, men had the right to have sexual intercourse with all women of a different kind. In such a relationship, the danger of incest And conflicts between men of the same kind was eliminated.
In order to finally avoid the possibility of incest (for example, a father could have an affair with his daughter), people resorted to dividing the genus into classes. One class included men (women) of one generation, and they could only have relations with the same class of another kind. The set of marriage classes included usually four or eight classes. With such a system
19

kinship was kept on the maternal line, and the children remained in the mother's family. Gradually, more and more restrictions were established in group marriage, as a result of which it became impossible. As a result, a pair marriage is formed, which was very often fragile and easily dissolved.
The dual-tribal organization of two clans formed the basis of the tribal community. The clan community was united not only by marriage relations between clans, but also by production relations. After all, due to the custom of exogamy, a situation developed when part of the relatives went to another clan and was included here in production relations. In the early tribal community, management was carried out by a meeting of all adult relatives, who decided all the main issues. The leaders of the clan were chosen at a meeting of the whole clan. The most experienced people, who were the keepers of customs, enjoyed great authority, and they were, as a rule, elected leaders. Power was based on the strength of personal authority.
In the early tribal community, all products obtained by members of the community were considered the property of the clan and were distributed among all its members. This was a necessary condition for the survival of ancient societies. The collective property of the community was the land, most of the tools. It is known that in the tribes at this level of development, it was allowed to take without asking and use other people's tools and things.
All people in the community were divided into three gender and age groups: adult men, women, and children. The transition to a group of adults was considered a very important milestone in a person's life and was called initiation ("initiation"). The meaning of the initiation rite is to introduce the teenager to the economic, social and ideological life of the community. Here is the scheme of initiation, the same for all peoples: the removal of initiates from the collective and their training; trials of the initiates (hunger, humiliation, beatings, infliction of wounds) and their ritual death; return to the team in a new status. Upon completion of the initiation rite, the "initiate" received the right to enter into marriage.
20

Late tribal community. The transition to an appropriating economy led to the replacement of the early tribal community by the late community of farmers-pastoralists. Within the framework of the late tribal community, tribal ownership of land was preserved. However, the increase in labor productivity gradually led to the appearance of a regular surplus product that the community member could keep for himself. This trend contributed to the formation of a prestigious economy. The prestige economy arose from the emergence of a surplus product that was used V gift exchange system. This practice increased the social prestige of the donor, and he, as a rule, did not incur losses, since there was a custom of obligatory return. The exchange of gifts strengthened the relationship between members of both the same and different communities, strengthened the position of the leader and family ties.
Due to the high productivity of labor, the communities, growing, were divided into groups of relatives on the maternal side - the so-called maternal families. But tribal unity has not yet disintegrated, since, if necessary, families united back into the clan. Women, who play the main role in agriculture and in the home, strongly pressed men in the maternal family.
The paired family gradually strengthened its position in society (although there are known cases of the existence of "additional" wives or husbands). The appearance of an excess product made it possible to take care of the children financially. But the paired family did not have a property separate from the clan property, which hindered its development.
Late tribal communities united in phratries, phratries - in tribes. A phratry is the original genus, divided into several daughter gentes. The tribe consisted of two phratries, which were exogamous marriage halves of the tribe. In the late tribal community, economic and social equality was maintained. The clan was ruled by a council, which included all members of the tribe and an elder chosen by the clan. For the duration of the hostilities, a military leader was elected. If necessary, a tribal council was assembled, consisting of the elders of the tribal clans and military leaders. The head of the tribe was elected one of the elders, who had not very much power. The women were in
21

to the clan council, and in the early stages of development of the late clan community, they could become heads of clans.
Decomposition of the tribal community. The appearance of a neighborcommunities. The Neolithic revolution contributed to a radical change in the way of life of a person, sharply accelerating the pace of development of the human community. People have moved to the purposeful production of basic foodstuffs on the basis of an integrated economy. In this economy, cattle breeding and agriculture complemented each other. The development of an integrated economy and natural and climatic conditions inevitably led to the specialization of communities - in some they switched to cattle breeding, in others to agriculture. This is how the first major social division of labor took place - the separation of agriculture and animal husbandry into separate economic complexes.
The development of agriculture led to settled life, and the increase in labor productivity in areas favorable for agriculture contributed to the fact that the community gradually grew. In Western Asia and the Middle East, the first large settlements appeared, and then cities. The cities had residential buildings, religious buildings, and workshops. Later cities appear in other places. The population in the first cities reached several thousand people.
A truly revolutionary change occurred due to the appearance of metals. First, people mastered the metals that can be found in the form of nuggets - copper and gold. Then they learned to smelt metals on their own. The first alloy of copper and tin known to people appeared and began to be widely used - bronze, which surpasses copper in hardness.
Metals were slowly replacing stone. The Stone Age was replaced by the Eneolithic - the Copper-Stone Age, and the Eneolithic - the Bronze Age. But tools made of copper and bronze could not completely replace stone ones. First, the sources of raw materials for bronze were only in a few places, and deposits of stone were everywhere. Secondly, in some qualities, stone tools were superior to copper and even bronze ones.
22

Only when man learned to smelt iron did the era of stone tools finally become a thing of the past. Iron deposits are found everywhere, but iron is not found in its pure form and is rather difficult to process. Therefore, mankind learned to smelt iron after a relatively long period of time - in the II millennium BC. e. The new metal, in terms of availability and working qualities, surpassed all materials known then, opening a new era in the history of mankind - the Iron Age.
Metallurgical production required knowledge, skills and experience. For the manufacture of new, difficult to manufacture metal tools, skilled labor was required - the labor of artisans. Artisans-blacksmiths appeared, passing their knowledge and skills from generation to generation. The introduction of metal tools caused an acceleration in the development of agriculture, animal husbandry and an increase in labor productivity. So, after the invention of a plow with metal working parts, arable farming appeared, based on the use of the draft power of livestock.
In the Eneolithic, the potter's wheel was invented, which contributed to the development of pottery. With the invention of the loom, the weaving industry developed. Society, having acquired sustainable sources of subsistence, was able to carry out the second major social division of labor - the separation of handicrafts from agriculture and cattle breeding.
The social division of labor was accompanied by the development of exchange. In contrast to the previously sporadically occurring exchange of wealth from the natural environment, this exchange was already of an economic nature. Farmers and pastoralists exchanged the products of their labor, artisans exchanged their products. The need for an ongoing exchange even led to the development of a number of public institutions, primarily the institution of hospitality. Gradually, societies develop means of exchange and measures of their value.
In the course of these changes, the matriarchal (maternal) clan is replaced by the patriarchal one. It was due to the displacement of women from the most important spheres of production. Hoe farming is being replaced by plow farming, only a man could handle the meadow. Sco-
23

