Diagnostic work consists of two parts, including 19 tasks. Part 1 contains 8 tasks of a basic level of complexity with a short answer. Part 2 contains 4 tasks of an increased level of complexity with a short answer and 7 tasks of an increased and high level of complexity with a detailed answer.
3 hours 55 minutes (235 minutes) are allotted to perform diagnostic work in mathematics.
Answers to tasks 1-12 are written as an integer or a final decimal fraction. Write the numbers in the answer fields in the text of the work, and then transfer them to the answer sheet No. 1. When completing tasks 13-19, you need to write down the complete solution and the answer to the answer sheet No. 2.
All forms are completed in bright black ink. The use of gel, capillary or fountain pens is allowed.
When completing assignments, you can use a draft. Draft entries do not count towards the assessment of the work.
The points you get for completed tasks are summed up.
We wish you success!
Task Conditions
- Find if
- To obtain an enlarged image of a light bulb on the screen in the laboratory, a converging lens with a main focal length = 30 cm is used. The distance from the lens to the light bulb can vary from 40 to 65 cm, and the distance from the lens to the screen - in the range from 75 to 100 cm. The image on the screen will be clear if the ratio is met. Specify the greatest distance from the lens that the light bulb can be placed so that its image on the screen is clear. Express your answer in centimeters.
- The ship passes along the river to the destination for 300 km and after parking returns to the point of departure. Find the speed of the current, if the speed of the ship in still water is 15 km / h, the parking lasts 5 hours, and the ship returns to the point of departure 50 hours after leaving it. Give your answer in km/h.
- Find the smallest value of a function on a segment
- a) Solve the equation
b) Find all the roots of this equation that belong to the segment - Given a right circular cone with a vertex M. Axial section of the cone - a triangle with an angle of 120 ° at the apex M. The cone generator is . Through the dot M a section of the cone is drawn perpendicular to one of the generators.
a) Prove that the resulting triangle is an obtuse triangle.
b) Find the distance from the center ABOUT the base of the cone to the plane of the section. - Solve the Equation
- Circle with center ABOUT touches the side AB isosceles triangle abc, side extensions AC and continuation of the foundation sun at the point N. Dot M- middle of base Sun.
a) Prove that MN=AC.
b) Find OS, if the sides of the triangle ABC are 5, 5 and 8. - Business project "A" assumes an increase in the amounts invested in it by 34.56% annually during the first two years and by 44% annually over the next two years. Project B assumes growth by a constant integer n percent annually. Find the smallest value n, under which for the first four years the project "B" will be more profitable than the project "A".
- Find all values of the parameter , , for each of which the system of equations
has the only solution - Anya plays a game: two different natural numbers are written on the board
and , both are less than 1000. If both are natural numbers, then Anya makes a move - she replaces the previous ones with these two numbers. If at least one of these numbers is not a natural number, then the game ends.
a) Can the game go on for exactly three moves?
b) Are there two initial numbers such that the game will last at least 9 moves?
c) Anya made the first move in the game. Find the largest possible ratio of the product of the obtained two numbers to the product
Let a right circular cylinder be given, the horizontal plane of projections is parallel to its base. When a cylinder is intersected by a plane in general position (we assume that the plane does not intersect the bases of the cylinder), the intersection line is an ellipse, the section itself has the shape of an ellipse, its horizontal projection coincides with the projection of the base of the cylinder, and the front also has the shape of an ellipse. But if the cutting plane makes an angle equal to 45 ° with the axis of the cylinder, then the section, which has the shape of an ellipse, is projected by a circle onto that plane of projections to which the section is inclined at the same angle.
If the cutting plane intersects the side surface of the cylinder and one of its bases (Fig. 8.6), then the line of intersection has the shape of an incomplete ellipse (part of an ellipse). The horizontal projection of the section in this case is part of the circle (projection of the base), and the frontal is part of the ellipse. The plane can be located perpendicular to any projection plane, then the section will be projected onto this projection plane by a straight line (part of the trace of the secant plane).
If the cylinder is intersected by a plane parallel to the generatrix, then the lines of intersection with the lateral surface are straight, and the section itself has the shape of a rectangle if the cylinder is straight, or a parallelogram if the cylinder is inclined.
As you know, both the cylinder and the cone are formed by ruled surfaces.
The line of intersection (line of cut) of the ruled surface and the plane in the general case is a certain curve, which is constructed from the points of intersection of the generators with the secant plane.
Let it be given straight circular cone. When crossing it with a plane, the line of intersection can take the form of: a triangle, an ellipse, a circle, a parabola, a hyperbola (Fig. 8.7), depending on the location of the plane.
A triangle is obtained when the cutting plane, crossing the cone, passes through its vertex. In this case, the lines of intersection with the lateral surface are straight lines intersecting at the top of the cone, which, together with the line of intersection of the base, form a triangle projected onto the projection planes with distortion. If the plane intersects the axis of the cone, then a triangle is obtained in the section, in which the angle with the vertex coinciding with the vertex of the cone will be maximum for the triangle sections of the given cone. In this case, the section is projected onto the horizontal projection plane (it is parallel to its base) by a straight line segment.
