Holland. 17th century The country is experiencing unprecedented prosperity. The so-called "Golden Age". At the end of the 16th century, several provinces of the country achieved independence from Spain.
Now the Protestant Netherlands went their own way. And Catholic Flanders (now Belgium) under the wing of Spain - its own.
In independent Holland, almost no one needed religious painting. The Protestant Church did not approve of the luxury of decoration. But this circumstance "played into the hands" of secular painting.
Literally every inhabitant of the new country woke up love for this type of art. The Dutch wanted to see their own life in the pictures. And the artists willingly went to meet them.
Never before has the surrounding reality been depicted so much. Ordinary people, ordinary rooms and the most ordinary breakfast of a city dweller.
Realism flourished. Until the 20th century, it will be a worthy competitor to academism with its nymphs and Greek goddesses.
These artists are called "small" Dutch. Why? The paintings were small in size, because they were created for small houses. So, almost all paintings by Jan Vermeer are no more than half a meter high.
But I like the other version better. In the Netherlands in the 17th century, a great master, a “big” Dutchman, lived and worked. And all the others were "small" in comparison with him.
We are talking, of course, about Rembrandt. Let's start with him.
1. Rembrandt (1606-1669)
Rembrandt. Self-portrait at the age of 63. 1669 National Gallery of London Rembrandt had a chance to experience the widest range of emotions during his life. Therefore, in his early works there is so much fun and bravado. And so many complex feelings - in the later ones.
Here he is young and carefree in the painting “The Prodigal Son in the Tavern”. On her knees is Saskia's beloved wife. He is a popular artist. Orders are pouring in.
Rembrandt. The prodigal son in the tavern. 1635 Old Masters Gallery, Dresden But all this will disappear in some 10 years. Saskia will die of consumption. Popularity will disappear like smoke. A large house with a unique collection will be taken away for debts.
But the same Rembrandt will appear, which will remain for centuries. The naked feelings of the characters. Their most secret thoughts.
2. Frans Hals (1583-1666)
Frans Hals. Self-portrait. 1650 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Frans Hals is one of the greatest portrait painters of all time. Therefore, I would also rank him among the "big" Dutch.
In Holland at that time it was customary to commission group portraits. So there was a lot of similar works depicting people working together: shooters of the same guild, doctors of the same town, managing a nursing home.
In this genre, Hals stands out the most. After all, most of these portraits looked like a deck of cards. People sit at the table with the same expression on their faces and just look. Hals was different.
Look at his group portrait "Arrows of the Guild of St. George".
Frans Hals. Arrows of the Guild of St. George. 1627 Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem, Netherlands Here you will not find a single repetition in posture or facial expression. At the same time, there is no chaos here. There are many characters, but no one seems superfluous. Thanks to the surprisingly correct arrangement of figures.
Yes, and in a single portrait, Hals surpassed many artists. His models are natural. People from high society in his paintings are devoid of far-fetched grandeur, and models from the bottom do not look humiliated.
And his characters are very emotional: they smile, laugh, gesticulate. Like, for example, this "Gypsy" with a sly look.
Frans Hals. Gypsy. 1625-1630 Hals, like Rembrandt, ended his life in poverty. For the same reason. His realism went against the tastes of customers. Who wanted to embellish their appearance. Hals did not go for outright flattery, and thus signed his own sentence - "Oblivion".
3. Gerard Terborch (1617-1681)
Gerard Terborch. Self-portrait. 1668 Mauritshuis Royal Gallery, The Hague, Netherlands Terborch was a master of the domestic genre. Rich and not very burghers talk slowly, ladies read letters, and a procuress watches courtship. Two or three closely spaced figures.
It was this master who developed the canons of the domestic genre. Which will then be borrowed by Jan Vermeer, Pieter de Hooch and many other "small" Dutch.
Gerard Terborch. A glass of lemonade. 1660s. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg A Glass of Lemonade is one of Terborch's famous works. It shows another advantage of the artist. Incredibly realistic image of the fabric of the dress.
Terborch also has unusual works. Which speaks of his desire to go beyond the requirements of customers.
His "Grinder" shows the life of the poorest inhabitants of Holland. We are used to seeing cozy courtyards and clean rooms in the pictures of the “small” Dutch. But Terborch dared to show unattractive Holland.
Gerard Terborch. Grinder. 1653-1655 Berlin State Museums As you understand, such works were not in demand. And they are a rare occurrence even in Terborch.
4. Jan Vermeer (1632-1675)
Jan Vermeer. Artist's workshop. 1666-1667 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna What Jan Vermeer looked like is not known for certain. It is only obvious that in the painting "Artist's Workshop" he depicted himself. True from the back.
Therefore, it is surprising that a new fact from the life of the master has recently become known. It is associated with his masterpiece "Street of Delft".
Jan Vermeer. Delft street. 1657 Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam It turned out that Vermeer spent his childhood on this street. The house pictured belonged to his aunt. She raised her five children there. She may be sitting on the doorstep sewing while her two children are playing on the sidewalk. Vermeer himself lived in the house opposite.
But more often he depicted the interior of these houses and their inhabitants. It would seem that the plots of the paintings are very simple. Here is a pretty lady, a wealthy city dweller, checking the work of her scales.
Jan Vermeer. Woman with weights. 1662-1663 National Gallery of Art, Washington How did Vermeer stand out among thousands of other "small" Dutch?
He was an unsurpassed master of light. In the painting “Woman with Scales”, the light gently envelops the face of the heroine, fabrics and walls. Giving the image an unknown spirituality.
And the compositions of Vermeer's paintings are carefully verified. You will not find a single extra detail. It is enough to remove one of them, the picture will “crumble”, and the magic will go away.
All this was not easy for Vermeer. Such amazing quality required painstaking work. Only 2-3 paintings per year. As a result, the inability to feed the family. Vermeer also worked as an art dealer, selling works by other artists.
