Basic information, device Viola or violin viola - a stringed bowed musical instrument of the same device as the violin, but somewhat larger, which makes it sound in a lower register. Names of the viola in other languages: viola (Italian); viola (English); alto (French); bratsche (German); alttoviulu (Finnish). The viola strings are tuned a fifth below the violin and an octave above the cello.

Basic information, origin Apkhyarts or apkhiarts is a bowed stringed musical instrument, one of the main folk musical instruments of the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples. The name "apkhyartsa" in its origin is connected with the military life of the people and goes back to the word "apkhartsaga", which in translation into Russian means "what encourages you to go forward." Abkhazians also use singing to the accompaniment of apkhyartsu as a healing tool. Under

Basic information Arpeggione (Italian arpeggione) or cello guitar, love guitar is a stringed bowed musical instrument. It is close to the cello in terms of size and sound production, but, like the guitar, it has six strings and frets on the fingerboard. The German name for the arpegione is Liebes-Guitarre, the French name is Guitarre d'amour. Origin, history Arpegione was designed in 1823 by the Viennese master Johann Georg Staufer; a little

Basic information, origin Banhu is a Chinese stringed bowed musical instrument, a kind of huqin. The traditional banhu has been used primarily as an accompaniment instrument in northern Chinese musical drama, northern and southern Chinese operas, or as a solo instrument and in ensembles. In the 20th century, the banhu began to be used as an orchestral instrument. There are three types of banhu - high, medium and

Basic information, history, types of viols Viola (Italian viola) is an ancient stringed bowed musical instrument of various types. Violas form a family of ancient stringed bowed musical instruments with frets on the fingerboard. The viol developed from the Spanish vihuela. Violas were widely used in church, court and folk music. In the 16-18 centuries, as a solo, ensemble and orchestral instrument, the tenor instrument became especially widespread.

Basic information Viola d'amore (Italian viola d'amore - viola of love) is an old stringed bowed musical instrument of the viol family. Viola d'amore was widely used from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century, then gave way to the viola and cello. Interest in viola d'amore revived at the beginning of the 20th century. The instrument has six or seven strings, on the earliest models -

Viola da gamba (Italian: viola da gamba - foot viola) is an ancient stringed bowed musical instrument of the viol family, similar in size and range to the modern cello. The viola da gamba was played while sitting, holding the instrument between the legs or laying it sideways on the thigh - hence the name. Of the entire viol family, the viola da gamba is the longest of all instruments.

Basic information, device, playing The cello is a bowed stringed musical instrument of the bass and tenor register, known from the first half of the 16th century. The cello is widely used as a solo instrument, the cello group is used in string and symphony orchestras, the cello is an obligatory member of the string quartet, in which it is the lowest sounding instrument, and is also often used in other compositions

Basic information Gadulka is a Bulgarian folk stringed bowed musical instrument used to accompany dances or songs and has a special soft harmonic sound. Origin, history The origin of the gadulka is associated with the Persian kemancha, the Arab rebab and the medieval European rebek. The shape of the body and sound holes of the gadulka is very similar to the so-called armudi kemenche (also known as the Constantinople lyre,

Basic information Gidzhak (gydzhak) is a stringed bowed musical instrument of the peoples of Central Asia (Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Tajiks, Turkmens). Gidjak has a spherical body and is made of pumpkin, large walnut, wood or other materials. Lined with leather. The number of gidzhak strings is variable, most often - three. The structure of the three-stringed gijak is a quarter, usually - es1, as1, des2 (E-flat, A-flat of the first octave, D-flat of the second octave).

Basic information Gudok is a stringed bowed musical instrument. The most common horn was in the 17-19 centuries among buffoons. The horn has a hollowed-out wooden body, usually oval or pear-shaped, as well as a flat soundboard with resonator holes. The neck of the horn has a short fretless neck holding 3 or 4 strings. You can play the horn by setting it

Basic information Jouhikko (jouhikannel, jouhikantele) is an ancient Finnish bowed stringed musical instrument. Similar to the 4-string Estonian hiukannel. Youhikko has a dugout boat-shaped or other figured birch body, covered with a spruce or pine soundboard with resonator holes, and a side cutout that forms a handle. Strings are usually 2-4. As a rule, the strings are hair or gut. The jouhikko scale is fourth or fourth-fifth. During

Basic information Kemenche is a folk stringed bowed musical instrument, akin to the Arab rebab, the medieval European rebec, the French bag, the Bulgarian gadulka. Pronunciation options and synonyms: kemendzhe, kemendzhesi, kemencha, kemancha, kyamancha, kemendzes, kementsia, keman, lira, pontiac lira. Video: Kemenche on video + sound Thanks to these videos you can get acquainted with the instrument, watch the real game on it, listen to it

Basic information Kobyz is a Kazakh national stringed bowed musical instrument. Kobyz does not have an upper board and consists of a hollowed-out hemisphere covered with a bubble, with a handle attached to it at the top and with a release at the bottom for supporting the stand. Two strings, tied to kobyz, are twisted from horsehair. They play the kobyz, squeezing it in their knees (like a cello),

Basic information The double bass is the largest stringed bowed musical instrument that combines the features of the violin family and the viol family. The modern double bass has four strings, although double basses of the 17th and 18th centuries may have had three strings. The double bass has a thick, hoarse, but somewhat muffled timbre, which is why it is rarely used as a solo instrument. The main scope of its application is the symphony orchestra,

Basic information Morin khuur is a stringed bowed musical instrument of Mongolian origin. Morin khuur is distributed in Mongolia, regionally in the north of China (primarily the Inner Mongolia region) and Russia (in Buryatia, Tuva, the Irkutsk region and the Trans-Baikal Territory). In China, the morin khuur is called matouqin, which means "horse head instrument". Origin, history One of the Mongolian legends attributes