The line of intersection of a plane and a cone will be an ellipse if the plane is not parallel to any of the generators of the cone. This is equivalent to the fact that the plane intersects all generators (the entire lateral surface of the cone). If the cutting plane is parallel to the base of the cone, then the intersection line is a circle, the section itself is projected onto the horizontal projection plane without distortion, and onto the frontal plane - as a straight line segment.
The line of intersection will be a parabola when the secant plane is parallel to only one generatrix of the cone. If the cutting plane is parallel to two generators at the same time, then the line of intersection is a hyperbola.
A truncated cone is obtained if a right circular cone is intersected by a plane parallel to the base and perpendicular to the axis of the cone, and the upper part is discarded. In the case when the horizontal projection plane is parallel to the bases of the truncated cone, these bases are projected onto the horizontal projection plane without distortion by concentric circles, and the frontal projection is a trapezoid. When a truncated cone is intersected by a plane, depending on its location, the cut line may take the form of a trapezoid, ellipse, circle, parabola, hyperbola, or part of one of these curves, the ends of which are connected by a straight line.
V cylinder \u003d S main. h
Example 2 Given a right circular cone ABC equilateral, BO = 10. Find the volume of the cone.
Solution
Find the radius of the base of the cone. C \u003d 60 0, B \u003d 30 0,
Let OS = A, then BC = 2 A. According to the Pythagorean theorem:
Answer: .
Example 3. Calculate the volumes of the figures formed by the rotation of the areas bounded by the specified lines.
y2=4x; y=0; x=4.
Limits of integration a = 0, b = 4.
V= 
|
=32π
Tasks
Option 1
1. The axial section of the cylinder is a square, the diagonal of which is 4 dm. Find the volume of the cylinder.
2. The outer diameter of the hollow sphere is 18 cm, the wall thickness is 3 cm. Find the volume of the walls of the sphere.
X figure bounded by lines y 2 =x, y=0, x=1, x=2.
Option 2
1. The radii of three balls are 6 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm. Determine the radius of the ball, the volume of which is equal to the sum of the volumes of these balls.
2. The area of the base of the cone is 9 cm 2, its total surface area is 24 cm 2. Find the volume of the cone.
3. Calculate the volume of the body formed by rotation around the O axis X figure bounded by lines y 2 =2x, y=0, x=2, x=4.
Control questions:
1. Write the properties of volumes of bodies.
2. Write a formula for calculating the volume of a body of revolution around the Oy axis.
Introduction
Relevance of the research topic. Conic sections were already known to the mathematicians of Ancient Greece (for example, Menechmus, 4th century BC); with the help of these curves, some construction problems were solved (doubling the cube, etc.), which turned out to be inaccessible when using the simplest drawing tools - compasses and rulers. In the first studies that have come down to us, Greek geometers obtained conic sections by drawing a cutting plane perpendicular to one of the generators, while, depending on the opening angle at the top of the cone (i.e., the largest angle between the generators of one cavity), the line of intersection turned out to be an ellipse, if this angle is acute, it is a parabola, if it is a right angle, and a hyperbola, if it is obtuse. The most complete work devoted to these curves was the "Conic Sections" of Apollonius of Perga (about 200 BC). Further advances in the theory of conic sections are associated with the creation in the 17th century. new geometric methods: projective (French mathematicians J. Desargues, B. Pascal) and especially coordinate (French mathematicians R. Descartes, P. Fermat).
Interest in conic sections has always been supported by the fact that these curves are often found in various natural phenomena and in human activity. In science, conic sections acquired special significance after the German astronomer I. Kepler discovered from observations, and the English scientist I. Newton theoretically substantiated the laws of planetary motion, one of which states that the planets and comets of the solar system move along conic sections, in one from the foci of which is the Sun. The following examples refer to certain types of conic sections: a projectile or a stone thrown obliquely to the horizon describes a parabola (the correct shape of the curve is somewhat distorted by air resistance); in some mechanisms, elliptical gears are used (“elliptical gear”); the hyperbola serves as a graph of inverse proportionality, often observed in nature (for example, the Boyle-Mariotte law).
Goal of the work:
The study of the theory of conic sections.
Research topic:
Conic sections.
Purpose of the study:
Theoretically study the features of conic sections.
Object of study:
Conic sections.
Subject of study:
Historical development of conic sections.
1. Formation of conic sections and their types
Conic sections are lines that form in the section of a right circular cone with different planes.
Note that a conical surface is a surface formed by the movement of a straight line that passes all the time through a fixed point (the top of the cone) and intersects all the time a fixed curve - a guide (in our case, a circle).
Classifying these lines according to the nature of the location of the secant planes relative to the generators of the cone, three types of curves are obtained:
I. Curves formed by a section of a cone by planes not parallel to any of the generators. Such curves will be various circles and ellipses. These curves are called elliptic curves.