5. Pieter de Hooch (1629-1884)
Peter de Hooch. Self-portrait. 1648-1649 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Hoch is often compared to Vermeer. They worked at the same time, there was even a period in the same city. And in one genre - household. In Hoch, we also see one or two figures in cozy Dutch courtyards or rooms.
Open doors and windows make the space of his paintings multi-layered and entertaining. And the figures fit into this space very harmoniously. As, for example, in his painting "Servant with a girl in the yard."
Peter de Hooch. Maid with a girl in the yard. 1658 London National Gallery
Until the 20th century, Hoch was highly valued. But few people noticed the few works of his competitor Vermeer.
But in the 20th century, everything changed. Hoch's glory faded. However, it is difficult not to recognize his achievements in painting. Few people could combine the environment and people so competently.
Peter de Hooch. Card players in the sun room. 1658 Royal Art Collection, London Please note that in a modest house on the canvas "Card Players" there is a picture in an expensive frame.
This once again speaks of how popular painting was among ordinary Dutch. Pictures adorned every house: the house of a wealthy burgher, a modest city dweller, and even a peasant.
6. Jan Steen (1626-1679)
Jan Stan. Self-portrait with a lute. 1670s Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid Jan Steen is perhaps the most cheerful "small" Dutchman. But loving moralizing. He often depicted taverns or poor houses in which vice was found.
Its main characters are revelers and ladies of easy virtue. He wanted to entertain the viewer, but implicitly warn him against a vicious life.
Jan Stan. Chaos. 1663 Art History Museum, Vienna Stan also has quieter works. Like, for example, "Morning toilet". But here, too, the artist surprises the viewer with too frank details. There are traces of stocking gum, and not an empty chamber pot. And somehow it’s not at all the way the dog lies right on the pillow.
Jan Stan. Morning toilet. 1661-1665 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam But despite all the frivolity, Stan's color schemes are very professional. In this he surpassed many of the "small Dutch". See how the red stocking goes perfectly with the blue jacket and bright beige rug.
7. Jacobs Van Ruysdael (1629-1882)
Portrait of Ruisdael. Lithograph from a 19th century book. "Burger" baroque in Dutch paintingXVII V. - the image of everyday life (P. de Hoch, Vermeer). "Luxury" still life Kalf. Group portrait and its features in Hals and Rembrandt. Interpretation of mythological and biblical subjects by Rembrandt.
Dutch art of the 17th century
In the 17th century Holland became a model capitalist country. She conducted extensive colonial trade, she had a powerful fleet, shipbuilding was one of the leading industries. Protestantism (Calvinism as its most severe form), which completely replaced the influence of the Catholic Church, led to the fact that the clergy in Holland did not have such an influence on art as in Flanders, and even more so in Spain or Italy. In Holland, the church did not play the role of a customer of works of art: temples were not decorated with altarpieces, for Calvinism rejected any hint of luxury; Protestant churches were simple in architecture and not decorated in any way inside.
The main achievement of the Dutch art of the XVIII century. - in easel painting. Man and nature were objects of observation and depiction by Dutch artists. Everyday painting becomes one of the leading genres, the creators of which in history received the name "small Dutch". Paintings on gospel and biblical scenes are also represented, but not to the same extent as in other countries. Holland never had connections with Italy and classical art did not play the same role as in Flanders.
The mastery of realistic tendencies, the formation of a certain range of topics, the differentiation of genres as a single process, were completed by the 20s of the 17th century. History of Dutch painting of the 17th century. perfectly demonstrates the evolution of the work of one of the largest portrait painters of Holland, Frans Hals (circa 1580-1666). In the 10-30s, Hals worked a lot in the genre of group portraits. From the canvases of these years, cheerful, energetic, enterprising people look, confident in their abilities and in the future (“St. Adrian’s Shooting Guild”, 1627 and 1633;
The Shooting Guild of St. George", 1627).
Individual portraits of Khals are sometimes called genre portraits by researchers due to the special specificity of the image. Hulse's sketchy style, his bold writing, when a brushstroke sculpts both form and volume and conveys color.
In the portraits of Khals of the late period (50-60s), the carefree prowess, energy, and pressure in the characters of the depicted persons disappear. But it is in the late period of creativity that Hals reaches the pinnacle of mastery and creates the most profound works. The color of his paintings becomes almost monochrome. Two years before his death, in 1664, Hals again returned to the group portrait. He paints two portraits - regents and regents of a nursing home, in one of which he himself found shelter at the end of his life. In the portrait of the regents, there is no camaraderie of the previous compositions, the models are disunited, powerless, their eyes are cloudy, devastation is written on their faces.
The art of Hals was of great importance for its time, it had an impact on the development of not only the portrait, but also the genre of everyday life, landscape, still life.
The landscape genre of Holland in the 17th century is especially interesting. Holland is portrayed by Jan van Goyen (1596-1656) and Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603-1670).
The heyday of landscape painting in the Dutch school dates back to the middle of the 17th century. The greatest master of the realistic landscape was Jacob van Ruysdael (1628/29-1682). His works are usually filled with deep drama, whether he depicts forest thickets (“Forest Swamp”),
landscapes with waterfalls (“Waterfall”) or a romantic landscape with a cemetery (“Jewish Cemetery”).
Nature in Ruisdael appears in dynamics, in eternal renewal.
In close connection with the Dutch landscape is the animalistic genre. Albert Cuyp's favorite motif is cows at a watering place ("Sunset on the River", "Cows on the Bank of a Stream").
Brilliant development reaches a still life. The Dutch still life, in contrast to the Flemish, is modest in size and motives for paintings of an intimate nature. Pieter Claesz (circa 1597-1661), Billem Head (1594-1680/82) most often depicted the so-called breakfasts: dishes with ham or pie on a relatively modestly served table. Kheda's "breakfasts" give way to Kalf's sumptuous "desserts". Simple utensils are being replaced by marble tables, carpet tablecloths, silver goblets, mother-of-pearl shells, and crystal glasses. Kalf achieves amazing virtuosity in conveying the texture of peaches, grapes, and crystal surfaces.