Background The Nikelharpa is a traditional Swedish bowed stringed musical instrument that has had several modifications as it has evolved over 600 years. In Swedish, "nyckel" means key. The word "harpa" is usually used to refer to stringed instruments like the guitar or violin. The nyckelharpa is sometimes referred to as the "Swedish keyboard fiddle". The very first evidence of the use of nikelharpa is the image of two musicians playing this instrument,

Basic information, device Rabanastre is an Indian stringed bowed musical instrument, related to the Chinese erhu and remotely Mongolian morin khuur. Rabanastre has a wooden cylindrical body of small size, covered with a leather soundboard (most often made of snakeskin). A long neck in the form of a wooden rod passes through the body, near the upper end of which pegs are fixed. The rabanaster has two strings. Usually silk strings

Basic information Rebab is a bowed stringed musical instrument of Arabic origin. The word "rebab" in Arabic means the combination of short sounds into one long one. The body of the rebab is wooden, flat or convex, trapezoid or heart-shaped, with small notches on the sides. The shells are made of wood or coconut, the soundboards are made of leather (from the intestines of a buffalo or bladder of other animals). The neck is long

Basic information, device, origin Rebec is an ancient stringed bowed musical instrument. The Rebecque consists of a pear-shaped wooden body (without shells). The upper tapering part of the body of which goes directly into the neck. The deck has 2 resonator holes. The rebec has 3 strings that are tuned in fifths. Rebec appeared in Western European countries around the 12th century. Applied until the 3rd quarter

Basic information The violin is a stringed bowed musical instrument of a high register. Violins occupy a leading place among stringed bowed instruments - the most important part of a modern symphony orchestra. Perhaps no other instrument has such a combination of beauty, expressiveness of sound and technical mobility. In the orchestra, the violin performs various and multifaceted functions. Very often violins, due to their exceptional melodiousness, are used for

Currently, the following bowed instruments are used in symphonic and operatic music: violin, viola, cello and double bass, which are the result of a long development of various previous types of bowed stringed instruments.
It is difficult to determine the time of occurrence of bowed instruments. There is an assumption that the East was their cradle and that the so-called rebab and kemancha were imported into Spain by Arab musicians in the 8th century. But at the same time, in Europe in the 8th century, a five-stringed bowed instrument, the crotta, was already known. The oldest bowed instruments were without frets. Frets appeared only in the 14th century after the spread of the lute, which was also brought to Europe by the Arabs and revolutionized the design of bowed instruments.
Subsequently, bowed instruments underwent major structural changes, and, in the end, the instruments called viols established a shape with carved sides.
According to the method of performance, the violas fell into two groups: hand violas (viola da braccio), closest to the violin and viola, and foot or knee violas (viola da gamba).
Manual viols were divided into treble, alto and tenor; foot viols - on bass and contrabass. The latter sounded an octave below the bass ones.
All these violas were very different from the modern violin, viola and cello in external form, the number of strings and the shape of the sound holes.
The resonance box of the viols in the upper part (toward the neck) is not
sharpened a lot, the side cutouts had the shape of a regular semicircle, both sound boards were almost completely flat, and the sound holes had the shape of two sickle-shaped cutouts located like this: () or like this:) (.
The number of strings for the viols ranged from five (French treble viola) to seven.

Sometimes, along with the playing gut strings, the underlying resonant (aliquot) metal strings were also stretched on the viols. The strings on the viols were placed at short distances from each other and very close to the fretted fretboard; as a result of this, and also because of the small curvature of the bridge, it was not possible to play any loudly on one of the middle strings
As artistic demands increased and performance techniques developed, bowed instruments also improved. The final design of instruments, which provided the most noble, full tone and much wider artistic and technical possibilities, developed by the 16th century, first for the violin, and then was extended to larger instruments. Gradually, the ancient bowed instruments - viols - were replaced by new, more advanced instruments, which were created slowly, in an evolutionary way. Viola, cello and double bass much later violins replaced violas corresponding to their size.
In the 16th-17th centuries, entire schools of craftsmen were already working on the construction of bowed instruments of a new type. The most famous of the violin schools of this time were: Brescia (Gasparo da Salo, Magini family), Cremonese (Amati, Stradivari, Guarneri families), Tyrolean (Jacob Steiner).
Of the Brescia masters, the Magini family stood out in particular; the best violins were created by Giovanni Magini (1580-1651).
The most prominent representative of the Amati family was Nicola Amati (1596-1684), teacher of Andrea Guarneri and Antonio Stradivari. This latter (1644-1737), in turn, was the most famous of the masters of the Stradivari family. The best Antonio Stradivari violins are still considered unsurpassed for their exceptional sound qualities.
The Guarneri family worked in the 17th-18th centuries. The most prominent of the violin makers of this family was Giuseppe Guarneri1 (1698-1744), who created a number of instruments that rivaled the best works of Stradivari. One of the remarkable masters of bowed instruments was the Russian master Ivan Batov (1767-1841), the serf of Count Sheremetev, who created a number of violins, violas and cellos of exceptionally high quality.
Of the masters of the 19th century, the Frenchman J. B. Vuillaume (1798-1875) must first be mentioned. His imitations of Stradivarius violins became widely known.
In the 20th century, violinists began to pay great attention to the bow instruments of Russian masters - A. I. Leman, E. F. Vitachek, T. F. Podgorny.
Modern bowed instruments. Like the old ones, modern bowed instruments, depending on the size, are divided into 2 groups: manual tools and foot.
The hand string instruments include the violin and viola, the foot instruments include the cello and double bass.
1 - top deck and 2 - lower deck - the main resonating parts (together with the shell they make up the body of the instrument); inside between the decks there is a darling (stick-strut) for transmitting vibrations from the top deck to the bottom; 3 - shell, 4 - neck - a place for pressing the strings (has a curvature); 5 - sub-neck or semi-neck (hanging freely) - serves to secure the strings; 6 - neck - carries a neck; 7 - peg box - to strengthen the pegs; 8 - a curl - the end of a peg box (there are curly ones; ancient masters often made a curl in the form of a human or lion's head); 9 - pegs - serve to stretch the strings (wooden, unlike metal pegs of plucked instruments); 10 - nut - serves to limit the sounding part of the strings (has a curvature similar to the fretboard); 11 - stand - limits the sounding part of the strings, supports them, forms a curvature in the arrangement of the strings, transmits their vibrations to the decks; 12 - button - serves to secure the semi-neck (the cello and double bass also have a spire-emphasis); 13 - efi - vents; 14 - mustache - frame decks; 15 - chin rest (available only for hand tools); 16 - spire (available only for foot instruments).