II. Curves formed by a section of a cone by planes, each of which is parallel to one of the generatrixes of the cone (Fig. 1b). Only parabolas will be such curves.
III. Curves formed by a section of a cone by planes, each of which is parallel to some two generators (Fig. 1c). such curves will be hyperbolas.
There can no longer be any type IV curves, since there cannot be a plane parallel to three generators of a cone at once, since no three generators of a cone themselves lie in the same plane.
Note that the cone can be intersected by planes and so that two straight lines are obtained in the section. To do this, the secant planes must be drawn through the top of the cone.
2. Ellipse
Two theorems are important for studying the properties of conic sections:
Theorem 1. Let a straight circular cone be given, which is dissected by planes b 1, b 2, b 3, perpendicular to its axis. Then all the segments of the cone generators between any pair of circles (obtained in section with the given planes) are equal to each other, i.e. A 1 B 1 \u003d A 2 B 2 \u003d, etc. and B 1 C 1 \u003d B 2 C 2 \u003d, etc. Theorem 2. If a spherical surface is given and some point S is outside it, then the segments of tangents drawn from the point S to the spherical surface will be equal to each other, i.e. SA 1 =SA 2 =SA 3 etc.
2.1 Basic property of an ellipse
We cut a right circular cone with a plane intersecting all its generators. In the section, we get an ellipse. Let us draw a plane perpendicular to the plane through the axis of the cone.
We inscribe two balls into the cone so that, being located on opposite sides of the plane and touching the conical surface, each of them touches the plane at some point.
Let one ball touch the plane at the point F 1 and touch the cone along the circle C 1, and the other at the point F 2 and touch the cone along the circle C 2 .
Take an arbitrary point P on the ellipse.
This means that all conclusions made about it will be valid for any point of the ellipse. Let us draw the generatrix of the OR of the cone and mark the points R 1 and R 2 at which it touches the constructed balls.
Connect point P with points F 1 and F 2 . Then PF 1 = PR 1 and PF 2 = PR 2, since PF 1, PR 1 are tangents drawn from the point P to one ball, and PF 2, PR 2 are tangents drawn from the point P to another ball (theorem 2 ). Adding both equalities term by term, we find
PF 1 + PF 2 = PR 1 + PR 2 = R 1 R 2 (1)
This relationship shows that the sum of the distances (РF 1 and РF 2) of an arbitrary point P of the ellipse to two points F 1 and F 2 is a constant value for this ellipse (that is, it does not depend on the position of the point P on the ellipse).
Points F 1 and F 2 are called the foci of the ellipse. The points at which the line F 1 F 2 intersects the ellipse are called the vertices of the ellipse. The segment between the vertices is called the major axis of the ellipse.
The segment of the generatrix R 1 R 2 is equal in length to the major axis of the ellipse. Then the main property of the ellipse is formulated as follows: the sum of the distances of an arbitrary point P of the ellipse to its foci F 1 and F 2 is a constant value for this ellipse, equal to the length of its major axis.
Note that if the foci of the ellipse coincide, then the ellipse is a circle, i.e. a circle is a special case of an ellipse.
2.2 Ellipse equation
To write the equation of an ellipse, we must consider the ellipse as the locus of points that have some property that characterizes this locus. Let's take the main property of the ellipse as its definition: Ellipse is the locus of points in a plane for which the sum of the distances to two fixed points F 1 and F 2 of this plane, called foci, is a constant value equal to the length of its major axis.
Let the length of the segment F 1 F 2 \u003d 2c, and the length of the major axis is 2a. To derive the canonical equation of the ellipse, we choose the origin O of the Cartesian coordinate system in the middle of the segment F 1 F 2, and direct the axes Ox and Oy as shown in Figure 5. (If the foci coincide, then O coincides with F 1 and F 2, and beyond axis Ox can be taken as any axis passing through O). Then in the chosen coordinate system the points F 1 (c, 0) and F 2 (-c, 0). Obviously, 2a > 2c, i.e. a>c. Let M(x, y) be a point of the plane belonging to the ellipse. Let МF 1 =r 1 , МF 2 =r 2 . According to the definition of an ellipse, the equality
r 1 +r 2 =2a (2) is a necessary and sufficient condition for the location of the point M (x, y) on a given ellipse. Using the formula for the distance between two points, we get
r 1 =, r 2 =. Let's return to equality (2):
Let's move one root to the right side of the equality and square it:
Reducing, we get:
We give similar ones, reduce by 4 and isolate the radical:
We square
Open the brackets and shorten to:
from where we get:
(a 2 -c 2) x 2 + a 2 y 2 \u003d a 2 (a 2 -c 2). (3)
Note that a 2 -c 2 >0. Indeed, r 1 +r 2 is the sum of two sides of the triangle F 1 MF 2 , and F 1 F 2 is its third side. Therefore, r 1 +r 2 > F 1 F 2 , or 2а>2с, i.e. a>c. Denote a 2 -c 2 \u003d b 2. Equation (3) will look like: b 2 x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2 b 2 . Let's perform a transformation that brings the ellipse equation to the canonical (literally: taken as a sample) form, namely, we divide both parts of the equation by a 2 b 2:
(4) - canonical equation of an ellipse.