Farming, like commercial hunting, is also a typically male occupation. In the course of the development of a productive economy, a man acquires significant power, both in society and in the family. Now upon entry V marriage, a woman passed into the family of her husband. The kinship account was carried out through the male line, and the children inherited the property of the family. A large patriarchal family appears - a family of several generations of paternal relatives, headed by the oldest man. The introduction of iron tools led to the fact that a small family could feed itself. A large patriarchal family breaks up into small families.
The formation of a surplus product and the development of exchange were an incentive for the individualization of production and the emergence of private property. Large and economically strong families sought to stand out from the clan. This trend led to the replacement of the tribal community by the neighboring one, where tribal ties gave way to territorial ones. The primitive neighborhood community was characterized by a combination of private ownership of the yard (house and outbuildings) and tools and collective ownership of the main means of production - land. Families were forced to unite, since an individual family was unable to cope with many operations: land reclamation, irrigation and slash-and-burn agriculture.
The neighborhood community was a universal stage for all the peoples of the world at the pre-class and class stage of development, playing the role of the main economic unit of society until the era of the industrial revolution.
Politogenesis (formation of the state). It should be noted that there are different concepts of the origin of the state. Marxists believe that it was created as an apparatus for the violence and exploitation of one class by another. Another theory is the “theory of violence”, whose representatives believe that classes and the state arose as a result of wars and conquests, during which the conquerors created the institution of the state in order to maintain their dominance. If we consider the problem in all its complexity, it becomes clear that the war required powerful organizations.
24

structural structures, and was rather a consequence of politogenesis than its cause. However, the Marxist scheme also needs to be corrected, because the striving to fit all processes into one scheme inevitably runs into material resistance.
The growth in labor productivity led to the emergence of surpluses of products that could be alienated from producers. Some families accumulated these surpluses (food, handicrafts, livestock). The accumulation of wealth took place, first of all, in the families of the leaders, since the leaders had great opportunities, participating in the distribution of products.
Initially, this property was destroyed after the death of the owner or used in rituals, such as, for example, “potlatch”, when all these surpluses were distributed to all those present at some festival. With these distributions, the organizer gained authority in society. In addition, he became a participant in reciprocal potlatch, in which part of the gift was returned to him. The principle of giving and giving, characteristic of a prestigious economy, placed ordinary community members and their wealthy neighbors in unequal conditions. Ordinary members of the community became dependent on the person arranging the potlatch.
The leaders are gradually seizing power into their own hands, while the importance of popular assemblies is declining. The society is gradually being structured - the top is allocated from among the community members. A strong, rich and generous, and, consequently, an authoritative leader subjugated weak rivals, spreading his influence to neighboring communities. The first supra-communal structures arise, within which the authorities are separated from the tribal organization. Thus, the first pro-state formations appear.
The appearance of such formations was accompanied by a fierce struggle between them. War is gradually becoming one of the most important industries. In connection with the wide spread of wars, military equipment and organization are developing. Military leaders play an important role. A squad is formed around them, which included warriors who have proven themselves in the best possible way.
25

in battles. During the campaigns, booty was captured, which was distributed among all the soldiers.
The head of the proto-state simultaneously became the chief priest, since the power of the leader in the community remained elective. The acquisition of the functions of a priest made the leader a bearer of divine grace and an intermediary between people and supernatural forces. The sacralization of the ruler was an important step towards his depersonalization, turning into a kind of symbol. The power of authority is replaced by the authority of power.
Gradually, power became lifelong. After the death of the leader, the members of his family had the greatest chance of success. As a result, the power of the leader became hereditary within his family. Thus, the pro-state is finally formed - the political structure of society with social and property inequality, a developed division of labor and exchange, headed by a priest-ruler who had hereditary power.
Over time, the proto-state expands through conquest, complicates its structure and turns into a state. The state differs from the proto-state in its large size and the presence of developed institutions of governance. The main features of the state are territorial (rather than tribal-clan) division of the population, army, court, law, taxes. With the advent of the state, the primitive neighborhood community becomes a neighborhood community, which, unlike the primitive one, loses its independence.
The state is characterized by the phenomenon of urbanization, which includes an increase in the number of urban population, monumental construction, the construction of temples, irrigation facilities and roads. Urbanization is one of the main signs of the formation of civilization.
Another important sign of civilization is the invention of writing. The state needed to streamline economic activity, write down laws, rituals, deeds of rulers, and much more. It is possible that writing was created with the participation of priests. In contrast to the pictographic or rope cism, characteristic of undeveloped societies, for the development of hieroglyphic
26

writing required a long study. Writing was the privilege of the priests and the nobility, and only with the advent of alphabetic writing became publicly available. The development of writing was the most important stage in the development of culture, since writing serves as the main means of accumulating and transmitting knowledge.
With the advent of the state, writing, the first civilizations arise. Characteristic features of civilization: a high level of development of the productive economy, the presence of political structures, the introduction of metal, the use of writing and monumental structures.
agricultural and pastoral civilizations. Agriculture developed most intensively in the river valleys, especially in countries stretching from the Mediterranean in the west to China in the east. The development of agriculture eventually led to the emergence of the ancient eastern centers of civilization.
Cattle breeding developed in the steppes and semi-deserts of Eurasia and Africa, as well as in the highlands, where cattle were kept on mountain pastures in summer and in valleys in winter. The term "civilization" can be used in relation to a pastoral society with certain reservations, since pastoralism did not provide such economic development as agriculture. An economy based on cattle breeding provided a less stable surplus product. Also very important was the fact that pastoralism requires large areas, and the concentration of the population in societies of this type, as a rule, does not occur. The cities of pastoralists are much smaller than in agricultural civilizations, so one cannot speak of any large-scale urbanization.
With the domestication of the horse and the invention of the wheel, significant changes took place in the economy of pastoralists - nomadic pastoralism appeared. The nomads moved across the steppes and semi-deserts on their carts, accompanying herds of animals. The emergence of a nomadic economy in the steppes of Eurasia should be attributed to the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Only with the advent of nomadic pastoralism does a pastoral economy finally take shape that does not use agriculture (although many nomadic societies were engaged in processing
27

which land). Among the nomads, in conditions of an economy isolated from agriculture, exclusively proto-state associations, tribal proto-states, arise. While in an agricultural society the neighboring community becomes the basic unit, in a pastoral society tribal relations are still very strong and the tribal community retains its position.
For militancy is characteristic of nomadic societies, since their members did not have reliable sources of livelihood. Therefore, nomads constantly invaded the areas of farmers and robbed or subjugated them. The entire male population of the nomads usually participated in the war, and their cavalry was very maneuverable. And could travel long distances. Appearing quickly and disappearing just as quickly, the nomads achieved significant success in their unexpected raids. In the case of the subjugation of agricultural societies, nomads, as a rule, settled on the ground themselves.
But one should not exaggerate the fact of confrontation between settled and nomadic societies and talk about the presence of a constant war between them. There have always been stable economic relations between farmers and pastoralists, since both of them needed a constant exchange of the products of their labor.
traditional society. Traditional society appears simultaneously with the emergence of the state. This social development model is very sustainable And characteristic of all societies except European. In Europe, a different model has developed, based on private property. The basic principles of traditional society were in effect until the era of the industrial revolution, and in many states they still exist today.
The main structural unit of a traditional society is the neighborhood community. Agriculture with elements of cattle breeding prevails in the neighboring community. Community peasants are usually conservative in their way of life due to the natural, climatic and economic cycles that repeat from year to year and the monotony of life. In this situation, the peasants demanded from the state, first of all, stability, which could only be provided by a strong state.
28