Strings. All bowed instruments have four strings. The strings used are metal (steel) and intestinal (core), including those entwined with aluminum or silver thread. Recently, along with intestinal strings, nylon strings have also become widespread.
Thin metal strings, not entwined with a gimp, are used only for the 1st string of the violin.
Intestinal 3 strings of various thicknesses are used: for the 2nd and 3rd strings of the violin (now out of use),
for the 1st and 2nd viola strings (now also obsolete),
for the 1st and 2nd strings of the cello (the intestinal second strings of the cello are almost never found today),
for the 1st and 2nd strings of the double bass.
Metal strings entwined with aluminum thread are used:
for 2nd violin string,
for 1st viola string,
for 1st cello string.

1 - shaft, or cane (springs in the opposite direction from the hair); 2 - a block for fixing the hair (the other end of the hair is fixed at the end of the cane or shaft), moves along the cane by rotating the screw; 3 - a screw for tensioning the hair by moving the block; 4 - hair (horse), rubbed with rosin to avoid silent sliding along the string; 5 - the end of a cane, or shaft.

Intestinal (nylon) strings entwined with aluminum thread are used:
for the 3rd string of the violin, for the 2nd string of the viola, for the 2nd string of the cello.
Intestinal1 strings entwined with silver thread are used:
for the 4th string of the violin, for the 3rd and 4th strings of the viola, for the 3rd and 4th strings of the cello, for the 3rd and 4th strings of the double bass.
At the same tension, a thinner string sounds higher than a thicker one, and a longer string sounds lower than a shorter one.
A string entwined with a gimp sounds lower than a string of the same diameter not twirled with silver or aluminum gimp.
The length of the strings is determined by the size of the instrument. This refers to the length of the sounding segment of the string - between the threshold and the stand.
Vibration of strings. The strings, fixed at two points (on the peg and on the neck) and stretched by the peg to the desired degree, have a sounding part between the nut (lower limit) and stand (upper limit).
The pitch of the sound depends on the tension of the string. The tighter the string is stretched, the higher the sound.
The sound is obtained as a result of the oscillation of an elastic body (the source of sound - in this case, the string), which is taken out of equilibrium and seeks to restore this equilibrium:

A stretched string - an elastic body A-B - brought out of equilibrium into position a "tends to return to its original position a, but due to inertia it passes the boundary a and reaches position a". Then, trying to return to position a again, it also, thanks to inertia, reaches almost position a "then back almost to position a" ... So the string will oscillate, gradually calming down, until the oscillations completely stop, that is, until the moment when it again takes position a.
The distance between points a" and a" is called on a grand scale or oscillation amplitude.
The time during which the body will cover the distance from a" to a" and back to a "is called the duration or period of full oscillation.
In the process of calming down the vibrations of the string, the sound gradually dies out and completely stops when the string returns to position a.
The place of the greatest amplitude of the vibrations of the string (its middle) is called the antinode, and the place where the string is fixed (where the amplitude is zero) is called the node.
The sound a is obtained as a result of 440 double oscillations (880 simple) 1 per second. Twice the number of vibrations produces a sound one octave higher, half the number produces a sound one octave lower.
So a has a number of double oscillations equal to: 440:2 = = 220.
A -220: 2=110,

A 1 - 110: 2 \u003d 55,

A 2 - 55: 2 \u003d 27.5
Accordingly, a 2 has the number of double vibrations equal to: 440*2=880.
and 3 -880 * 2 \u003d 1760, and 4 - 1760 * 2 \u003d 3520.
The lowest sounds are given by long and thick strings (entwined with a cantle). High sounds give strings short, thin. These conditions are maintained under relatively equal tension. Strings that are artificially weakened (i.e., strings that are loosely stretched), although they will approximately give the desired tone, are flabby, weak and not stable in pitch. On the contrary, overstretched strings give a booming and inexpressive tone.
Left hand technique. A variety of pitch possibilities is achieved on stringed instruments by shortening the stretched strings with the fingers of the left hand and thus obtaining sounds higher than those produced by strings that are not shortened by pressing the fingers to the fretboard.
Strings are called open if the sound is obtained from the vibration of the entire string, not shortened by pressing the fingers of the left hand. The sounding part of the open (empty) string is located between the nut and the stand. The fingers of the left hand shorten the string, pressing it against the fretboard in various places. Then the sounding part of the string will be between the pressing place and the stand.
If you shorten the string by 1/2 (twice), that is, press it in the middle, then the sounding part of it will become half as long as that of the open string, and the sound will turn out to be an octave higher than the sound of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/3, that is, press it at a distance of 1/3 from the nut, then the sounding part will be equal to 2/3 of the length of the open string, and the sound will turn out to be a fifth higher than that of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/4, then the sounding part will be equal to 3/4 of the open string and the sound will turn out to be a quart higher than that of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/5, then the sounding part will be equal to 4/5 of the open string and the sound will turn out to be a major third higher than that of the open string 2.
If you shorten the string by 1/6, then the sounding part will be equal to 5/6 of the open string and the sound will turn out to be a minor third higher than that of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/9, then the sounding part will be equal to 8/9 of the open string and the sound will turn out to be a large second higher than that of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/16, then the sounding part will be equal to 15/16 of the open string and the sound will turn out to be a small second higher than that of the open string.
Overtones. A string, like any elastic body, experiences a complex oscillatory motion, consisting of a number of simple ones. It oscillates not only in its entire length, but simultaneously in separate parts: two halves, three thirds, four quarters, five fifths, six sixths, etc.
Each partial vibration gives its own sound. Therefore, when the string vibrates, in addition to the fundamental tone corresponding to the vibration of the entire string, we hear a whole series of higher overtones, called partial tones, or overtones, corresponding to the vibrations of the halves of the string (2nd overtone), the third string (3rd overtone), quarter strings (4th overtone), etc.
These vibrational movements of the string can be represented by the following scheme:


Thus, each part of a vibrating string gives a corresponding ordinal overtone. The successive series of overtones is called natural or acoustic rock.
Suppose that when vibrated, the whole string gives the sound (fundamental tone) C. In this case, when the string is successively divided into two halves, three thirds, four quarters, etc.
flageolets. A harmonic is an overtone isolated from the composition of the timbre of a sounding string. Harmonics arise as a result of the division of a sounding string into a series of equal in length and therefore equally sounding segments. This is achieved by a light touch (and by no means a firm pressure!) of the finger to any place where the string is divided into one or another number of equal parts. It is clear that with such a light touch, not the usual shortening of the string will occur, but only the selection of one overtone


(namely, having a node here) at the expense of all the others (having antinodes in this place). It does not require special explanation that the place of the greatest amplitude of oscillation - the antinode - cannot be formed where this is prevented by a light touch of the finger; on the contrary, it is the best way to promote a strong knot formation.
If you lightly touch your finger in the middle of the string, then it will be divided into two equally sounding parts (from the nut to the place of touch and from it to the stand). Each of these parts will be equal to 1/2 of the open string, and we will hear the 2nd natural sound (harmonic), that is, the sound, an octave above the open string. With full pressing in this place, only half of the string will sound, that is, a normal (non-flag) sound will appear an octave higher than that of an open string. In this case, the sound of the harmonic corresponds in pitch to the usual sound of the string, but differs from it in timbre.
If you touch in a place corresponding to 1/3 or 2/3 of the length of the string, then it will be divided into three equal, identical-sounding segments, and each of them will be equal to 1/3 of the open string. The 3rd natural sound (harmonic) will sound, that is, the sound is an octave + fifth above the open string.
When fully pressed at 1/3 of the string length, a fifth sound is obtained higher than the open one, and when pressed at 2/3 of the string length, a fifth through an octave will sound, that is, a non-flag tone, corresponding in height to the 3rd overtone.
If you touch the string in a place corresponding to 1/4 or 3/4 of its length (but not in 2/4 = 1/2, since the 2nd natural sound is obtained here), then it will be divided into four equal, equally sounding segments , and each of them will be equal to 1/4 of the open string. The 4th natural sound (harmonic) will sound, that is, the sound is two octaves above the open string.
When fully pressed at 1/4 of the string length, a sound is obtained by a quart above the open one, and when pressed at 3/4 of the string length, an octave through an octave will sound, that is, a non-flag tone corresponding to the 4th overtone.
Sequential division of the string into parts (for extracting harmonics). If we take the sound of the whole string as C, then:
The 2nd natural sound is an octave harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where an octave is obtained with a normally pressed string):

3rd natural sound - fifth harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where, with a normally pressed string, a fifth is obtained):

The 4th natural sound is a fourth harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where a quart is obtained with a normally pressed string):

The 5th natural sound is a large third harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where a large third is obtained with a normally pressed string):

The 6th natural sound is a small third harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where a small third is obtained with a normally pressed string):

The 7th natural sound arises as a result of dividing the string into seven parts (it can be obtained in the place where, with a normally pressed string, an interval is obtained slightly less than a minor third):

The 8th natural sound arises as a result of dividing the string into eight parts (it is possible to treat it in the place where, with a normally pressed string, an interval is obtained even slightly less than a minor third):

On short strings, the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, sometimes 5th overtones are used, on long strings, sometimes the 6th and 8th overtones.
It is better to extract high overtones of the 6th and 8th in places 5/6 and 7/8 of the string length (that is, closer to the stand, to the bow) than at 1/6 and 1/8 of the string length (that is, closer to the nut). ). Under this condition, these overtones also come out on shorter strings.
The timbre of harmonics differs sharply from the timbre of the same sounds extracted in the usual way, since it is not colored by overtones. The harmonics sound very quiet and gentle, they are removed carefully because of the danger of accidentally turning the touch of a finger into a simple pressing, in which the harmonic is destroyed.
Vibration is impossible on natural harmonics.

Note. Vibration is a slight swing of the left hand around the axis (the place where the string is pressed), giving the sound some fluctuation in pitch (imitation of the human voice). It is clear that vibration is absolutely impossible on open strings.

The harmonics are indicated by an O above each note.