In the 20-30s of the XVII century. the Dutch created a special type of small, small-figure painting. 40-60s - the heyday of painting, glorifying the calm burgher life of Holland, a measured everyday existence.
Adrian van Ostade (1610-1685) depicts at first the shady sides of the life of the peasantry ("The Fight").
Since the 1940s, in his work, satirical notes are increasingly replaced by humorous ones (“In a village tavern”, 1660).
Sometimes these little pictures are colored with a great lyrical feeling. By right, Ostade's masterpiece of painting is considered to be his "Painter in the Studio" (1663), in which the artist glorifies creative work.
But the main theme of the "small Dutch" is still not a peasant, but a burgher life. Usually these are images without any fascinating plot. The most entertaining storyteller in paintings of this kind was Jan Stan (1626-1679) ("Revelers", "The backgammon game"). Gerard Terborch (1617-1681) achieved even greater skill in this.
The interior becomes especially poetic among the "small Dutch". The real singer of this theme was Pieter de Hooch (1629-1689). His rooms with a half-open window, shoes thrown inadvertently or a broom left are often depicted without a human figure.
A new stage of genre painting begins in the 50s and is associated with the so-called Delft school, with the names of artists such as Karel Fabritius, Emmanuel de Witte and Jan Vermeer, known in art history as Vermeer of Delft (1632-1675). Vermeer's paintings seem to be in no way original. These are the same images of a frozen burgher life: reading a letter, a gentleman and a lady talking, maids engaged in a simple household, views of Amsterdam or Delft. These pictures, which are simple in action: “Girl reading a letter”,
"The Cavalier and the Lady at the Spinet",
“The Officer and the Laughing Girl”, etc., are full of spiritual clarity, peace and quiet.
The main advantages of Vermeer as an artist are in the transmission of light and air. The dissolution of objects in a light-air environment, the ability to create this illusion, first of all, determined the recognition and fame of Vermeer precisely in the 19th century.
Wermeer did what no one else did in the 17th century: he painted landscapes from nature (“Street”, “View of Delft”).
They can be called the first examples of plein air painting.
The pinnacle of Dutch realism, the result of the pictorial achievements of the Dutch culture of the 17th century, is the work of Rembrandt. Harmensz van Rijn Rembrandt (1606-1669) was born in Leiden. In 1632, Rembrandt left for Amsterdam, the center of the artistic culture of Holland, which naturally attracted the young artist. The 30s are the time of the highest glory, the path to which was opened for the painter by a large commissioned painting of 1632 - a group portrait, also known as "Anatomy of Dr. Tulp", or "Anatomy Lesson".
In 1634, Rembrandt marries a girl from a wealthy family - Saskia van Uylenborch. The happiest period of his life begins. He becomes a famous and fashionable artist.
This whole period is covered with romance. Rembrandt's attitude of these years is most clearly conveyed by the famous "Self-portrait with Saskia on his knees" (circa 1636). The whole canvas is permeated with frank joy of life, jubilation.
Baroque language is closest to the expression of high spirits. And Rembrandt in this period is largely influenced by the Italian Baroque.
In complex foreshortenings, the characters of the 1635 painting "The Sacrifice of Abraham" appear before us. The composition is extremely dynamic, built according to all the rules of baroque.
In the same 30s, Rembrandt for the first time began to seriously engage in graphics, especially etching. Rembrandt's etchings are mostly biblical and gospel subjects, but in drawing, as a true Dutch artist, he often refers to the genre as well. At the turn of the early period of the artist's work and his creative maturity, one of his most famous paintings, known as The Night Watch (1642), is presented to us - a group portrait of Captain Banning Cock's rifle company.
He expanded the scope of the genre, presenting a rather historical picture: on an alarm signal, Banning Cock's detachment sets out on a campaign. Some are calm, confident, others are excited in anticipation of what is to come, but all have an expression of common energy, patriotic enthusiasm, the triumph of civic spirit.
A group portrait under the brush of Rembrandt grew into a heroic image of the era and society.
The painting had already darkened so much that it was considered to be an image of a night scene, hence its incorrect name. The shadow that lies from the figure of the captain on the light clothes of the lieutenant proves that this is not night, but day.
With the death of Saskia in the same year 1642, Rembrandt's natural break with patrician circles alien to him occurs.
The 40-50s are the time of creative maturity. During this period, he often turns to old works in order to remake them in a new way. This was the case, for example, with Danae, which he painted back in 1636. Turning to the painting in the 1940s, the artist intensified his emotional state.
He rewrote the central part with the heroine and the maid. Giving Danae a new gesture of a raised hand, he told her great excitement, an expression of joy, hope, an appeal.
In the 1940s and 1950s, Rembrandt's craftsmanship steadily grew. He chooses for interpretation the most lyrical, poetic aspects of human existence, that human, which is eternal, universal: maternal love, compassion. The Holy Scripture gives him the greatest material, and from it - the scenes of the life of the holy family, Rembrandt depicts a simple life, ordinary people, as in the painting “The Holy Family”.
The last 16 years are the most tragic years of Rembrandt's life; he is broke, has no orders. But these years are full of amazing creative activity, as a result of which picturesque images are created, exceptional in terms of monumentality of characters and spirituality, deeply philosophical works. Even small-sized works by Rembrandt of these years create an impression of extraordinary grandeur and true monumentality. Color acquires sonority and intensity. His colors seem to radiate light. The portraits of the late Rembrandt are very different from the portraits of the 30s and even 40s. These are extremely simple (half-length or generational) images of people who are close to the artist in their inner structure. Rembrandt achieved the greatest subtlety of characteristics in self-portraits, of which about a hundred have come down to us. The final in the history of the group portrait was Rembrandt's depiction of the elders of the cloth maker's shop - the so-called "Sindiki" (1662), where Rembrandt created living and at the same time different human types with stingy means, but most importantly, he managed to convey a sense of spiritual union, mutual understanding and relationships of people.