stvo. The weakening of the state has always been accompanied by turmoil, arbitrariness of officials, invasions of enemies, and a breakdown in the economy, which is especially disastrous in the conditions of irrigated agriculture. As a result - crop failure, famine, epidemics, a sharp drop in population. Therefore, society has always preferred a strong state, transferring most of its powers to it.
Within a traditional society, the state is the highest value. It usually operates in a clear hierarchy. At the head of the state was the ruler, who enjoys almost unlimited power and is the deputy of God on earth. Below was a powerful administrative apparatus. The position and authority of a person in a traditional society is determined not by his wealth, but, above all, by participation in public administration, which automatically ensures high prestige.
Culture of primitive society. In the course of his development and in the process of labor activity, a person mastered new knowledge. In the primitive era, knowledge was exclusively applied in nature. Man knew the natural world around him very well, since he himself was a part of it. The main areas of activity determined the areas of knowledge of ancient man. Thanks to hunting, he knew the habits of animals, the properties of plants, and much more. The level of knowledge of an ancient person is reflected in his language. So, in the language of the Australian aborigines there are 10,000 words, among which there are almost no abstract and generalizing concepts, but only specific terms denoting animals, plants, natural phenomena.
The man knew how to treat diseases, wounds, apply splints for fractures. Ancient people used for medicinal purposes procedures such as bloodletting, massage, compresses. Since the Mesolithic era, amputation of limbs, trepanation of the skull, and a little later, filling of teeth have been known.
The account of primitive people was primitive - they usually counted with the help of fingers and various objects. Distances were measured by body parts (palm, elbow, finger), travel days, arrow flight. Time was calculated in days, months, seasons.
29

The question of the origin of art is still accompanied by controversy among researchers. Among scientists, the prevailing point of view is that art arose as a new effective means of knowing and understanding the world around us. The beginnings of art appear as early as the Lower Paleolithic. Notches, ornaments, drawings were found on the surface of stone and bone products.
In the Upper Paleolithic, a person creates painting, engraving, sculpture, uses music and dance. Drawings of animals (mammoths, deer, horses) made in color using black, white, red and yellow paints were found in the caves. Caves with drawings are known in Spain, France, Russia, Mongolia. Also found are graphic drawings of animals carved or carved on bone and stone.
In the Upper Paleolithic, figurines of women with pronounced sexual characteristics appear. The appearance of the figurines is connected, possibly, with the cult of the foremother and the establishment of the maternal tribal community. Songs and dances played an important role in the life of primitive people. Dance and music are based on rhythm, songs also originated as rhythmic speech.

2.2. Civilizations of the ancient world

Civilizations of the Ancient East. The ancient East became the cradle of modern civilization. Here the first states, the first cities, writing, stone architecture, world religions and much more appear, without which it is impossible to imagine the current human community. The first states arise in the valleys of large rivers. Agriculture in these areas was very productive, but this required irrigation work - to drain, irrigate, build dams and maintain the entire irrigation system in order. One community couldn't handle it. There was a need to unite all communities under the control of a single state.
For the first time, this happens in two places at once, independently of each other - in Mesopotamia (the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) and Egypt at the end of the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. Later, the state
30

niketsya in India, in the valley of the Indus River, and at the turn of III - II millennium BC. e. - in China. These civilizations received in science the name river civilizations.
The most important center of ancient statehood was the region Mesopotamia. Unlike other civilizations, Mesopotamia was open to all migrations and trends. Trade routes opened from here and innovations spread to other lands. The civilization of Mesopotamia continuously expanded and involved new peoples, while other civilizations were more closed. Thanks to this, Western Asia is gradually becoming a flagship in socio-economic development. Here appear the potter's wheel and wheel, the metallurgy of bronze and iron, the war chariot and new forms of writing. Scientists trace the influence of Mesopotamia on Egypt and the civilization of ancient India.
Farmers settled Mesopotamia in the 8th millennium BC. e. Gradually, they learned to drain wetlands. In the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates there are no stones, forests, metals, but they are very rich in grain. Residents of Mesopotamia exchanged grain for missing household items in the process of trading with neighbors. Stone and wood were replaced with clay. They built houses from clay, made various household items, and wrote on clay tablets.
At the end of IV millennium BC. e. in the Southern Mesopotamia, several political centers arose, which united in the state of Sumer. Throughout its ancient history, the region of Mesopotamia was the scene of a fierce struggle, during which power was seized by a city or conquerors who came from outside. From the II millennium BC. e. The city of Babylon begins to play a leading role in the region, becoming a mighty power under King Hammurabi. Then Assyria is strengthened, which from the XIV to VII centuries. BC e. was one of the leading states of Mesopotamia. After the fall of the Assyrian state, Babylon is strengthened again - the Neo-Babylonian kingdom arises. The Persians - immigrants from the territory of modern Iran - managed to conquer Babylonia and in the VI century. BC e. establish a huge Persian kingdom.
Civilization of the ancient Egypt owes its appearance to the world's largest river Nile and its annual floods.
31

Egypt was divided into Upper (Nile Valley) and Lower (Nile Delta). Along the Nile, the first state associations arose - nomes, the center of which became temples. As a result of a long struggle, the nomes of Upper Egypt united and annexed Lower Egypt.
China how the state was formed in the Yellow River valley. Another great Chinese river - the Yangtze, flowing to the south, was developed later. The Yellow River very often changed its course, flooding vast areas. To curb the river required hard work on the construction of dams and dams.
Egypt and China, despite their remoteness from each other, have a number of common features, which can be explained by several reasons. These countries initially had an ethnically homogeneous population, the state apparatus was very stable; at the head of the state was a deified ruler. In Egypt, this is the pharaoh - the son of the Sun, in China - van, the son of Heaven. Within the framework of both civilizations, there was total control over the population, which was involved in the performance of heavy duties. The basis of the population of Egypt were community members, who were called "servants of the king" and were obliged to hand over the entire crop to the state, receiving food for this or allotment of land for cultivation. A similar system operated in China.
A huge role in a state of this type was played by priests-officials who controlled the apparatus and distributed food among the entire population. In Egypt, it was the priests who played the main role in the distribution of wealth. The Temples wielded considerable power, allowing them to successfully oppose the Center. Unlike Egypt, in China the religious component of the power of the state apparatus faded into the background.
IN India, in the valley of the Indus River, a proto-Indian civilization developed. Large irrigation systems were created here and large cities were built. The ruins of two cities were found near the modern settlements of Haralpa and Mohen-jo-Daro and. bear these names. Civilization has reached a high level of development here. This is evidenced by the presence of crafts, a sewer system, and writing. However, the writing of the proto-Indian civilization, in contrast to the hieroglyphic
32

bodices of Egypt and the cuneiform writing of Mesopotamia, has not yet been unraveled by scientists, and this civilization continues to remain a mystery to us. The reasons for the death of the civilization of Ancient India, which existed for several centuries, are also unknown,
In the second half of the II millennium BC. e. The Aryans invaded India. The Aryan language belongs to the Indo-European language family and is close to the Slavic languages. The Aryans settled in the Ganges River valley, subjugating the local population. The Aryans who came lived mainly in a tribal system. At the head of the tribes were leaders - rajas, who relied on a layer of Kshatriya warriors. The Brahmin priests fought with the Kshatriyas for the first place in society and the state.
The Aryans, not wanting to dissolve among the large local population, were forced to establish a system of varnas. According to this system, the population was divided into four varnas - Brahmin priests, Kshatriya warriors, Vaishya producers, and Shudra - the conquered local population. Belonging to the varna was inherited, and it was impossible to change it. Marriages always took place between members of the same varna.
The varna system contributed to the conservation of Indian society. Since the Varnas took over part of the functions of the state, the state apparatus in India did not become as strong and influential as in other civilizations of the Ancient East.
IN Eastern Mediterranean a new form of civilizations arises, different from the classical river states. The most ancient centers of agriculture and cattle breeding existed here, and the first urban centers appeared here. The city of Jericho in Palestine is known as the oldest city in the world (VIII millennium BC). The Eastern Mediterranean is a region located at the crossroads of major trade routes linking Asia, Europe and Africa.
From III thousand BC e. the cities of the Eastern Mediterranean are becoming important centers of transit trade. The rich cities and fertile lands of this region constantly served as the object of claims of large powers - Egypt, Assyria, the Hittite kingdom (on the territory of Asia Minor). The Eastern Mediterranean is divided into three parts - in the north

re Syria, in the south of Palestine, in the center - Phoenicia. The Phoenicians managed to become experienced sailors, engaged in transit trade, founded their colonies throughout the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians invented an alphabetic script to help them process trade transactions. This alphabet formed the basis of all modern alphabets.
Phoenicia turned out to be a transitional form of civilization close to the ancient model.