Since equation (4) is an algebraic consequence of equation (2*), then the x and y coordinates of any point M of the ellipse will also satisfy equation (4). Since “extra roots” could appear during algebraic transformations associated with getting rid of radicals, it is necessary to make sure that any point M, whose coordinates satisfy equation (4), is located on this ellipse. To do this, it suffices to prove that the quantities r 1 and r 2 for each point satisfy relation (2). So, let the x and y coordinates of the point M satisfy equation (4). Substituting the value of y 2 from (4) into the expression r 1 , after simple transformations we find that r 1 =. Since, then r 1 =. Quite similarly, we find that r 2 =. Thus, for the considered point M r 1 =, r 2 =, i.e. r 1 + r 2 \u003d 2a, therefore the point M is located on an ellipse. The quantities a and b are called the major and minor semiaxes of the ellipse, respectively.
2.3 Study of the shape of an ellipse according to its equation
Let's establish the shape of the ellipse using its canonical equation.
1. Equation (4) contains x and y only in even powers, so if the point (x, y) belongs to the ellipse, then the points (x, - y), (-x, y), (-x, - y). It follows that the ellipse is symmetrical about the axes Ox and Oy, and also about the point O (0,0), which is called the center of the ellipse.
2. Find the points of intersection of the ellipse with the coordinate axes. Putting y \u003d 0, we find two points A 1 (a, 0) and A 2 (-a, 0), in which the Ox axis intersects the ellipse. Putting x=0 in equation (4), we find the intersection points of the ellipse with the Oy axis: B 1 (0, b) and. B 2 (0, - b) Points A 1 , A 2 , B 1 , B 2 are called ellipse vertices.
3. From equation (4) it follows that each term on the left side does not exceed unity, i.e. there are inequalities and or and. Therefore, all points of the ellipse lie inside the rectangle formed by the straight lines, .
4. In equation (4), the sum of non-negative terms and is equal to one. Therefore, as one term increases, the other will decrease, i.e. If x increases, then y decreases and vice versa.
From what has been said, it follows that the ellipse has the shape shown in Fig. 6 (oval closed curve).
Note that if a = b, then equation (4) will take the form x 2 + y 2 = a 2 . This is the circle equation. An ellipse can be obtained from a circle with radius a, if it is compressed once along the Oy axis. With such a contraction, the point (x; y) will go to the point (x; y 1), where. Substituting the circle into the equation, we obtain the ellipse equation: .
Let us introduce one more quantity that characterizes the shape of the ellipse.
The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio of the focal length 2c to the length 2a of its major axis.
Eccentricity is usually denoted by e: e = Since c< a, то. Заметив, что c 2 = a 2 - b 2 , находим: , отсюда.
From the last equality it is easy to obtain a geometric interpretation of the eccentricity of the ellipse. For very small numbers, a and b are almost equal, that is, the ellipse is close to a circle. If it is close to unity, then the number b is very small compared to the number a, and the ellipse is strongly elongated along the major axis. Thus, the eccentricity of the ellipse characterizes the measure of the elongation of the ellipse.
3. Hyperbole
3.1 The main property of the hyperbola
Exploring the hyperbola with the help of constructions similar to the constructions carried out for the study of the ellipse, we find that the hyperbola has properties similar to those of the ellipse.
Let us cut a straight circular cone by a plane b intersecting both of its planes, i.e. parallel to two of its generators. The cross section is a hyperbola. Let us draw through the axis ST of the cone the plane ASB, perpendicular to the plane b.
Let us inscribe two balls into the cone - one into one of its cavity, the other into the other, so that each of them touches the conical surface and the secant plane. Let the first ball touch the plane b at the point F 1 and touch the conical surface along the circle UґVґ. Let the second ball touch the plane b at the point F 2 and touch the conical surface along the circle UV.
We choose an arbitrary point M on the hyperbola. Let us draw the generatrix of the cone MS through it and mark the points d and D at which it touches the first and second balls. We connect the point M with the points F 1 , F 2 , which we will call the focuses of the hyperbola. Then MF 1 =Md, since both segments are tangent to the first ball, drawn from the point M. Similarly, MF 2 =MD. Subtracting term by term from the first equality the second, we find
MF 1 -MF 2 \u003d Md-MD \u003d dD,
where dD is a constant value (as a generatrix of a cone with bases UґVґ and UV), independent of the choice of the point M on the hyperbola. Denote by P and Q the points at which the line F 1 F 2 intersects the hyperbola. These points P and Q are called the vertices of the hyperbola. The segment PQ is called the real axis of the hyperbola. In the course of elementary geometry it is proved that dD=PQ. Therefore, MF 1 -MF 2 =PQ.