In the years of maturity (mainly in the 50s), Rembrandt created his best etchings. As an etcher, he knows no equal in world art. In all of them, the images have a deep philosophical meaning; they tell about the secrets of being, about the tragedy of human life.
He does a lot of drawing. Rembrandt left behind 2000 drawings. These are sketches from nature, sketches for paintings and preparations for etchings.
In the last quarter of the XVII century. the decline of the Dutch school of painting begins, the loss of its national identity, and from the beginning of the 18th century the end of the great era of Dutch realism begins.
Dutch painting originated in the early years of the 17th century. The Dutch school of painting was an independent, great, independent school with unique and inimitable features and originality.
Holland until the 17th century was not distinguished by an abundance of national artists. While this country was one state with Flanders, original pictorial currents were intensively created and developed mainly in Flanders.
Outstanding painters Van Eyck, Memling, Rogier van der Weyden worked in Flanders, the likes of which were not in Holland. Only individual bursts of genius in painting can be noted at the beginning of the 16th century, this is the artist and engraver Luke of Leiden, who is a follower of the Bruges school. But Luke of Leiden did not create any school. The same can be said about the painter Dirk Bouts from Haarlem, whose creations almost do not stand out against the background of the style and manner of the origins of the Flemish school, about the artists Mostaert, Scorel and Heemskerk, who, despite all their importance, are not individual talents that characterize with their originality country.
By the end of the 16th century, when portrait painters had already created a school, other artists began to appear and take shape. A wide variety of talents leads to many different directions and paths for the development of painting. Rembrandt's direct predecessors appear - his teachers Jan Peis and Peter Lastman. Genre methods are also becoming freer - historicity is not as obligatory as before. A special, deeply national and almost historical genre is being created - group portraits intended for public places - city halls, corporations, workshops and communities.
This is just the beginning, there is no school itself yet. There are many talented artists, among them there are skilful masters, several great painters: Morelse, Jan Ravestein, Lastman, Frans Hals, Poulenburg, van Schoten, van de Venne, Thomas de Keyser, Honthorst, Cape the Elder, finally, Esaias van de Velde and van Goyen - they were all born at the end of the 16th century.
In development Dutch painting it was a critical moment. With an unstable political balance, everything depended only on chance. In Flanders, where there was a similar awakening, on the contrary, there was already a feeling of confidence and stability, which had not yet been found in Holland. There were already artists in Flanders who had matured or were close to it.
Political and socio-historical conditions in this country were more favorable. There were good reasons for Flanders to become a great center of art a second time. Two things were missing for this: several years of peace and a master who would be the creator of the school.
In 1609, the fate of Holland was decided, after a truce agreement (between Spain and the Netherlands) and the official recognition of the United Provinces, a lull immediately set in. It is amazing how unexpectedly, and in what a short period of time - no more than thirty years - in a small space, on ungrateful desert soil, in the harsh conditions of life, a wonderful galaxy of painters, and, moreover, great painters appeared.
They appeared immediately and everywhere: in Amsterdam, Dordrecht, Leiden, Delft, Utrecht, Rotterdam, Haarlem, even abroad - as if from seeds that fell outside the field. The earliest are Jan van Goyen and Wijnants, who were born at the turn of the century. And further, in the interval from the beginning of the century to the end of its first third - Cape, Terborch, Brouwer, Rembrandt, Adrian van Ostade, Ferdinand Bol, Gerard Dow, Metsu, Venix, Wauerman, Berchem, Potter, Jan Steen, Jacob Ruisdael. Further Pieter de Hooch, Hobbema. The last of the greats - van der Heyden and Adrian van de Velde - in 1636 and 1637. Approximately these years can be considered the time of the first flowering of the Dutch school. It was necessary to create art for the nation.
Dutch painting, was and could be only an expression of external appearance, a true, accurate, similar portrait of Holland. The main elements of the Dutch school of painting were portraits, landscapes, everyday scenes. The Dutch School has been growing and operating for a whole century.
The painters of Holland found plots and colors to satisfy any human inclinations and affections. The palette of the Dutch is quite worthy of their drawing, hence the perfect unity of their pictorial method. Any Dutch painting is easily recognizable by its appearance. It is small in size and is distinguished by its powerful strict colors. This requires great accuracy, a firm hand, and deep concentration from the artist.
Exactly dutch painting gives the clearest idea of this hidden and eternal process: to feel, think and express. There is no richer picture in the world, because it is the Dutch who include so much content in such a small space. That is why everything here takes on a precise, compressed and condensed form.
For a more complete picture of Dutch painting, one should consider in detail the elements of this trend, the features of the methods, the nature of the palette. The description of the main features of Dutch art already makes it possible to distinguish this school from others and trace its origins.
Expressively, illustrating Dutch painting, is a painting by Adrian van Ostade from the Amsterdam Museum "Artist's Atelier". This plot was one of the favorites for Dutch painters. We see an attentive person, slightly hunched over, with a prepared palette, thin, clean brushes and clear oil. He writes in the dark. His face is concentrated, his hand is careful.
Only, perhaps, these painters were more courageous and knew how to laugh and enjoy life more carelessly than can be concluded from the surviving images.
The basis for the Dutch school of painting was laid by Jan van Goyen and Jan van Weinants at the beginning of the 17th century, establishing some laws of painting.
Introduction
1. Small Dutch
Dutch school of painting
Genre painting
4. Symbolism. Still life
Rembrandt van Rijn
Vermeer Delft Jan
Conclusion
Introduction
The purpose of the control work is:
· In the development of creative potential;
· Formation of interest in art;
· Consolidation and replenishment of knowledge.
Dutch art was born in the 17th century. This art is considered independent and independent, it has certain forms and features.
Until the 17th century, Holland did not have its own significant artists in art, because. was part of the state of Flanders. However, several artists are celebrated in this time period. This is the artist and engraver Luka Leydensky (1494-1533), painter Dirk Boats (1415-1475), painter Scorele (1495-1562).