Ancient civilization.

Greece. The oldest civilization in Europe arose on the islands of the Aegean Sea and on the Balkan Peninsula And known as the Crete-Mycenaean civilization (by the name of the centers - the islands of Crete and Mycenae, cities in southern Greece). The Cretan-Mycenaean civilization was a typical ancient Eastern civilization that existed in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Crete, like Phoenicia, became famous as a maritime power with a mighty fleet. The death of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization is associated with a number of natural disasters and the invasion of Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea by northern tribes. This invasion led to the establishment of more backward tribal relations on the ruins of civilization. XII - IX centuries. BC e. known in Greece as the Dark Ages.
In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Ancient civilization begins to form in Greece. The emergence of iron and related tools played a major role in its development. In Greece, there is not enough land for cultivation, so cattle breeding was widely developed here, and then handicrafts. The Greeks, familiar with maritime affairs, were actively engaged in trade, which gradually led to the development of the surrounding territories along the coast. Due to the catastrophic lack of land resources, the Greeks were forced to establish colonies in Italy, Asia Minor, and the Black Sea region.
With the division of labor and the appearance of a surplus product, the tribal community is replaced by a neighboring community, but not a rural one, but an urban one. The Greeks called this community a polis. Gradually, the policy was formalized into a city-state. There were hundreds of policies in Greece. Colonies were also created according to this pattern. Within the framework of the policy, a fierce struggle took place between the tribal nobility, who did not want to
34

blunt their power, and demos - ignoble members of the community.
The Greeks were aware of their unity - they called their homeland Hellas, and themselves - Hellenes. They had a single pantheon of Olympian gods and pan-Hellenic sports competitions. However, all this did not prevent them from regularly fighting among themselves.
One of the main features of the Hellenic culture is the principle of competitiveness and the desire for superiority, which is not typical for the civilizations of the East. A situation arose in the policy when its power depended on the citizens, who, in turn, were subject to certain duties, but at the same time significant rights.
Greece was not united by one policy - this was prevented by their fragmentation and disunity. As a result, Greece was conquered first by Macedonia and then by Rome. But the Roman state, which conquered Greece, experienced the strongest influence of Greek culture. The achievements of Greek culture eventually formed the basis of all European culture and civilization.
Ancient Rome. Rome was founded in 753 BC. e. in the region of Latium in the center of Italy. In the course of its development, Rome borrowed the culture and achievements of its neighbors. The Etruscans, the northern neighbors of Rome, had a particularly significant influence on Rome. According to legend, the Etruscans were immigrants from Asia Minor.
In the process of a long and stubborn struggle, Rome first conquered Latium, then the neighboring regions. Rome managed to win victories thanks to an effective state and military organization. Using its location in the center of the Apennine Peninsula, Rome managed to separate the forces of its enemies and conquer the Etruscans, the Celts of Italy, Magna Graecia (as the Greek colonies in Italy were called) and other tribes in turn.
In the III century. BC e. Rome, subjugated all of Italy, faced Carthage, a Phoenician colony in northern Africa. In the course of three fierce wars, Rome defeated its rival and became the most powerful power in the Mediterranean. Lacking the culture of their rivals,

Rome resorted to borrowing it, introducing its own state order and structure to the conquered lands.
In II - I centuries. n. e. Rome experienced a serious crisis. The Roman state was organized in the likeness of a polis. However, it is obvious that if the polis device can be effective for the city and its environs, then it is absolutely not suitable for a huge power. After a difficult and lengthy civil war, imperial power is established in Rome. In the era of the empire, Rome reaches its greatest power, uniting under its rule the lands of Western and Southern Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. A large role in this period of the history of Ancient Rome begins to play_slave-owning way of life.
VIII century. n. e. The Roman Empire experienced a severe upheaval that engulfed all spheres of life of Roman society. The onslaught of barbarians on the borders of the empire, associated with the Great Migration of Nations, and profound changes in the life of the empire led to a deep and irreversible crisis of ancient civilization. As a result, the Roman Empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern, and in the 5th century. n. e. The Western Roman Empire fell. 476 - the year when the last Roman emperor was overthrown - is considered to be the landmark year between antiquity and the Middle Ages. The successor of Rome was the Eastern Roman Empire with its center in Constantinople.

Economy of the Ancient World.

Economics of the Ancient East. In the first states of the Ancient East, the state sector of the economy prevailed, which existed simultaneously with the communal form of farming. The community members had a hereditary right to cultivate the land and use the necessary resources (forests, pastures, water). The land and other resources were managed by the apparatus of power - the state or the temple, which existed at the expense of the surplus product obtained from direct producers. The obligations of community producers took on various forms - the most common was the practice of the community allocating part of the crop to the state, working in the fields of the temple, working off in the form of labor service. So, based on redi-
36

intributive (distributive) relations created the material basis for the functioning of the state and its institutions.
In the future, the process of privatization is developing, accompanied by the emergence of private property and market relations. There are new phenomena in the economy - land rent, hired labor, the orientation of producers to the market and usury. If earlier society was more homogeneous, now it is differentiated on the basis of property. Rich community members began to use the labor of the poor, and debt slavery appeared. This new type of economic relations has not received further distribution. The state held back its development, since these processes contributed to the violation of the stability of society and the weakening of the influence of the state.
Basically, the excess product went to the cities, where handicraft and trade were concentrated. Transit trade prevailed in the Ancient East, because in a society of this type, the internal market and market relations could not be highly developed. The state and society, interested in the stability of existence, held back the development of the city artificially. Therefore, the city, like the whole society, focused not on development, but on the conservation of existing relations.
Another situation arose in the cities of the Eastern Mediterranean, where there was no such strong state institution. This is especially true of Phoenician cities focused on transit trade. The Phoenicians anticipated and in many ways contributed to the formation of ancient civilization, which was formed in Greek society.
Economics of Ancient Greece and Rome. In ancient Greece, favorable conditions developed for the formation of an economy based on private property. In I millennium BC. e. iron is distributed, which increased labor productivity. On the territory of Greece there are few fields suitable for grain crops, so horticulture, cultivation of olives and grapes mainly developed here. The Greeks were in dire need of the export of bread. In the course of colonization, they settled in countries favorable for agriculture - Italy,
37