If the point M will be on that branch of the hyperbola, near which the focus F 1 is located, then MF 2 -MF 1 =PQ. Then finally we get МF 1 -MF 2 =PQ.
The modulus of the difference between the distances of an arbitrary point M of a hyperbola from its foci F 1 and F 2 is a constant value equal to the length of the real axis of the hyperbola.
3.2 Equation of a hyperbola
Let's take the main property of a hyperbola as its definition: A hyperbola is a locus of points in a plane for which the modulus of the difference in distances to two fixed points F 1 and F 2 of this plane, called foci, is a constant value equal to the length of its real axis.
Let the length of the segment F 1 F 2 \u003d 2c, and the length of the real axis is 2a. To derive the canonical equation of the hyperbola, we choose the origin O of the Cartesian coordinate system in the middle of the segment F 1 F 2, and direct the axes Ox and Oy as shown in Figure 5. Then in the chosen coordinate system, the points F 1 (c, 0) and F 2 ( -s, 0). Obviously 2a<2с, т.е. а<с. Пусть М (х, у) - точка плоскости, принадлежащая гиперболе. Пусть МF 1 =r 1 , МF 2 =r 2 . Согласно определению гиперболы равенство
r 1 -r 2 \u003d 2a (5) is a necessary and sufficient condition for the location of the point M (x, y) on this hyperbola. Using the formula for the distance between two points, we get
r 1 =, r 2 =. Let's return to equality (5):
Let's square both sides of the equation
(x + s) 2 + y 2 \u003d 4a 2 ± 4a + (x-c) 2 + y 2
Reducing, we get:
2 хс=4а 2 ±4а-2 хс
±4a=4a 2 -4 xs
a 2 x 2 -2a 2 xc + a 2 c 2 + a 2 y 2 \u003d a 4 -2a 2 xc + x 2 c 2
x 2 (c 2 -a 2) - a 2 y 2 \u003d a 2 (c 2 -a 2) (6)
Note that c 2 -a 2 >0. Denote c 2 -a 2 =b 2 . Equation (6) will look like: b 2 x 2 -a 2 y 2 =a 2 b 2 . We perform a transformation that brings the hyperbola equation to the canonical form, namely, we divide both parts of the equation by a 2 b 2: (7) - the canonical equation of the hyperbola, the quantities a and b are, respectively, the real and imaginary semiaxes of the hyperbola.
We must make sure that equation (7), obtained by algebraic transformations of equation (5*), has not acquired new roots. To do this, it suffices to prove that for each point M, the coordinates x and y of which satisfy equation (7), the values r 1 and r 2 satisfy relation (5). Conducting arguments similar to those that were made when deriving the ellipse formula, we find the following expressions for r 1 and r 2:
Thus, for the considered point M we have r 1 -r 2 =2a, and therefore it is located on the hyperbola.
3.3 Study of the hyperbola equation
Now let's try, based on the consideration of equation (7), to get an idea of the location of the hyperbola.
1. First of all, equation (7) shows that the hyperbola is symmetrical about both axes. This is explained by the fact that only even degrees of coordinates are included in the equation of the curve. 2. We now mark the region of the plane where the curve will lie. The equation of a hyperbola, resolved with respect to y, has the form:
It shows that y always exists when x 2? a 2 . This means that for x? a and for x? - and the y-ordinate will be real, and for - a Further, with increasing x (and greater a), the y-ordinate will also grow all the time (in particular, it can be seen from this that the curve cannot be wavy, i.e. such that with the growth of the abscissa of x, the y-ordinate either increases or decreases) . 3. The center of a hyperbola is a point with respect to which each point of the hyperbola has a point on it symmetrical to itself. The point O(0,0), the origin, as for the ellipse, is the center of the hyperbola given by the canonical equation. This means that each point of the hyperbola has a symmetric point on the hyperbola with respect to the point O. This follows from the symmetry of the hyperbola with respect to the axes Ox and Oy. Any chord of a hyperbola passing through its center is called the diameter of the hyperbola. 4. The intersection points of the hyperbola with the line on which its foci lie are called the vertices of the hyperbola, and the segment between them is called the real axis of the hyperbola. In this case, the real axis is the x-axis. Note that the real axis of the hyperbola is often called both the segment 2a and the straight line itself (the Ox axis) on which it lies. Find the intersection points of the hyperbola with the Oy axis. The y-axis equation is x=0. Substituting x = 0 into equation (7), we get that the hyperbola has no points of intersection with the Oy axis. This is understandable, since there are no hyperbola points in a strip of width 2a, covering the Oy axis. The line perpendicular to the real axis of the hyperbola and passing through its center is called the imaginary axis of the hyperbola. In this case, it coincides with the y-axis. So, in the denominators of the terms with x 2 and y 2 in the hyperbola equation (7) are the squares of the real and imaginary semiaxes of the hyperbola. 5. The hyperbola intersects the line y = kx for k< в двух точках. Если k то общих точек у прямой и гиперболы нет. Proof To determine the coordinates of the points of intersection of the hyperbola and the straight line y = kx, it is necessary to solve the system of equations Eliminating y, we get or For b 2 -k 2 a 2 0, that is, for k, the resulting equation, and therefore the system of solutions, does not have. The straight lines with the equations y= and y= - are called asymptotes of the hyperbola. For b 2 -k 2 a 2 >0, that is, for k< система имеет два решения: Therefore, each straight line passing through the origin, with a slope k< пересекает гиперболу в двух точках. При k = 0 получаем точки пересечения (a; 0) и (- a; 0) - вершины гиперболы. 6. Optical property of the hyperbola: optical rays emanating from one focus of the hyperbola, reflected from it, seem to be emanating from the second focus. The eccentricity of the hyperbola is the ratio of the focal length 2c to the length 2a of its real axis? 3.4 Conjugate hyperbola Along with the hyperbola (7), the so-called conjugate hyperbola with respect to it is considered. The conjugate hyperbola is defined by the canonical equation. On fig. 10 shows the hyperbola (7) and its conjugate hyperbola. The conjugate hyperbola has the same asymptotes as the given one, but F 1 (0, c), 4. Parabola