Natural and artificial flageolets. Flageolets are natural and artificial.
Natural harmonics are obtained on open strings, that is, on strings that are not shortened by the pressure of the fingers of the left hand.
Artificial harmonics are obtained from an already shortened (pressed) string.
Artificial harmonics are played with two fingers, of which one - closer to the nut - firmly presses the string, and the second touches it at the corresponding point between the place of pressing and the stand.
Artificial harmonics are possible, starting from the fourth and further, in the direction of decreasing the interval (major third, minor third, etc.).
It is not possible to take artificial harmonics larger than a quart, since the normal stretching of the fingers, even on the violin (the smallest instrument) does not exceed a quart.

Note. On the violin, it is possible, as an exception (by a strong stretching of the fingers), a fifth flageolet2.

Recording artificial flags. A complete recording of artificial harmonics includes three elements: 1) the place of tight pressing (shortening) of the string is indicated by the usual note of the required duration; 2) the place of touching the shortened string for its division into parts is indicated by a rhombus located above the note; 3) finally, a small note above the rhombus shows the real sonority of the harmonic:

Sound extraction methods. On bowed instruments, there are three ways to extract sound: 1) by moving the bow along the string; 2) with a pinch of the finger; and 3) by striking the string with the reed (shaft) of the bow.

Bow on the string(reception of the game, called agso). During the movement of the bow, the string vibrates continuously and emits a melodious tone. The stronger the pressure of the bow and the faster its movement (to some extent, both of these factors are interdependent), the stronger the sound of the string. However, excessively strong bow pressure can prevent the string from vibrating freely, in which case the forced sound turns into a creak of rosin-covered horsehair against the string.
The flexibility and expressiveness of the sound of bowed instruments is based on the fact that the performer can directly influence the sound production all the time and give an infinite number of nuances from piano to forte.
Pinchcom(game technique called pizzicato). With this method, a single removal of the string from the state of equilibrium is obtained. After plucking, the sound quickly fades away and its subsequent sound cannot be influenced. Therefore, it makes no sense to write pizzicato otherwise than in quarters or, if necessary, in smaller durations.
The pluck is usually performed with the finger of the right hand, although in practice there are techniques for playing pizzicato with the fingers of the left hand (mainly on open strings).
In the transition from pizzicato to performance with a bow, the word agco is put. The change of techniques of agso and pizzicato implies at least a minimal break in the sound, especially if during agso the bow was directed downward in its movement, as a result of which the right hand moved far away from the string.
Cane tapping(shaft) of a bow on a string (a playing technique called col legno) is rather an effect of a percussive order, since in the resulting sound, the knock prevails over the intonation (the definiteness of the pitch and timbre of the sound).
The place of conducting the bow along the string. The usual location for the bow is midway between the bridge and the end of the neck. This is where the fullest and most expressive sound is extracted.
Sometimes, for the sake of special effect, the sound is extracted by holding the bow at the stand (this technique is called sul ponti-cello). The sound thus obtained is not loud, but sharp and has a characteristic coloration similar to the sound of a harmonica. The sound can also be extracted on the fretboard itself (this technique is called sul tasto). With this technique, a sound of a soft-coldish tone, somewhat flute-like, is obtained.
The peculiar nature of the sound obtained when playing with the bow sul tasto or sul ponticello is explained by the fact that when the bow is played sul tasto, low natural sounds (4th and 5th), which have knots at the place of the bow, are destroyed, and when the bow is drawn sul ponticello the main tone is partially turned off.

Basic principles of the technique of conducting the bow (the so-called technique of the right hand). Holding the bow down (from the block to the end) is indicated by the sign ∏, up (from the end to the block) - by the sign V. In the first case (driving down) a diminuendo naturally turns out, in the second (driving up) - crescendo, since the more the heaviness of the hand itself moves away from the string, the easier it is to extract a quiet, gentle sound from the instrument - and vice versa. Therefore, pianissimo comes out better when played with the end of the bow, while the sharp accents of fortissimo are closer to the stock.
When playing forte, the bow moves along the string faster than when playing piano, so long notes or a large number of notes per bow are possible only with piano.
Strokes. Strokes are called various methods of bow movement. They convey the semantic meaning of the music being performed, and therefore they can rightfully be considered the main means of musical expression when playing bowed instruments.
Over a long period of time, the richest practice of playing - primarily on the violin and the cello - has accumulated many diverse strokes, between which in some cases it is difficult to draw a definite line, to classify them. Therefore, below we will focus on the most basic strokes and only casually touch on some of their most common varieties.
The main strokes should be considered detache, legato, various types of staccato and spiccato, as well as tremolo. Detache (fr.) - a stroke with a distinct attacc "oh, a pronounced declamatory character. This stroke is used to perform energetic phrases that require great fullness and richness of tone:

In a fast movement, the detache stroke can also be used to build a motor order, including rather rapid passages (if you need to achieve sufficient fullness of the sound):

If detache is performed with the longest bow for a given tempo, up to using its entire span, then this technique is usually called grand detache:

As can be seen from all the above examples, the main distinguishing feature of detache, regardless of the tempo, the strength of the sound and the span of the bow, is the execution of one note for each movement of the bow in one direction. On this basis, this and other strokes similar to it (for example, sautille described below) are called divided.
On the contrary, legato is a stroke that includes several notes on one bow. In contrast to the declamatory nature of the detache, the smooth movement of the legato reproduces to the greatest extent precisely the songlike, ariose side of human singing.
In legato notation, each league denotes one direction of the bow. Here are examples of melodic phrases played legato:

The jerky strokes - staccato and spiccato - differ from each other in that staccato is performed without breaking the bow from the string, while spiccato is based precisely on the bouncing of the bow after each contact with the string.
The essence of a staccato is an energetic push with a bow, after which there is an instant weakening of the sound. In the staccato passage above, all eighth notes and, of course, sixteenth notes are played staccato (each of the sixteenth notes is played by moving the bow in the same direction as the previous eighth note separated from it by a pause):