Different schools gradually mixed up and the masters lost the distinctive features of their schools, and the remaining Dutch artists ceased to have the spirit of national creativity. Many different and new styles are emerging. Artists are trying to paint in all genres, looking for an individual style. Genre methods were erased: historicity is not as necessary as before. A new genre is being created - group porters.
At the beginning of the 17th century, when the fate of Holland was being decided, Philip III negotiated a truce between Spain and the Netherlands. What was needed was a revolution, a political or military situation. The struggle for independence united the people. The war strengthened the national spirit. Signed treaties with Spain gave Holland freedom. This prompted the creation of their own and special art, expressing the essence of the Dutch.
The peculiarity of the Dutch artists was to create a real image to the smallest detail - the manifestation of feelings and thoughts. This is the foundation of the Dutch school. It becomes realistic art, and by the middle of the 17th century it reaches the heights in all areas.
For Holland, the division is typical not only into genres, but also into numerous subspecies. Some masters paint scenes from the life of burghers and officers - Peter de Hooch (1495-1562), Gerard Terborch (1617-1681), Gabriel Metsu (1629-1667), the second - from peasant life - Adrian van Ostade (1610-1685), the third - scenes from the life of scientists and doctors - Gerrit Dou (1613-1675); landscape painters - Jan Porcellis (1584-1632), Simon de Vlieger (1601-1653), painters of forest corners - Meindert Hobbema (1638-1609), interior masters - Peter Janssens (1623-1682). Periodically, a certain genre becomes traditional in art schools. For example, the Harlem still life painters for the so-called "breakfasts" - Pieter Klas (1598-1661), Willem Heda (1594-1680).
Artists show mores and customs, ethical and moral norms of human behavior. Family events are often depicted. Landscape painters and masters of still life convey light in the open air, in closed rooms they skillfully depict the texture of objects. Domestic painting is at the top, thanks to Jan Steen (1626-1679), Gerhard Terborch (1617-1681), Pieter de Hooch (1629-1624).
1. Small Dutch
The Little Dutch are a group of artists of the 17th century, in which painters of landscape and everyday genre paintings of small size “combine” (hence the name). Such paintings were intended for a modest interior of residential buildings. They were purchased by townspeople and peasants. Such paintings are characterized by a feeling of comfort in the picture, the subtlety of details, the closeness of the person and the interior.
P. de Hooch, J. van Goyen (1596-1656), J. and S. van Ruysdael (1628-1682) and (1602 - 1670), E. de Witte (1617-1692), P. Klas, V. Kheda, V. Kalf (1619-1693), G. Terborch, G. Metsu, A. van Ostade, J. Sten (1626-1679), A. Cuyp (1620-1691) and others. Each specialized, as a rule, in one particular genre. The "Little Dutchmen" continued the tradition of the Dutch Renaissance masters, who argued that art should not only bring pleasure, but also remind one of values.
The work of artists can be divided into 3 groups:
1630s - the establishment of realism in national painting (Harlem was the leading art center, an important factor was the influence of F. Hals);
1640s-1660s - the flourishing of the art school (the center of art moves to Amsterdam, attracting artists from other cities, the influence of Rembrandt becomes relevant<#"justify">2. Dutch school of painting
For three quarters of a century, the rise of art continued in the north of the Netherlands, in the republic of the United Provinces, called Holland. In 1609, this republic received the status of a state. Here a bourgeois state was formed.
The Italian artist Caravaggio (1571-1610) played a significant role in Renaissance painting. He painted his paintings very realistic, and objects and figures had a high technique of chiaroscuro.
There were many artists, and they lived in small towns: Haarlem, Delft, Leiden. Each of these cities developed its own school with its own genre themes, but Amsterdam played the most important role in the development of Dutch art.
3. Genre painting
In Holland, along with the popularity of the landscape genre, new ones appear: the marina - a seascape, the urban landscape - a veduta, the image of animals - animal painting. The works of Pieter Brueghel had a significant influence on the landscape. (1525-1529). The Dutch wrote their own, original beauty of the nature of their native land. In the 17th century, the Dutch school of painting became one of the leading in Europe. The surrounding objects of people have become a source of inspiration for artists. In the art of this time, the formation of a system of genres, which began in the Renaissance, was completed. In portraits, everyday paintings, landscapes and still lifes, artists conveyed their impressions of nature and everyday life. A new idea began to have a genre of everyday painting - genre painting. The everyday genre has developed in two varieties - the peasant and the burgher (urban) genre. In genre paintings, the life of a private person was depicted: feasts of revelers, economic activities, playing music. Artists paid attention to the outside, poses, costumes. Objects became part of the comfort: a mahogany table, a wardrobe, an armchair upholstered in leather, a dark glass decanter and a glass, fruit. This genre reflected the behavior and communication of people belonging to different classes.
The works of Harard Dow were then very popular. He writes modest scenes from the life of the petty bourgeoisie. Often depicts older women sitting at a spinning wheel or reading. Dow's obvious tendency is to write out the surface of objects in her small pictures - patterns of fabrics, wrinkles of senile faces, fish scales, etc. (appendix; fig.
But genre painting has evolved. During the period of its formation anew, plots on the themes of recreation, entertainment, scenes from the life of officers were distributed. Such pictures were called "breakfasts", "banquets", "societies", "concerts". This painting was distinguished by variegation of color and joyful tones. The original was the genre - "breakfast". This is a type of still life in which the character of their owners was conveyed through the image of dishes and various dishes.
The everyday genre is the most distinctive and original phenomenon of the Dutch school, which opened the everyday life of a private person to world art.
Jan Steen also wrote in the genre theme of art. With a sense of humor, he noticed the details of life and the relationship of people. In the painting “Revelers”, the artist himself looks merrily and slyly at the viewer, sitting next to his wife, who fell asleep after a fun feast. And in the picture, through the facial expressions and gestures of the characters, Jan Steen skillfully reveals the plot of an imaginary illness.