Black Sea coast, Egypt. In Greece itself, a craft developed, the products of which were exchanged for bread during trade.
The development of trade was facilitated by the emergence of money - the generally accepted unit of exchange. The first money appeared in Asia Minor and was immediately borrowed by the Greeks. In the ancient Greek city-states, commodity-money relations develop, and a market is formed. The favorable geographical location of Greece at the crossroads of trade routes gave the Greeks great advantages. Greece consisted of many policies that were not united into a single state. Between these policies, a competitive struggle developed, developing entrepreneurship and initiative among the Greeks. The Greeks have private property, so uncharacteristic of the East.
At the center of the economy was the city-state (polis). Cities, as a rule, were located near the sea. Merchants, artisans lived here, peasants came here to exchange the fruits of their labor - cattle, olives, grapes - for grain and handicraft products. With all this, one should not exaggerate the role of commodity-money relations in antiquity - the economy was mainly natural in nature, and the degree of development of policies varied greatly.
Among the Romans, commodity-money relations began to develop only as a result of the conquest of vast territories by the empire. Constant wars contributed to the enrichment of the Roman nobility and the ruin of ordinary citizens. The plunder of the conquered territories allowed Rome to maintain a huge professional army, which contributed to the social order in society. Many impoverished citizens went to serve in the army. At the same time, citizens who did not want to work and serve lived in Rome. Funds flowing from all over the empire made it possible to support them with the help of distributions of bread and money.
Of great importance for the economy of Greece and Rome was the institution of slavery. Slavery also existed in the states of the Ancient East, being patriarchal. Under patriarchal slavery, a slave performs the function of a servant or helps his master in the household (there were relatively few such slaves and they did not play a significant role in the economy). In antiquity, classical slavery developed, within the framework of
38

which the number of slaves is significantly increasing, their exploitation is intensifying, and the products of slave labor are often oriented to the market. Slaves were preferred to be used in artisan workshops and mines. In agriculture, their supervision was difficult and slaves were not used as often.
A constant source of replenishment of the number of slaves were wars, continuously waged between policies. Debt slavery was practiced by the Greeks for a short time - the awareness of the unity of the citizens of one policy led to the destruction of this institution.
In Rome, the number of slaves was even greater than in the Greek cities, since the Roman Empire continuously, for several centuries, waged successful wars of conquest. The enslavement of foreigners allowed the Romans to use massive slave labor in crafts and agriculture. Latifundia appear - large land holdings, in which, under the leadership of overseers, only slave labor was used. In some places, slaves became the main producers, which led to the ruin of ordinary community members.
It should be noted that slavery brought the ancient economy to a standstill. The use of slavery did not allow to intensify production. An extensive path of development aimed at expanding production and increasing the number of slaves ended in a deep crisis after the end of the wars of conquest. As a result, new, proto-feudal economic relations gradually begin to mature in the depths of antiquity.

The social structure of the societies of the ancient world.

The social structure of the Ancient East. Eastern society was strictly hierarchical and organized like a pyramid. The top of the pyramid was occupied by the ruler, who had the power consecrated by the gods. Below him were the nobility, the priests, the higher officials. Numerous apparatus of officials monitored the administration and functioning of the state. Warriors serving as part of a standing army ensured internal order in the tyusudardom and its protection from external enemies.
39

The main part of society was made up of communal peasants. The rural community was the main production unit of society, and the main cell of the community was a large patriarchal family. In the course of the privatization process, property inequality appears and, as a result, dependent categories of the population. Dependence could take the form of debt bondage or land leases.
Merchants and artisans lived in the cities. Craftsmen often fell into dependence, being part of the state or temple economy. Among the merchants, a privileged stratum of merchants stands out, engaged in transit trade with other countries.
At the very bottom of society were the slaves. The source of obtaining slaves was, first of all, the capture of prisoners of war and only later debt slavery. As already mentioned, slavery was patriarchal, the slave was part of a large patriarchal family.
In the East, a system of corporations has developed as a structure organizing society. In part, these corporations became already known social institutions (families, clans, communities), in part - new ones (castes, sects, workshops). Corporations in the East were close-knit and organized groups of the population, having their own charter and their own rules of conduct that distinguish them from other corporations. The corporation provided its member with certain guarantees of protection from the arbitrariness common in Eastern society. The person was closely involved in the life of the corporation. The reverse side of this involvement was a kind of dissolution of a person in a team. A person realized himself, first of all, as part of a team, and not as a separate person independent of others.
Through corporations, it was easier for the state to control society. It was enough for state officials to turn to the head of the corporation in order to achieve what they wanted.
IN India there was a structure of society, different from other ancient Eastern societies. Indian society consisted of varnas and castes. The four varnas have been mentioned above.
40

Over time, the fourth, lower varna, the Shudras, began to increase their status, drawing closer in their position to the Vaishyas, who, accordingly, lost some of their positions.
The varnas of the Kshatriyas and Brahmins were at the very top of Indian society. Between them there was a constant struggle for power. The Brahmins relied on unquestioned religious authority. According to Brahmanism, the oldest Indian religion, Brahmins occupy a higher social position than Kshatriyas. As a result, this confrontation ended in favor of the Brahmins. The attempt of the Kshatriyas to replace Brahmanism with Buddhism and Jainism ended in failure. Up to the present time, Hinduism, which developed from Brahmanism, dominates in India.
According to the ideas of the inhabitants of ancient India, a person during his earthly life could not leave his varna. But, according to the law of karma, good and bad deeds were summed up, and as a result, a person in a future life could change varna to a better one. If bad deeds prevailed, the person was reborn as a sudra or an animal. The law of karma led to the passivity of Indians in social life, contributing to their concentration on moral improvement.
Over time, the system of varnas only became more rigid and branched out. Varnas were divided into subcategories - castes. The whole society has become a strict system of castes. The invaders who invaded India found a certain place in this structure and poured into it as a new caste. Below the caste system were the untouchables, who were outside society and the law, any contact with them was forbidden.
The social structure of ancient Greece. The Greek polis functioned as a state-community. The support of the policy were citizens - full members of the policy. Citizens had rights and obligations in accordance with the laws of the policy, participated in its management and protection. All citizens, depending on their wealth, were divided into categories, according to which they were subject to the corresponding property obligations. The policy guaranteed the citizen rights, including, very importantly, the right to private property.
41

Incomplete members of the policy included dependent peasants who had lost their land, and foreigners. Both those and others did not have the right to participate in the management of the policy, since they did not own the land. Foreigners, who were called meteks, could be rich people, but they did not have political rights.
If the citizen of the policy enjoyed more freedom than the representative of the ancient Eastern society, then the slaves in Greece and Rome were in a worse position than in the East. A stable Eastern society, by and large, did not seek to increase the exploitation of slaves. Under patriarchal slavery, the slave was considered the youngest member of the family.
In Greece, and then in Rome, commodity-money relations and a market-oriented economy led to increased exploitation of slaves. Slaves began to be seen not as people with any rights, but as a means of making a profit. The master treated the slave as his property and could do with him what he wanted. The usual situation was when a slave was sent to the mines, where he quickly died, and he was replaced by a new slave bought on the market. In the Roman Empire, a special category of slaves appeared who fought among themselves for the entertainment of citizens - gladiators.
In Greece, there was no powerful priestly stratum. The Greeks treated their gods differently than in the East. The Greek gods were similar to people, had advantages and disadvantages, and there was not such a huge distance between gods and people as in the East.
The social structure of ancient Rome. In Rome, in contrast to the Greek policies, tribal remnants existed longer and had a stronger impact on public life. The Roman family is a classic example of a large patriarchal family. The head of the family was in full control of his house, he could execute, sell into slavery or punish his relatives. He also performed priestly functions in his house.
Roman citizens were called quirites. Initially, only patricians, descendants of the first inhabitants of Rome, had citizenship rights. Plebeians - descendants of late settlers - did not participate in the political, social
42