As for quarter notes with dots above them, in this case the length of the sound itself (bow push) is much shorter than the period of sonority decay (almost complete stop of the bow movement). In addition, before each new push there is a real stop to change direction. A similar way of playing staccato with an accentuated divided stroke is called martele. It is sometimes indicated by elongated pointed wedges above notes or by verbal indication.
Each note of a normal staccato can be played in either or the opposite direction of bow movement with respect to the previous one(s).
In the example below, two ways of performing a dotted staccato can be indicated: a divided stroke (that is, by alternating ∏ and V) and two staccato notes per bow direction:

Therefore, two or more staccato notes can be played in the same direction. Each of them corresponds to its own special light movement (push) with a bow.
Let us cite, for example, a fairly common technique in virtuoso practice for performing a significant number of staccato notes in one direction of the bow (easier upwards); it should only be stipulated that this stroke does not apply in group play:

As mentioned above, spiccato is the main bouncing stroke. The main feature of such strokes is their lightness, airiness.
Here are some examples of the various uses of spiccato. A graceful, moderately tempo excerpt from the Nutcracker Overture:

Sautille differs from the usual spiccato in that with an increase in speed, the performer ceases to control individual movements of the bow and from that moment the mechanical, motor nature of the stroke begins to dominate, regulated by the elasticity of the bow, its ability to repel from the string.
An example of a sautille is the Flight of the Bumblebee from The Tale of Tsar Saltan:

All spiccato are played in the middle third of the bow - in forte closer to the stock, in piano closer to its end. In addition, as the speed of movement increases (this is especially true for motor varieties), the bow also moves from the middle to its end.
Of the jumping undivided strokes, the most common stroke is a throw - the so-called ricochet. This stroke is possible not only on one string:

but also when transitioning from string to string, for example, when performing arpeggiated groupings on three or four strings:

It is hardly necessary to specifically explain that with the help of jumping motor strokes it is impossible to achieve any significant sound power.
One of the most common orchestral strokes is tremolo. It is the repetition of one note by quickly alternating movement of the bow in different directions without tearing it off the string (the so-called tremolo of the right hand). The louder sonority you need to get when playing tremolo, the more swing you have to make with a bow. Loud sonority is extracted by the middle of the bow with a large scope of its movement; on the contrary, a barely audible tremolo (literally, a rustle) can be obtained only at the end of the bow, with its almost imperceptible movement.

Note. This type of tremolo should not be confused with a sequence of two rapidly alternating notes per bow (the so-called left hand tremolo):

Tremolo is predominantly an orchestral touch because the unity of its sound is made up of individual tremolo of different speeds of movement of the right hand (of course, except for those cases when the speed of repeated notes is strictly prescribed by the author).
The practice of playing bowed instruments has developed a significant number of stroke techniques that make the performance lively, meaningful, expressive. Unfortunately, not all of these techniques are accurately reflected in musical notation, and performers often only have to guess what technique to play this or that phrase, how to distribute parts of the bow so as not to spoil the music with wrong accents, where it is better to use staccato, and where spiccato, etc., etc. In other words, the composer largely depends on the performers - their tact, sensitivity, musicality. All this all the more obliges each author of a new work to indicate in detail in the score all his intentions. Of course, in the process of work, performers will be able to offer more successful phrasing options (shading), but it must be borne in mind that correct sentences, in turn, can arise only on the basis of an accurate idea of ​​the author's intention.
Let us give several examples where the character of the stroke decisively determines the phrasing and therefore requires detailed instructions on this matter.

then it will already be a style of play called marcato (highlighting, emphasizing).
Recently, another stroke has firmly entered the practice of the game - the middle one between the strongly accented detache and spiccato. In relation to the example just given in the entry, this execution technique would look like this:

that is, it would differ from previous methods of performance in that each accented note would be separated from the adjacent one by a small pause (separation of the bow from the string).
Among the techniques of playing bowed instruments, a special place is occupied by the performance of three- and four-sound chords. Usually they are played as if adding up from the two intervals that make up each chord:

Some performers suggested playing chords arpeggiated:

however, it was the first method that became widespread.
Sequences of three- and four-sound chords are possible, each of which is taken with the bow down. With proper bow force, three-sound chords can be struck non arpeggiato, that is, all three strings can be played simultaneously (with the bow drawn closer to the fretboard; as the force of sonority increases, it approaches the bridge). It goes without saying that the pop arpeggiato is a short-lived, jerky effect.
Four-note chords cannot be taken non arpeggiato at all, although in significant forte it is possible to reduce the sequence of intervals that form a chord to a minimum.
Here is a clear example of the group application of three- and four-note chords, most of which are performed in pop arpeggiato.

IN chordophones, as their name implies (from the Greek "chord" - string), the sound is extracted by vibrating tightly stretched strings:

1) through the influence of the bow on them: violin, viola da gamba, ravel, rebec:

Violin

viola da gamba

rebec

2) with the help of direct plucking of the strings with fingers or a plectrum (pick).In this case, the instruments may have a neck, fingerboard and resonators - lute, guitar, mandolin:

Lute.

Guitar.

Mandolin.

or not have a neck with a fingerboard, but be only a harmonic box or resonator, such as ,kifar:

String instruments can be plucked (string selection) - psalterions, psaltery, zither:

Psaltery.

Zither

Gusli.

or percussion —dulcema, cymbalon:

Cymbalon.

It is worth noting that in the Middle Ages the "descendants" of percussion string instruments received a keyboard mechanism. Thus, we must consider the harpsichord, spinet and virginel as a direct legacy of the medieval psalterions and zithers, in view of the fact that their strings are struck by small plectrums.

harpsichord

Spinet.

Virginal.