By the beginning of the 1930s, the formation of the Dutch genre painting was completed. They divided genre painting along social lines: plots on themes from the life of the bourgeoisie, and scenes from the life of peasants and the urban poor.
One of the famous artists who wrote in the "peasant genre" was Adrian van Ostad. In the early period of creativity, the image of the peasants was comical. So, in the picture, illuminated by a sharp light, the fighting people seem not to be living people, but puppets. Contrasting cold and warm colors, sharp contrasts of light create masks with evil emotions on their faces.
Later, the artist paints pictures with calmer subjects, depicting a person during his usual activities, most often in moments of rest. For example, the interior painting "Village Musicians". Ostade conveys the concentration of the “musicians”, with barely noticeable humor depicting children watching them through the window. Adrian's brother, Isaac van Ostade, who died early, also worked in the "peasant genre". He depicted the life of rural Holland. The painting “Winter View” presents a typical landscape with a gray sky hanging over the earth, a frozen river, on the banks of which the village is located.
In the 50s and 60s of the 17th century, the subject of genre paintings narrowed, their structure changed. They become calmer, more lyrical, more thoughtful. This stage is represented by the work of such artists as: Pieter de Hooch, Gerard Terborch, Gabriel Metsu, Pieter Janssens. Their works are characterized by an idealized way of life of the Dutch bourgeoisie. So, in the interior painting “A Room in a Dutch House” by Peter Janssens, a cozy room is depicted flooded with sunlight with sunbeams playing on the floor and on the walls. The choice of composition emphasizes the unity of man and his environment.
Dutch genre painters tried to reflect the inner world of a person in their works. In regularly occurring situations, they were able to show the world of experiences. So, Gerard Terborch in the film “A Glass of Lemonade” depicted a subtle language of gestures, touches of hands, eye contact reveals a whole gamut of feelings and relationships of characters.
Subtlety, truthfulness in recreating reality is combined by the Dutch masters with inconspicuous and everyday beauty. This feature is more evident in the still life. The Dutch called it "stilleven". In this understanding, the masters saw in inanimate objects a hidden life associated with a person's life, with his life, habits, tastes. Dutch painters created the impression of a natural "disorder" in the arrangement of things: they showed a cut cake, a peeled lemon with a peel hanging in a spiral, an unfinished glass of wine, a burning candle, an open book - it always seems that someone touched these objects, only that they used them , the invisible presence of a person is felt.
The leading masters of the Dutch still life in the first half of the 17th century were Pieter Claesz. 1and Willem Head. The favorite theme of their still lifes is the so-called "breakfasts". In "Breakfast with Lobster" by V. Kheda (appendix; fig. 16) there are objects of various shapes and materials - a coffee pot, a glass, a lemon, a silver plate. Items are arranged in such a way as to show the attractiveness and peculiarity of each. With a variety of techniques, Kheda perfectly conveys the material and the specifics of their texture; Thus, the glare of light plays differently on the surface of glass and metal. All elements of the composition are united by light and color. In "Still Life with a Candle" by P. Klass, not only the accuracy of reproduction of the material qualities of objects is remarkable - the composition and lighting give them great emotional expressiveness. The still lifes of Klass and Kheda are similar to each other - this is a mood of intimacy and comfort, calmness in the life of a burgher's house, where there is prosperity. Still life can be seen as one of the important themes of Dutch art - the theme of the life of a private person. She received her main decision in the genre picture.
Symbolism. Still life
All items in the Dutch still life are symbolic. Collections published during the XVIII<#"justify">o crumbling petals near the vase are signs of frailty;
o a withered flower is a hint of the disappearance of feelings;
o irises - a sign of the Virgin;
o red flowers - a symbol of the atoning sacrifice of Christ;
o the white lily is not only a beautiful flower, but also a symbol of the purity of the Virgin Mary;
o carnation - a symbol of the shed blood of Christ;
o white tulip - false love.
o pomegranate - a symbol of resurrection, a symbol of chastity;
o apples, peaches, oranges reminded of the fall;
o wine in a glass or jug personified the sacrificial blood of Christ;
o the olive is a symbol of peace;
o rotten fruit is a symbol of aging;
o ears of wheat, ivy - a symbol of rebirth and the cycle of life.
o glass is a symbol of fragility;
o porcelain - purity;
o the bottle is a symbol of sin and drunkenness;
o broken dishes - a symbol of death;
o an inverted or empty glass denotes emptiness;
o the knife is a symbol of betrayal;
o silver vessels are the personification of wealth.
o hourglass - a reminder of the transience of life;
o the skull is a reminder of the inevitability of death;
o ears of wheat - symbols of rebirth and the cycle of life;
o bread is a symbol of the body of the Lord;
o weapons and armor - a symbol of power and might, a designation of what cannot be taken with you to the grave;
o keys - symbolize power;
o a smoking pipe is a symbol of fleeting and elusive earthly pleasures;
o carnival mask - is a sign of the absence of a person; irresponsible pleasure;
o mirrors, glass balls - symbols of vanity, a sign of reflection, unreality.
The foundations of the Dutch realistic landscape took shape during the early 17th century. The artists depicted the nature they loved with dunes and canals, houses and villages. They tried to depict the nationality of the landscape, the atmosphere of the air and the specificity of the season. Masters increasingly subordinated all components of the picture to a single tone. They subtly felt colors, skillfully mastered the transfer of transitions from light to shadow, from tone to tone.
The largest representative of the Dutch realistic landscape was Jan van Goyen (1596-1656). He worked in Leiden and The Hague. The artist liked to depict valleys and the water surface of rivers on small-sized canvases. Goyen left a lot of space for the sky with clouds. Such is the picture “View of the Waal River near Nijmegen”, sustained in a thin brown-gray range of colors.
Later, the characteristic essence of landscapes changes. It becomes a little wider, more emotional. The specificity remains the same - restrained, but the tones acquire depth.