noah and religious life of the community, despite the fact that they were more numerous. After a long struggle, the plebeians forced the patricians to cede some of their rights to them. As a result, Roman society was divided into three estates: the nobility (to know); riders (representatives of this class at one time served in the cavalry); plebeians. The nobility occupied government positions, the horsemen were merchants and financiers, the plebeians were direct producers. Plebeians could not qualify for election to public office.
The main occupation of citizens in Rome, unlike in Greece, was agriculture, not market-oriented. Citizen farmers formed the basis of the Roman army, being called up for service V case of war. Later, when the Romans were no longer able to simultaneously wage wars throughout the Mediterranean and manage their economy, the Roman army becomes professional. The impoverished peasants became professional soldiers.
The number of Roman citizens was small in comparison with the number of inhabitants of the lands conquered by Rome. Gradually, the Romans were forced to divide the conquered lands into several categories (provinces), imposing various taxes on them. The inhabitants of the provinces aspired to become Roman citizens. As a rule, Roman citizenship was acquired through service in the Roman army. Over time, the provincial nobility gained great influence and began to nominate Roman emperors from their representatives. Finally, in 212 AD. e. all inhabitants of the Roman Empire received Roman citizenship.

States of the Ancient World.

State in the societies of the Ancient East. Several types of government have developed in the East.
Within a despotism, there is a strong state power necessary to maintain irrigation systems. Characterized by the unlimited power of the ruler and a branched state apparatus, consisting of officials and soldiers. These are Egypt, China, the states of Mesopotamia.
In a military monarchy, the corresponding predatory function of the state came first. Wars of conquest and robbery were constantly carried out here.
43

skye trips to neighboring lands. This type of government was the most common in the East (the Hittite kingdom, Assyria).
The city-state arose, as a rule, by the sea, where there were no large states. The economy of such a state was closely connected with transit trade (the states of the Eastern Mediterranean - Tyre, Sidon, Ugarit).
The military-administrative state differed from the military monarchy in that a single system of administrative control was established in all the conquered countries (the military monarchy retained the old system of government in the conquered country, limited to the collection of tribute). This type of state is characteristic of the world powers - the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian and Persian kingdoms.
State in Ancient Greece. At first, royal power was widespread in Greece, but later the Greek kings - the basileus - were removed from government. The monarchy was replaced by the aristocracy - "the power of the best", that is, the nobility came to power. But the demos fought against the aristocrats, and as a result, tyrants seized power. The word "tyrant" originally had no negative connotations. So called the person who illegally seized power. At the same time, tyrants used their power for the benefit of the people, weakening the positions of the aristocracy. The tyrant could enjoy great prestige. His reign usually came to naught only in the second generation, when the sons of the tyrant, who did not have his experience and authority, came to power.
In Athens, a new type of state developed and flourished - democracy - "the power of the people." Within the framework of Athenian democracy, the supreme power belonged to the popular assembly. Every year in Athens, nine archons were elected to govern the policy. Applicants for many government positions were chosen by lot, which did not allow the richest and most influential to usurp power. For public positions, payment was due, which favored the participation in the management of the poor citizens of the policy. Classical democracy emerged in Athens as an example of a new state structure. However, the Athenian democracy granted democratic rights only to citizens.
44

In the Spartan state there was an aristocratic form of government. The popular assembly of Sparta could only reject or approve proposals put forward by the council of elders. At the head of the Spartan government were two kings, whose power was elective. Between Sparta and Athens there was a constant struggle for dominance in Hellas. Despite the fact that Sparta won this war, not a single policy had sufficient strength to unite the whole of Hellas. Other conquerors were able to do this - first Macedonia, then Rome.
The Macedonian king Philip managed to subjugate all of Greece to his power. His son Alexander the Great became famous as the greatest conqueror of antiquity. Having crushed the Persian kingdom at the head of his small army, he founded a power that stretched from the Mediterranean to India. After the death of Alexander, the state broke up into several states, headed by Alexander's associates. These states are called Hellenistic. The Hellenistic period lasted from the end of the 4th century BC. BC e. according to the 1st century BC e. Hellenism combined the features of the Eastern and Greek civilizations.
State in Ancient Rome. Rome was originally ruled by kings. But their power was gradually overthrown. As a result, a republican structure was formed in Rome (the republic is a “common cause”). Within the framework of the republic, only the nobility had power, since the kvirites holding certain positions did not receive any payment for this, but, on the contrary, were obliged to organize holidays at their own expense.
The main body of the republic was the Senate, which included only the nobility. Each year, two consuls were elected to govern Rome. The interests of the plebeians were protected by the people's tribunes, elected from among them.
Republican governments could not provide effective government when Rome began to turn into the largest Mediterranean power. As a result of civil wars that took place in the II - I centuries. BC e., Octavian Augustus established himself in power in Rome, establishing his sole rule. Rome became an empire. At the same time, republican institutions were preserved, and Rome formally remained a republic.
45

The crisis that erupted in III V. n. e., led to a further transformation of the Roman state. Rome became an empire of the eastern type - a dominant. In an effort to strengthen the influence of the empire in the conquered territories, Emperor Constantine accepts the Eastern religion - Christianity - and moves the capital to the East - to Constantinople (modern Istanbul). But these measures allowed only for a while to prolong the existence of the Roman Empire. Barbarian invasions and a deep internal crisis led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. n. e.

Picture of the world of ancient people.

Each era in the history of mankind is distinguished by its special, unique rhythm of life, its values, norms and ideas about the world. All this is in close relationship with the economic activity of a person, the level of development of his knowledge, methods of providing a variety of needs, known as a way of doing business. The above in a complex forms the worldview of a person of a certain era, forming a special picture of the world.
What is "painting peace"? How can this concept be defined? Scientists usually distinguish three of its components:

1. a person's sense of self;
2. their idea of ​​space, its vision;
3. sense of time.

These three general categories fully characterize the changing structure of the world and man's place in it. Thus, the picture of the world is a person's self-perception, based on ideas about space and time. It should be noted that "space" and "time" here are not only and not so much absolute physical quantities, but rather subjective forms of their perception in individual epochs. Space in this case acts as a real world space with all the variety of its constituent objects and phenomena, characterized by different properties, origin and purpose. The concept of time is also specific and includes both astronomical time and biological time.
46

skoe (time of successive generations), individual (stages of human development from birth to death), social (development of society, individual people, state).
The picture of the world, of course, is reflected in the monuments of material culture, but due to the complexity and ambiguity of their decoding, as well as their very incomplete (fragmentary) reflection of the period under study, they are not able to recreate the picture of the world of ancient man in full scale.
The most vivid and complete picture of the world is presented in spiritual culture, especially within the framework of religious beliefs of representatives of the primitive era.
For a person of the period of the appropriating economy and tribal organization, primitive religious beliefs are characteristic - fetishism, magic and divination, animism, totemism, the cult of the mother goddess, etc. With the transition to the appropriating economy and the creation of states and a slave-owning society, mythology and mythological consciousness are formed. (Myth is a special way of reflecting the world in the human mind, characterized by sensory-figurative ideas about unprecedented beings, phenomena, processes.) The emergence of feudal relations and the system of moral norms associated with them was embodied in new, more complex religious teachings. Ancient civilizations on this path gave rise to Confucianism and Buddhism, still closely associated with the former, mythological worldview. A new stage in the development of mankind is the emergence of monotheism, which preceded the emergence of world religions - Christianity and Islam. Christianity, in particular, put a line under the previous spiritual experience of mankind, creating on its basis a fundamentally new system of worldview built on other values.
Primitive cults of the pre-civilization period are a kind of illustration of the process of formation of human self-consciousness. A person has not yet felt himself as a person, presenting himself as an integral part of a tribe or clan. This is evidenced by rock carvings, depicted on which people are devoid of individual characteristics: features are not drawn
47