4.1 Basic property of a parabola Let us establish the basic properties of a parabola. Let us cut a right circular cone with vertex S by a plane parallel to one of its generators. In the section we get a parabola. Let us draw through the axis ST of the cone the plane ASB, perpendicular to the plane (Fig. 11). The generatrix SA lying in it will be parallel to the plane. Let us inscribe in the cone a spherical surface tangent to the cone along the circle UV and tangent to the plane at the point F. Draw a line through the point F parallel to the generator SA. We denote the point of its intersection with the generatrix SB by P. The point F is called the focus of the parabola, the point P is its vertex, and the line PF passing through the vertex and the focus (and parallel to the generatrix SA) is called the axis of the parabola. The parabola will not have a second vertex - the point of intersection of the PF axis with the generatrix SA: this point "goes to infinity". Let's call the directrix (in translation means "guide") the line q 1 q 2 of the intersection of the plane with the plane in which the circle UV lies. Take an arbitrary point M on the parabola and connect it to the vertex of the cone S. The line MS touches the ball at the point D lying on the circle UV. We connect the point M with the focus F and drop the perpendicular MK from the point M to the directrix. Then it turns out that the distances of an arbitrary point M of the parabola to the focus (MF) and to the directrix (MK) are equal to each other (the main property of the parabola), i.e. MF=MK. Proof: МF=MD (as tangents to a ball from one point). Let us denote the angle between any of the generatrixes of the cone and the ST axis as q. Let's project the segments MD and MK onto the ST axis. The segment MD forms a projection onto the ST axis, equal to MDcosc, since MD lies on the generatrix of the cone; the segment MK forms a projection onto the ST axis, equal to MKsoc, since the segment MK is parallel to the generatrix SA. (Indeed, the directrix q 1 q 1 is perpendicular to the plane ASB. Therefore, the line PF intersects the directrix at the point L at a right angle. But the lines MK and PF lie in the same plane, and MK is also perpendicular to the directrix). The projections of both segments MK and MD onto the ST axis are equal to each other, since one of their ends - the point M - is common, and the other two D and K lie in a plane perpendicular to the ST axis (Fig.). Then МDcosц= MKsоsц or МD= MK. Therefore, MF=MK. Property 1.(Focal property of a parabola). The distance from any point of the parabola to the middle of the main chord is equal to its distance to the directrix. Proof. Point F - the point of intersection of the line QR and the main chord. This point lies on the axis of symmetry Oy. Indeed, triangles RNQ and ROF are congruent, just like right-angled triangles triangles with early legs (NQ=OF, OR=RN). Therefore, no matter what point N we take, the line QR constructed along it will intersect the main chord in its middle F. Now it is clear that the triangle FMQ is isosceles. Indeed, the segment MR is both the median and the height of this triangle. This implies that MF=MQ. Property 2.(Optical property of a parabola). Any tangent to the parabola makes equal angles with the focal radius drawn to the tangent point and the ray coming from the tangent point and co-directed with the axis (or, rays coming out of a single focus, reflected from the parabola, will go parallel to the axis). Proof. For a point N lying on the parabola itself, the equality |FN|=|NH| is true, and for a point N" lying in the inner region of the parabola, |FN"|<|N"H"|. Если теперь провести биссектрису l угла FМК, то для любой отличной от М точки M" прямой l найдём: |FM"|=|M"K"|>|M"K"|, that is, the point M" lies in the outer region of the parabola. So, the entire line l, except for the point M, lies in the outer region, that is, the inner region of the parabola lies on one side of l, which means that l is tangent to the parabola. This gives proof of the optical property of the parabola: angle 1 is equal to angle 2, since l is the bisector of angle FMK. 4.2 Equation of a parabola Based on the main property of a parabola, we formulate its definition: a parabola is a set of all points in a plane, each of which is equally distant from a given point, called the focus, and a given straight line, called the directrix. The distance from the focus F to the directrix is called the parameter of the parabola and is denoted by p (p > 0). To derive the parabola equation, we choose the Oxy coordinate system so that the Ox axis passes through the focus F perpendicular to the directrix in the direction from the directrix to F, and the origin O is located in the middle between the focus and the directrix (Fig. 12). In the selected system, the focus is F(, 0), and the directrix equation has the form x=-, or x+=0. Let m (x, y) be an arbitrary point of the parabola. Connect the point M with F. Draw the segment MH perpendicular to the directrix. According to the definition of a parabola, MF = MH. Using the formula for the distance between two points, we find: Therefore, squaring both sides of the equation, we get those. (8) Equation (8) is called the canonical equation of a parabola. 