All the new features of the landscape style were embodied in his paintings by Jacob van Ruysdael (1629-1682). Depicting voluminous trees and bushes, it seemed that they were moving to the fore and becoming more powerful. Superbly possessing a sense of perspective, Ruisdael skillfully conveyed the wide plains and surroundings of Holland. The choice of tone and lighting evokes concentration. Ruisdael also loved ruins, as decorative details, speaking of destruction, the frailty of earthly existence. "Jewish Cemetery", represents a neglected area. Ruisdael was not successful in his time. The realism of his paintings did not correspond to the tastes of society. The artist, now deservedly enjoying worldwide fame, died a poor man in an almshouse in Harlem.
Portrait painting. Frans Hals
One of the great Dutch painters was Frans Hals (circa 1580-1666). He was born in the 17th century in Antwerp. As a very young artist, he ended up in Haarlem, where he grew up and formed in the manner of the school of Karel Van Mander. Haarlem was proud of its artist, and eminent guests were brought to his studio - Rubens and Van Dyck.
Hals was almost exclusively a portrait painter, but his art meant a lot not only to the portraiture of Holland, but also to the formation of other genres. In the work of Hals, three types of portrait compositions can be distinguished: a group portrait, a commissioned individual portrait, and a special type of portrait images, similar in nature to genre painting.
In 1616, Hals paints the painting "The Banquet of the Officers of the Company of the Infantry Regiment of St. George", in which he completely breaks with the traditional group porter scheme. Creating a very lively work, combining the characters into groups and giving them various poses, he sort of merged the portrait with genre painting. The work was a success, and the artist was inundated with orders.
His characters are kept in the portrait naturally and freely, their posture, gestures seem unstable, and the expression on their faces is about to change. The most remarkable feature of Hals' creative manner is the ability to convey character through individual facial expressions and gestures, as if caught on the fly - "Cheerful drinking buddy", "Mulatto", "Smiling officer". The artist loved emotional states full of dynamics. But in this instant that Hals captured, the most essential is always captured, the core of the image of "Gypsy", "Malle Baba".
However, in the images of Hals at the very end of the 30s and 40s, thoughtfulness and sadness appear, a portrait of Willem Heithuysen alien to his characters, and sometimes a slight irony slips in the artist’s attitude towards them. The jubilant acceptance of life and man is gradually leaving the art of Hals.
There were turning points in the painting of Hals. In the portraits of Hals, painted in the 50s and 60s, an in-depth mastery of characterization is combined with a new inner meaning. One of the most powerful works of late Hals is a male portrait from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (1650-1652). The composition of the portrait is a generational image of the figure, its staging in a clear front, a look directed directly at the viewer, one feels the significance of the individual. In the posture of a man, cold authoritativeness and arrogant contempt for everyone are read. Self-esteem is combined in it with immense ambition. At the same time, a hint of disappointment is suddenly caught in the look, as if in this person there is regret for the past - for his youth and the youth of his generation, whose ideals are forgotten, and life stimuli have faded.
Portraits of Hals of the 50s and 60s reveal a lot in the Dutch reality of those years. The artist lived a long life, and he happened to witness the rebirth of Dutch society, the disappearance of its democratic spirit. It is no coincidence that the art of Hals is now out of fashion. The later works of Hals sensitively reflect the spirit of the time, so alien to the master, but they also hear his own disappointment in the surrounding reality. In some works of these years, an echo of the personal feelings of the old artist, who was losing his former glory and already seeing the end of his life path, is captured.
Two years before his death, in 1664, portraits of the regents and regents (trustees) of the Haarlem nursing home were painted by Hals.
In the "Portrait of the Regents" everyone is united by a sense of disappointment and doom. There is no vitality in the regents, as in the early group portraits of Hals. Everyone is alone, everyone exists on his own. Black tones with reddish-pink spots create a tragic atmosphere.
The "Portrait of the Regents" is solved in a different emotional key. In the almost motionless poses of the callous, compassionless old women, one feels the mastery of the mastery, and at the same time, deep depression lives in all of them, a feeling of powerlessness and despair in the face of impending death.
Until the end of his days, Hals retained the infallibility of his skill, and the art of the eighty-year-old painter received penetration and strength.
6. Rembrandt van Rijn
Rembrand (1606-1669) - the largest representative of the golden age of Dutch painting. Born in Leiden in 1606. To receive an art education, the artist moved to Amsterdam and entered the workshop of Peter Lastman, and then returned to Leiden, where in 1625 he began an independent creative life. In 1631, Rembrandt finally moved to Amsterdam, and the rest of the master's life is connected with this city.
The work of Rembrandt is imbued with a philosophical comprehension of life and the inner world of man. This is the pinnacle of the development of Dutch art of the 17th century. The artistic legacy of Rembrandt is distinguished by a variety of genres. He painted portraits, still lifes, landscapes, genre scenes, paintings on historical, biblical, mythological themes. But the greatest depth of the artist's work is achieved in the last years of his life. The Uffizi has three works by the great master. This is a self-portrait in youth, a self-portrait in old age, a portrait of an old man (rabbi). In many later works, the artist plunges the entire surface of the canvas into dusk, focusing the viewer's attention on the face.
This is how Rembrandt portrayed himself at the age of 23.
The period of moving to Amsterdam was marked in the creative biography of Rembrandt by the creation of many male and female studies.
In 1653, experiencing financial difficulties, the artist transferred almost all his property to his son Titus, after which he declared bankruptcy in 1656. After the sale of the house and property, the artist moved to the outskirts of Amsterdam, to the Jewish quarter, where he spent the rest of his life. The closest person to him in those years, apparently, was Titus, because. his images are the most numerous. The death of Titus in 1668 was one of the last strokes of fate for the artist; he himself was gone a year later. "Matthew and the Angel" (1661). Perhaps the model for the angel was Titus.
The last two decades of Rembrandt's life were the pinnacle of his skill as a portrait painter. The models are the artist's comrades (Nicholas Breining
7. Jan Delft Vermeer
dutch art painting still life
Vermeer Delftsky Jan (1632-1675) - Dutch painter, the largest master of the Dutch genre and landscape painting. Vermeer worked in Delft. As an artist, he developed under the influence of Karel Fabricius, who tragically died in the explosion of a powder warehouse.