faces, figures are very schematic. Only dark silhouettes predominate. In addition, people were mostly depicted in groups performing some action together (hunting, ritual, etc.).
The world seemed to be one and whole, and man was only a part of this huge organism. Man was not yet able to influence the ongoing processes, his life depended entirely on the world around him. He experienced a strong attachment, interconnection and close kinship with this world. This is how totemism appears - a system of beliefs, according to which a separate clan, tribe originated from a common ancestor - some animal or plant. The tribe, clan bore the name of their totem, which seemed to be a kind and caring patron.
Rigid dependence on the surrounding world, the inability to understand the causes and essence of the phenomena occurring in it contributed to the emergence of magic and divination. Magic was a more active form of expression, suggesting the possibility of somehow influencing the world through appeal to its individual forces. Not only animals and plants were spiritualized, but also the inanimate world, natural phenomena (rain, wind, storm, etc.). Addressing them, speaking their language, sharing with them something vitally important and acquired at the cost of great efforts, a person tried to change the world around him in a favorable direction for himself.
Fortune-telling was a consequence of a person's guess 6 patterns and relationships occurring in the world of phenomena. Having no idea about the systemic nature of the world, a person could discover for himself only individual chains of this system. Starting from the idea of ​​the universal interdependence of natural and social phenomena, a person began to guess by the cracks in the bones and shards, by the flight of an eagle. Then the first rudiments of abstract and mathematical thinking began to penetrate into the process of divination. A classic example is the Chinese Book of Changes.
Man - a representative of the primitive era - saw life in everything, all objects and phenomena of the world were spiritualized by him. This is how animism developed - the belief in the existence of spirits, the spiritualization of the forces of nature, animals, plants and inanimate objects, attributing to them reason, capacity and supernatural power.
48

Over time, the abilities and capabilities of mankind grow, the economic structure changes: from an appropriating person passes to a producing economy. The first states appear. A civilization is being born. The picture of the world is also changing. It acquires a greater system and orderliness, a sense of time, a mythological consciousness is being formed. During this period, the mythology of the Ancient East and the states of antiquity was formed.
Mythology of the Ancient East well known from the ideas of the societies of Ancient Egypt and Sumer. Here there was a whole pantheon of gods, each of which was "responsible" for a certain area, category of natural phenomena or human activity. Among them, one gradually stands out, with outstanding abilities and qualities. At certain points in history, he begins to claim absolute supremacy among other deities. The emergence of a pantheon of gods, the formation of certain relations between them, a hierarchy, often interpreted as relations of domination and subordination, reflected changes in the structure of society and ideas about the world. From now on, relations within the community are extrapolated to the natural world, and not vice versa, as it was before. Man, finally, highlights his active transformative role, which is expressed in the anthropomorphization of religious ideas. Egyptian gods, for example, were depicted with a human body and the heads of various animals. The latter can be considered not only an echo of previous beliefs, but simply a way of illustrating the character, individual features of a particular deity.
The ideas about the otherworldly existence of the soul are becoming more complicated, as a result of which the understanding of space and time has expanded in the human mind. The ordering, hierarchization of the sometimes extremely swollen (as in Sumer) pantheon of gods, the gradual schematization of their image, abstract reflections on inexperienced phenomena (the afterlife, the world of the gods) speak of the development of abstract thinking. Thus, the categories of space and time in the human mind are expanding, acquiring versatility.
49

In Eastern mythology, the idea of ​​​​evil and its struggle with good appears, while ancient mythology postulated the principle of harmony and completeness of the world. Of great importance is the word, which is understood both as a designation of a phenomenon, and as knowledge, and as a process of cognition, and as a specific form of the existence of a phenomenon. At the same time, the idea of ​​the cosmos as a structured and ordered world is limited by the boundaries of the community. Beyond these limits, the world turns into nothing, that is, into chaos. A textbook example is the idea of ​​the ancient Greeks that the ship, having gone into the sea beyond the limits of visibility, will disappear altogether.
The space in mythological thinking becomes wider and more multifaceted, time acquires a more complex rhythm, returning to the source and becoming cyclical. The world is therefore thought to be infinite. From the separation of parts of the world during the period of primitive cults, humanity moved on to the synthesis of these parts and the creation of an integral, harmonious and complete picture of the world. In the previous era, man mastered space, now he began to master time.
Mythology is being replaced by more complex religious teachings. So, in the VI - V centuries. BC in India originates Buddhism. According to this teaching, human life invariably presents suffering. Suffering is the result of man's never-ending and ever-increasing desires, which cannot be satisfied. Ultimate and infinite bliss comes only with the attainment of nirvana (enlightenment). Nirvana was understood as liberation from the endless chain of rebirths and dissolution in space. Rebirths occur as a result of a constant flow of elementary particles of matter and consciousness — dharmas — merging into different forms. The present life of a person is conditioned by the whole complex of his previous existence, or karma. Everything in this world is doomed to an endless and meaningless chain of rebirths (samsara). The Buddha proclaimed the "middle way" to achieve nirvana - the rejection of both the extremes of asceticism and self-deception by the charms of this world, which was considered illusory. The space in Buddhism has expanded even more, covering the world of elementary invisible particles, but this reality
50

became shaky. Time has kept cyclicity and infinity.
Confucianism It is difficult to call religion in the full sense of the word. Originating as a complex of moral and ethical ideas, it was subsequently sacralized and received the status of an official ideology. This teaching has a very real founder - this is Kung Tzu, or Confucius (551 - 479 BC). Confucius created the concept of jen, philanthropy. It was expressed through devotion to the sovereign - "zhong", fidelity to duty - "i", filial piety - "xiao", generosity - "kuan" and a number of other positive characteristics. The ideal of Confucius was "jun-tzu" - "noble man". The highest power in Confucianism was Heaven, which determines the fate of man. Confucianism preached a strict hierarchical order consecrated by tradition, according to which the younger in age and position should obey the older, and the older, in turn, should take care of the younger.
An unusual, very interesting phenomenon in the history of mankind is Judaism. The emergence of this religion is associated with a radical restructuring of man's ideas about the world and his place in it. From now on, a direct and directly connecting vertical was built between a person and a higher power, God. The fate of the whole world became subject only to him, and man found himself in second place in the world after God. The world is changing its structure. From the limited, it becomes infinite, in accordance with the all-encompassing power of God. From relatively amorphous and spherical to clearly aligned vertically. From subject to the desires of a person through magic - subject only to God and favorable to a person in accordance with the measure of his faith in God and his deeds pleasing to God.
The next stage in the development of the human worldview was Christianity. It symbolized the crisis of ancient ideas about the world, asserting a new understanding of the world order. What is the difference between Christianity and previous religions? First, in Christianity there is only one God, as opposed to poly-
51