4.3 Study of the forms of a parabola according to its equation 1. In equation (8), the variable y is included in an even degree, which means that the parabola is symmetric about the Ox axis; the x-axis is the axis of symmetry of the parabola. 2. Since c > 0, it follows from (8) that x>0. Therefore, the parabola is located to the right of the y-axis. 3. Let x \u003d 0, then y \u003d 0. Therefore, the parabola passes through the origin. 4. With an unlimited increase in x, the module y also increases indefinitely. The parabola y 2 \u003d 2 px has the form (shape) shown in Figure 13. The point O (0; 0) is called the vertex of the parabola, the segment FM \u003d r is called the focal radius of the point M. The equations y 2 \u003d -2 px, x 2 \u003d - 2 py, x 2 =2 py (p>0) also define parabolas. 1.5. Directory property of conic sections .
Here we prove that every non-circular (non-degenerate) conic section can be defined as a set of points M, the ratio of the distance MF of which from a fixed point F to the distance MP from a fixed line d not passing through the point F is equal to a constant value e: where F - the focus of the conic section, the straight line d is the directrix, and the ratio e is the eccentricity. (If the point F belongs to the line d, then the condition determines the set of points, which is a pair of lines, i.e., a degenerate conic section; for e = 1, this pair of lines merges into one line. To prove this, consider the cone formed by the rotation of the line l around the intersecting it at the point O of the straight line p, constituting with l the angle b< 90є; пусть плоскость р не проходит через вершину конуса и образует с его осью p угол в < 90є (если в = 90є, то плоскость р пересекает конус по окружности). Let us inscribe a ball K in the cone touching the plane p at the point F and touching the cone along the circle S. We denote the line of intersection of the plane p with the plane y of the circle S by d. Let us now connect an arbitrary point M, lying on the line A of the intersection of the plane p and the cone, with the vertex O of the cone and with the point F, and drop the perpendicular MP from M to the line d; also denote by E the point of intersection of the generator MO of the cone with the circle S. Moreover, MF = ME, as segments of two tangents of the ball K, drawn from one point M. Further, the segment ME forms with the axis p of the cone a constant (i.e., independent of the choice of the point M) angle 6, and the segment MP forms a constant angle β; therefore, the projections of these two segments onto the p axis are respectively equal to ME cos b and MP cos c. But these projections coincide, since the segments ME and MP have a common origin M, and their ends lie in the y-plane perpendicular to the p-axis. Therefore, ME cos b = MP cos c, or, since ME = MF, MF cos b = MP cos c, whence it follows that It is also easy to show that if the point M of the plane p does not belong to the cone, then. Thus, each section of a right circular cone can be described as a set of points in the plane, for which. On the other hand, by changing the values of the angles b and c, we can give the eccentricity any value e > 0; Further, from considerations of similarity, it is not difficult to understand that the distance FQ from the focus to the directrix is directly proportional to the radius r of the ball K (or the distance d of the plane p from the vertex O of the cone). It can be shown that, thus, by choosing the distance d appropriately, we can give the distance FQ any value. Therefore, each set of points M, for which the ratio of the distances from M to a fixed point F and to a fixed line d has a constant value, can be described as a curve obtained in the section of a right circular cone by a plane. This proves that (non-degenerate) conic sections can also be defined by the property discussed in this subsection. This property of conic sections is called them directory property. It is clear that if c > b, then e< 1; если в = б, то е = 1; наконец, если в < б, то е >1. On the other hand, it is easy to see that if s > 6, then the plane p intersects the cone along a closed bounded line; if c = b, then the plane p intersects the cone along an unbounded line; if in< б, то плоскость р пересекает обе полы конуса и, следовательно, линия пересечения этой плоскости и конуса состоит из двух (неограниченных) частей или ветвей (рис. 17). The conic section for which e< 1, называется эллипсом; коническое сечение с эксцентриситетом е = 1 называется параболой; коническое сечение, для которого е >1 is called a hyperbole. Ellipses also include a circle, which cannot be specified by a directory property; since for a circle the ratio turns to 0 (because in this case β \u003d 90º), it is conditionally considered that the circle is a conic section with an eccentricity of 0. 