Meanwhile, dulsemes belong to the "genealogy" clavichord, piano and grand piano.

Clavichord.

Piano.

Piano.

String instruments.

The sound of stringed bowed instruments.

Bow instruments have been known since the 8th century, and the region of Uzbekistan and the territory near the Aral Sea is considered their homeland. From here, bowed instruments spread east to the musical cultures of India and China, while at the same time along the Persian route to the south and west, reaching Islamic territories. Bowed string appeared in the Balkan zone cordafon who arrived on the European continent through Byzantium. Also on the Iberian (Iberian) Peninsula, as early as the 11th century, we find extensive information and iconography related to bowed instruments, primarily to ravel(three-stringed shepherd's violin). Ligerica- also an old three-stringed instrument of Croatia. Outwardly, the lizherika is a pear-shaped wooden musical instrument consisting of three strings. The game is played with a bow and accompanies various dances. The musician plays the instrument while sitting, holding the lizherika on his left knee. At the same time, the performer beats the right rhythm for the dancers with his right foot. The dancers, when performed in pairs, move around the musician in a circle.

But the most significant bowed instrument of the Middle Ages was viola, also called bow vihuela and known to musicologists (organologists) as fidula.

In fact, from the named instrument at the end of the 15th century. happened viola da gamba, also known in Castile as vihuela de pierna, bowed vihuela or violon, whose instrumental family was one of the most significant in the Renaissance and Baroque.

The named violas had different timbres and sizes, and they were played leaning on the knees (soproano) or placed between the legs (tenor and bass). The range of the viola was fixed by frets, and therefore they were of a polyphonic nature. With a flat back and a slightly convex harmonic top, they had five or six strings tuned in fourths (seven strings at the end of the 17th century). The viola repertoire was extremely diverse, primarily from the French school, in which the names of Saint-Colombes (d. between 1691 and 1701), De Machy (1685 - 1692), Louis de Ka d "Hervelois (1670 or 1680 - ca. . 1760), Antoine Forkeret (1671 or 1672 - 1745) and Marin Mare (1656 - 1728). Also in England of the 16th - 17th centuries a whole galaxy of composers appeared who wrote music for violas: Tobias Hume (c. 1569 - 1645), Orlando Gibbons (1583 - 1625), Christopher Ty (1498 - 1572), Matthew Locke (c. 1630 - 1677), Henry Purcell (c. 1659 - 1695) and John Jenkins (1592 - 1678).

But already in the XVII century. violas began to be forced out of the musical Olympus by another family of bowed instruments that replaced them - violin family (violin, viola, cello and double bass). These instruments immediately gained popularity among both composers and listeners. Relative to the viola da gamba, violins have a more restrained body, narrower side contours (shells), a higher stand (and therefore have greater sonority and pitch), four strings tuned in fifths, and a longer bow.

Double bass, cello, viola, violin (from left to right)

Tomaso Albinoni - Adagio - String Quartet

Finally, among the family of bowed stringed instruments, the so-called viola de rueda (wheel viola), derivative of a medieval instrument called "organistrum".

The sound of this instrument is extracted by rubbing against the strings of the wheel, driven by the handle. As the wheel begins to spin, it hits the strings and makes a sound that resembles (to a certain extent) the sound of a bagpipe. The instrument had several different bass strings and, in addition, two melody strings in unison. Although its origins are associated with monastic music, it quickly became a folk instrument, typical of itinerant musicians who used it to accompany their singing.

Stringed plucked instruments.

Plucked chordophones have also been known since antiquity.

The sound of stringed plucked instruments.

Already in the III millennium BC. an instrument like the lyre was very popular in Mesopotamia. Exported to Greece, it was improved here and later distributed in Rome. According to myth, the first lyre was made by Hermes from a tortoise shell and presented to Apollo. She had a flat, rounded body with a leather membrane. At first, wooden and bone pegs were used to tension the strings, later - metal ones.

The ancient stringed plucked instruments also include kithara, having a narrow rectangular wooden body (resonator), two handles attached to the body in the longitudinal direction, and a crossbar connecting the handles. The strings were the same length but different thicknesses, which allowed the pitch to be adjusted.

Another branch of stringed plucked instruments - harps mentioned already in the Book of Samuel (Old Testament). Also, these instruments were known in Mesopotamia, Africa and parts of Asia. Later, the harp penetrated Europe, and in the 5th century. became famous in Ireland.

It is also necessary to mention lute, which was very popular in all musical cultures of the world.

Allemande performed by Robert Barto on Baroque Lute. This sonata can be heard on the Naxos recording "Weiss volume 8" 8.570109

But the most popular of the group of plucked chordaphones is undoubtedly the guitar. True, in the Renaissance, the guitar was inferior in popularity to the viola and lute.

Many types of stringed instruments are combined according to a particular characteristic. Their sound is produced when a stretched strip of material (usually wire, silk or gut) begins to vibrate in contact with a bow or other object. The parameters of the sound emitted by a string depend on the length, flexibility, and tension.

In the Western countries, gut or wire was the approved string material, while in the East, silk was used. The gut was used in antiquity by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Wire was not used until the 14th century when wire drawing was invented. This discovery also led to the invention of stringed keyboard instruments (clavichord, harpsichord, clavicembalo and pianoforte). Due to the fact that only wire and gut were known in the West as the material for strings, today keyboard instruments are made up of the above materials.

There are a large number of folk bowed instruments. Occasionally, a part is written out for the lowest stringed bowed instrument, the octobass. The range of the entire bow group covers almost seven octaves from up to the counteroctave up to the fifth octave.

Bowed bows were formed and improved around the end of the 17th century, only the bow in its modern form appeared by the end of the 18th century. Despite the timbre differences between the individual instruments of the group, in the mass they sound uniform. This is due to the unity of the design and the general principle of sound production.