theism of the ancient world. Secondly, he appears as the absolute ruler and creator of the world, in contrast to the Olympic gods, who personified individual natural forces and are subject to the absolute harmony of the Cosmos. God in Christianity is separated from the world, which is only his creation, and endowed with supernatural powers. And, finally, the same God created man himself as the pinnacle of his creation, created him in his own image, placing man above the rest of the world, endowing him with a unique ability for creativity.
The appearance of such ideas meant the final separation of man from nature, as well as the isolation of the individual from the collective. Personality enters the arena of world history.
But the world itself is changing. Time ceases to be cyclical. According to the norms of Christianity, everything has its beginning from the moment of creation by God and the end, foreseeable in the future as the Last Judgment. Man has become truly a grain of sand in this world, but at the same time the most significant and "outstanding" grain of sand.
Cultural heritage of ancient civilizations.
One of the oldest on earth is Egyptiancivilization. Within the framework of this civilization, during the three thousand years of its existence, many outstanding cultural monuments were created, many of which have survived to our time.
“By the beginning of the era of the Old Kingdom in Egypt, a written language appeared, which was called hieroglyphic (from the Greek hieros - “sacred”). At the same time, shorthand and italic (demotic) writing existed in Egypt. All three types of writing were used for different purposes. They wrote on stone and papyrus. In the writing system, there were both ideograms that conveyed individual concepts, and phonograms that conveyed sounds. Writing was valued as an art, and the position of a scribe was considered one of the most honorable.
Egypt is always associated primarily with the pyramids, which are one of the most grandiose creations of mankind in its entire history. erected in
52

In the era of Ancient Egypt, the pyramids served as tombs for kings, reflecting the boundless faith in the power of the gods and the kings (pharaohs) representing them on earth. First, stepped pyramids were erected (the pyramid of Djoser, XXVIII century BC), then pyramids with broken edges appear. However, for the most part, these are structures with even, smooth edges and a square base. In Giza, near Cairo, there are three of the greatest pyramids built by the pharaohs of the TV dynasty. All three have the same direction of the axes and the same orientation. The height of the largest is 147 m, it is known as the Pyramid of Cheops. The mass of each block in it is approximately 2.5 tons. The pyramids are the only one of the seven wonders of the world that has survived to this day. Giza was a whole architectural complex, which also included pyramids, tombs of nobles and mortuary temples, attached to the pyramid from the east side. In addition to the pyramids, there were rock tombs characteristic of the New Kingdom. In the era of the Middle and New Kingdoms, majestic temples were also created in honor of the gods and pharaohs, the palaces of the rulers. Temple architecture is distinguished by its monumentality and extraordinary richness of decoration.
The sculpture of Ancient Egypt was also closely associated with the funeral cult. Figurines were considered as the place of residence of one of the souls of the deceased, and they were placed in temples and tombs. The pharaoh was always portrayed in the prime of his life with an impassive and stately expression and posture. In the genre of sculpture, there were certain canonical requirements. Standing statues are always strictly frontal, their figures are tensely straightened, their heads are set straight, their arms are lowered and tightly pressed to the body, the left leg is slightly advanced forward. The statues were made of wood, granite, basalt and other rocks, they were usually painted: male figures in brick red, and female figures in yellow. On the bas-reliefs, the head and legs were depicted in profile, shoulders and chest - in front. Egyptian sculpture reached its peak in the era of the New Kingdom.
characteristic feature Sumero-Akkadian culture is the creation of a kind of writing system - cuneiform, which was not a sound letter, but contained the idea
53

Ograms denoting whole words, vowels or syllables. There were about 600 characters in total. A special genre in literature is made up of laments - works about the death of Sumerian cities due to the raids of neighbors. The most common were the etiological (explaining) myths about the creation of the world and man, the Great Flood, the death and resurrection of the gods of fertility.
The temple architecture of Sumer was peculiar, distinguished by the use of high platforms. Temple towers - ziggurats - following the Sumerians, the Akkadians and Babylonians began to build. Ziggurats consisted of three steps, built in accordance with the divine triad, and were built of raw brick.
One of the most magnificent cities of ancient Mesopotamia was Babylon. Protected by a double wall, it had eight gates, the most famous being the gate of the goddess Ishtar, 12 meters high. Lined with turquoise glazed bricks and decorated with ornaments of sculptures of lions, dragons and bulls, they made a stunning impression. Located on both banks of the Euphrates, the city was connected by a stone bridge - one of the first in the world.

The specificity of the literature of ancient Babylon consisted in the initial presentation of the plot and its subsequent development. Babylonian literature is largely borrowed from Sumerian sources, most of the works are written in verse form. One of the main themes was the problem of undeserved human suffering and the inevitability of death.

Much more dynamic Greek culture. An outstanding monument of Crete-Mycenaean (III - II millennium BC) architecture was the Palace of Knossos of King Minos. The main attraction of this palace was fresco painting. The ancient Greeks created the greatest epic works - the Iliad and the Odyssey. A significant discovery of the Greeks was the creation of their own writing system. Having borrowed the alphabet from the Phoenicians, they greatly improved it by adding vowels. Ancient Greek architecture is characterized by the presence of two directions, or styles - Doric and Ionic. Doric style - strict, solemn and massive. Before-
54

The Greek column did not have a base, growing directly from the base of the temple. The Ionic order was distinguished by lighter proportions, elegance and extensive use of decorative elements. The Ionic column always had a base, was lighter and thinner than the Doric.
The Greek temple was considered the dwelling place of a god; as a rule, there was a statue of the god in whose honor it was erected. The ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis occupies a special place in the history of architecture. The largest building here is the Temple of Athena the Virgin, the Parthenon.
Sculpture, striking in its craftsmanship, was devoid of individual and psychological traits, depicting people according to ancient ideas about beauty.
The outstanding achievement of the Greeks was the art of making ceramics and vase painting. It featured black-figure and red-figure styles. Greek theater and Attic tragedy are of great importance. Some works created by ancient Greek playwrights still occupy an important place in the repertoire of modern theaters. Antique culture showed an amazing wealth of forms, images and ways of expression, laying the foundations of aesthetics, ideas about harmony and thus expressing its attitude to the world.

Questions for Section 2

1. What types of periodization of the history of primitive society
used in science? What are their main criteria?
2. Name the main stages of anthropogenesis.
3. How does a proto-state differ from a state?
4. What is the "Neolithic Revolution"? What are its consequences?
5. List the main forms of primitive religion.
6. How is a pastoral civilization different from an agricultural one?
7. What are the consequences of introducing metal into production?
8. What is a prestige economy?
9. Why did the head of the proto-state need to concentrate priestly power in his hands?

10. Follow the evolution of the human community from the primitive herd to the rural neighborhood community.
11. What forms of states of the Ancient World do you know?
12. What is the reason for the huge role that the state played in the life of Eastern society?
13. How do ancient civilizations differ from ancient Eastern ones?
14. What are the characteristic features of the policy?

15. What forms of slavery do you know and how do they differ from each other?
16. Tell us about the structure of Eastern society. What is the specificity of Indian society?

17. Why is Eastern society so stable?
18. What role did the sea play in the economy of ancient states?
19. How was time represented in mythological consciousness and why?
20. How did the crisis of the ancient worldview manifest itself?
21. Describe the dynamics of ideas about space
and time through three eras: the time of primitive cults,
the time of mythological consciousness, the time of monotheism.
22. What is the significance of the canon in Egyptian culture?
23. Describe the similarities and differences in the culture of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
24. What achievements can be considered the most significant contribution of the Greeks to the treasury of world culture?