Vermeer's early paintings have sublimity of imagery ( Christ with Martha and Mary ). A strong influence on the work of Vermeer had the work of the master of genre painting Peter de Hooch. The style of this painter is further developed in the paintings of Vermeer.
From the second half of the 50s, Vermeer painted small paintings with one or more figures in the silvery light of the interior of the house ( Girl with a letter Maid with a jug of milk ). In the late 50s, Vermeer created two masterpieces of landscape painting: a soulful painting street with shining, fresh, clean, colors and picture View of the city of Delft . In the 60s, Vermeer's work becomes more refined, and painting becomes cold. ( Girl with a pearl earring.
In the late 60s, the artist often depicted richly furnished rooms where ladies and gentlemen play music and have gallant conversations.
In the last years of Vermeer's life, his financial situation deteriorated greatly. Demand for paintings fell sharply, the painter was forced to take out loans to feed eleven children and other family members. This probably hastened the approach of death. It is not known what happened - an acute illness, or depression due to finances, but Vermeer was buried in 1675 in the family vault in Delft.
Vermeer's individual art after his death was not appreciated by his contemporaries. Interest in him was revived only in the 19th century, thanks to the activities of the art critic and art historian Etienne Theophile Thoret, who "discovered" Vermeer for the general public.
Conclusion
The appeal to reality helped to expand the artistic possibilities of Dutch art, enriched its genre theme. If before the 17th century biblical and mythological themes were of great importance in European fine art, and other genres were poorly developed, then in Dutch art the ratio between genres changes dramatically. There is a rise of such genres as: everyday genre, portrait, landscape, still life. The biblical and mythological scenes themselves in Dutch art are largely losing their former forms of embodiment and are now interpreted as everyday paintings.
With all the achievements, Dutch art also carried some specific features of limitation - a narrow circle of plots and motives. Another minus: only some masters sought to find their deep basis in phenomena.
But in many compositional paintings, portraits, the images are of the deepest nature, and landscapes show the true and real nature. This has become a distinctive feature of Dutch art. Thus, the painters made a great breakthrough in art, having mastered the difficult and complex ability to paint images of the inner world of a person and experience.
The test gave me the opportunity to test my creative abilities, replenish my theoretical knowledge, learn more about Dutch artists and their work.
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We all know that unique works of art have been created in Holland for centuries. But what is happening on the contemporary art scene today? Which of the young artists will be able to take a place in history? In Amsterdam, as in many other major Dutch cities, there are many interesting galleries that host great exhibitions of talented creative artists from all over the country. Since there are a huge number of contemporary Dutch artists known both at home and abroad, their works can be found both in large museums of the Stedelijk level and in small galleries KochxBos Gallery or Nederlands Fotomuseum.
Below are five emerging Dutch artists who have caught the world's attention and are sure to contribute to the art history of the Netherlands.
Daan Roosegaard
“The purpose of my work is to make people think about the future,” Roosegaard says. This artist and innovator is the winner of several awards. He rose to prominence in the contemporary art world with his 2006 installation Dune. Interactive illuminated signage installed along the Meuse River in Rotterdam has opened doors for an artist obsessed with technology, design and architecture. In his work, Roosegaard creates a futuristic world in which people and technology interact harmoniously with each other. From February to May 5, the Lotus Dome will be exhibited in the Beuning Hall at the Rijksmuseum. This two-meter dome reacts to the approach of people: hundreds of aluminum flowers bloom, feeling the warmth of the visitors.
Levy van Veluwe
The traditional ways of creating works of art by van Veluwu, an artist from Heuvelaken, are clearly not enough. His portfolio includes photographs, sculptures, drawings and installations, and using himself as a material is a hallmark of his work. It is no coincidence that his first exhibition at the Ron Mandos Gallery in Amsterdam featured a series of six photographs depicting beautifully detailed ballpoint pen drawings. Instead of a canvas, the artist painted on his own face. The connection between the body and the surface was discovered by post-war artists who developed the art of performance to a level never seen before. But using everyday objects like a pen to create a piece of art was essential to van Veluwe's success. By developing the idea in his personal style, Levi van Veluwe was able to showcase his work in the world's best museums and bring Dutch contemporary art to the international stage.
Tony Van Til
Tony Van Til graduated with a degree in Fine Arts from St. Just, an educational institution located in the small southern town of Breda, in 2007. After graduation, the young artist is engaged in interesting projects. One of them is "Sculptures on Twitter". Since 2012, he has maintained a Twitter account, where he describes ideas for sculptures in 140 characters. For example, one of the ideas is “a portrait of a Botox beauty, enlarged to the size of a 4-story wall”, others are more abstract: creating “shadows with growing pain”. Other works of the artist include a series of drawings containing more ideas for sculptures. Is tweeting creative? For Van Til, the answer is yes.
Anouk Kruithof
This Dordrecht-based artist uses photographs as source material for sculptures, installations, books and brochures to give away. She occasionally creates anonymous items (such as postcards and posters) that visitors can take home. The Stedelijk Museum is currently hosting an exhibition of her and fellow Dutch artist Pauline Olseten. The installation on the first floor presents their interpretation of street photography. A characteristic feature of the works is an underlined admiration for people and strangers. Another aspect of life that draws her attention is color. According to the artist, she “creates order in chaos” using the color gradation method.
Harma Hykens
It's hard not to mention Harma Heykens when talking about contemporary Dutch art. Her first exhibitions date back to the early 1990s. The life-size sculptures combine manga style with contemporary street art. The work of Harma Heykens is not easy to perceive, especially at first. Many even called them "quirky kitsch." This is due to the fact that the artist has chosen a very painful topic: the exploitation of children in a consumer society where values are distorted. Her sculptures depict the disturbed world of poor and exploited children, acting as a wake-up call to the viewer to address deep-seated social problems.