Varieties of bowed string instruments:

• Harp Lyra Gusli Lute

  Violin Alto Cello

  double bass Oktobas

The source of sound for all instruments is the strings, which resonate with the body of the instrument and transmit vibrations through the air to the listener. Sound extraction is performed with a bow (arco) or fingers (pizzicato).

Bowed instruments are the basis of symphony and chamber orchestras, it is not possible to imagine music without this group. It is stringed musical instruments that give the melody smoothness, length, and grace. The sound in the instruments of this group is extracted with the help of a bow, which is drawn along the stretched strings. The strings resonate with the body of the instrument and transmit the vibrations of the air to the listeners. Unlike, bow strings do not have frets, which makes it difficult for musicians to play and learn. Finding the place to press the string to get the right sound is a matter of many years of study, talent, painstaking work and a delicate ear for music.

The closest ancestor of the modern violin and cello is the viola (Italian for flower), which appeared in the 15th century. Further formation and improvement of bowed instruments, as we see them today, took place in the second half of the 18th century. Not only playing, but also making stringed bowed instruments was considered a great art. The names of the great masters of that time - Antonio Stradivari, Nicolo Amati, Giuseppe Guarneri and others - are known to this day even to people far from music, and the bowed instruments made by the maestro have an amazing sound, not to mention their cost. There are a large number of stringed bowed instruments in the world. The most common are the instruments that are used in academic music making: violin, viola, cello and double bass. Occasionally, in symphonic scores, a part is written out for the lowest-sounding bowed instrument - the octobass.

Academic musical stringed bowed instruments

Violin."Queen of the Orchestra" It is a bowed string instrument of the upper register. Despite the outward fragility and elegance, it is fraught with enormous possibilities and unexpected power of sound, and is absolutely deservedly considered the most perfect musical instrument. The violin consists of two main parts - the body of a specific rounded shape and the neck, on which the strings and the peg box are located. A violin bow is made from a wooden cane on which horsehair is stretched.

Alto. Despite the total popularity of the violin, the viola is an important component of the symphony orchestra. Both in size and age (appeared at the end of the 15th century), the viola can be called the “big brother” of the great violin. The sound of the viola is thicker, velvety, but less bright. The size of the instrument requires slightly different playing techniques, more finger extension and hand strength. Violists, as a rule, do not become violists from childhood, violinists with a larger physique move to the instrument in a school, conservatory.

Cello. The cello is almost three times the size of an ordinary violin. The instrument is placed on the floor, vertically, and played while sitting (in past centuries, the cello was placed on a special chair and played while standing, after which a special metal capstan was invented). The sound of the cello is thick, juicy, melodious, in timbre very reminiscent of a human voice (in timbre - a baritone). Nowadays, the cello is an indispensable instrument of symphony and chamber orchestras, many solo works have been created, one of the most striking is the cello solo "Swan" by composer Saint-Saens from the orchestral cycle "Carnival of the Animals".

Double bass. The lowest sounding bowed string instrument in a symphony orchestra. It rarely performs as a solo instrument, since it is difficult to achieve accuracy and sharpness of intonation on it, but it acts as a kind of musical “foundation” on which the sound of other instruments is based. The double bass is an integral part of not only a symphony orchestra, but also jazz and pop musical groups. The instrument is played standing or on a high stool, the height of the instrument can be adjusted by changing the height of the spire.

Bowed musical instruments of the peoples of Europe

Horn. Russian folk bowed instrument, often used by buffoons in the 18th-19th centuries. It consisted of a hollowed-out wooden body of irregular (pear-shaped) shape and a flat soundboard with resonator holes. 3-4 strings were stretched on a short neck, the upper of which was intended for leading the melody, and the rest for accompaniment.

Rebec. Medieval Spanish stringed musical instrument that came to Europe from the Arab states. In the XIII-XIV centuries, it became widespread in the countries of Western Europe. Somewhat similar to the Russian horn, it has a pear-shaped body and a short soundboard with two stretched strings. In 1275, the instrument was first described by the music theorist, church leader Jerome of Moravia.

Hardangerfele. Norwegian version of the classical violin. It has a smaller size than the violin, differs in more convex soundboards, as well as a shorter wide neck. 8-9 strings are stretched on the neck, of which four are intended for playing, and the rest are resonating. The earliest hardangerfele dates back to 1651 and was made by Ole Junsen Yastadom. Often the body of the instrument was decorated with patterns, and the neck with inlays.

Bowed musical instruments of the peoples of Asia

Rebab. An instrument of Arabic origin, found under different names in the culture of different peoples of the East, came to Europe under the name rebek. Since the rebab is used not only as an accompaniment to singing, but also to recitation, there are two varieties of it. Rebab-eh-haer (rebab for poets) has only one string. The rebab el moganni (rebab for singers) has two strings. The instrument is played with a bow, while the rebab is held on its knees.

Huqin(guqin). A kind of violin from distant China. It consists of a body having a round (six or eight corner) shape, and a neck attached to the body. The case is made of thin wood or snakeskin. In China, there are about 30 varieties of huqin, in addition, in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Japan, Mongolia, neighboring China, tools similar to huqin are used.

Kemancha(kamancha, keman, gidzhak, Pontic lira). Musical bowed instruments very common in Western and Central Asia, obligatory for ensembles of oriental folk music. Often used for solo performances. There are many varieties of kemancha, but the Persian instrument is considered the ancestor. The kemancha consists of a long wooden neck with large pegs, the soundboard is made of thin snake, fish skin, bull's bladder. The number of strings ranges from two to six. The absence of frets on the fretboard opens up huge opportunities for musicians, both for solo and ensemble performance.