6. Ellipse, hyperbola and parabola as conic sections conic section ellipse hyperbola The ancient Greek mathematician Menechmus, who discovered the ellipse, hyperbola and parabola, defined them as sections of a circular cone by a plane perpendicular to one of the generators. He called the resulting curves sections of acute-angled, rectangular and obtuse-angled cones, depending on the axial angle of the cone. The first, as we will see below, is an ellipse, the second is a parabola, the third is one branch of a hyperbola. The names "ellipse", "hyperbola" and "parabola" were introduced by Apollonius. Almost completely (7 out of 8 books) the work of Apollonius "On Conic Sections" has come down to us. In this work, Apollonius considers both floors of the cone and intersects the cone with planes that are not necessarily perpendicular to one of the generators. Theorem. The section of any straight circular cone by a plane (not passing through its vertex) defines a curve, which can only be a hyperbola (Fig. 4), a parabola (Fig. 5) or an ellipse (Fig. 6). Moreover, if the plane intersects only one plane of the cone and along a closed curve, then this curve is an ellipse; if a plane intersects only one plane along an open curve, then this curve is a parabola; if the cutting plane intersects both planes of the cone, then a hyperbola is formed in the section. An elegant proof of this theorem was proposed in 1822 by Dandelin using spheres, which are now called Dandelin spheres. Let's look at this proof. Let us inscribe in a cone two spheres touching the plane of section П from different sides. Denote by F1 and F2 the points of contact between this plane and the spheres. Let us take an arbitrary point M on the section line of the cone by the plane P. On the generatrix of the cone passing through M, we mark the points P1 and P2 lying on the circle k1 and k2, along which the spheres touch the cone. It is clear that MF1=MP1 as the segments of two tangents to the first sphere coming out of M; similarly, MF2=MP2. Therefore, MF1+MF2=MP1+MP2=P1P2. The length of the segment P1P2 is the same for all points M of our section: it is the generatrix of a truncated cone bounded by parallel planes 1 and 11, in which the circles k1 and k2 lie. Therefore, the section line of the cone by the plane P is an ellipse with foci F1 and F2. The validity of this theorem can also be established on the basis of the general position that the intersection of a second-order surface by a plane is a second-order line. Literature
1. Atanasyan L.S., Bazylev V.T. Geometry. In 2 hours. Part 1. Textbook for students of physics and mathematics. ped. in-comrade-M.: Enlightenment, 1986. 2. Bazylev V.T. etc. Geometry. Proc. allowance for students of the 1st year of physics. - mat. facts ped. in. - comrade-M .: Education, 1974. 3. Pogorelov A.V. Geometry. Proc. for 7-11 cells. avg. school - 4th ed.-M.: Enlightenment, 1993. 4. History of mathematics from ancient times to the beginning of the 19th century. Yushkevich A.P. - M.: Nauka, 1970. 5. Boltyansky V.G. Optical properties of the ellipse, hyperbola and parabola. // Quantum. - 1975. - No. 12. - With. 19 - 23. 6. Efremov N.V. A short course in analytic geometry. - M: Nauka, 6th edition, 1967. - 267 p. The concept of conic sections. Conic sections - intersections of planes and cones. Types of conic sections. Construction of conic sections. The conic section is the locus of points that satisfy a second-order equation. abstract, added 05.10.2008 "Conic sections" of Apollonius. Derivation of the curve equation for a section of a rectangular cone of revolution. Derivation of the equation for a parabola, for an ellipse and a hyperbola. Invariance of conic sections. Further development of the theory of conic sections in the works of Apollonius. abstract, added 02/04/2010 The concept and historical information about the cone, the characteristics of its elements. Features of the formation of a cone and types of conic sections. Construction of the Dandelin sphere and its parameters. Application of properties of conic sections. Calculations of the areas of the surfaces of the cone. presentation, added 04/08/2012 Mathematical concept of a curve. The general equation of the curve of the second order. Circle, ellipse, hyperbola and parabola equations. Axes of symmetry of a hyperbola. Study of the shape of a parabola. Curves of the third and fourth order. Anjesi curl, Cartesian sheet. thesis, added 10/14/2011 Review and characterization of various methods for constructing sections of polyhedra, determination of their strengths and weaknesses. The method of auxiliary sections as a universal method for constructing sections of polyhedra. Examples of problem solving on the research topic. presentation, added 01/19/2014 The general equation of the curve of the second order. Drawing up equations of an ellipse, a circle, a hyperbola and a parabola. The eccentricity of a hyperbola. Focus and directrix of a parabola. Transformation of the general equation to the canonical form. Dependence of the type of curve on invariants. presentation, added 11/10/2014 Elements of triangle geometry: isogonal and isotomic conjugation, remarkable points and lines. Conics associated with a triangle: properties of conic sections; conics circumscribed about a triangle and inscribed in it; application to problem solving. term paper, added 06/17/2012 Ellipse, hyperbola, parabola as second-order curves used in higher mathematics. The concept of a second-order curve is a line on a plane, which in some Cartesian coordinate system is determined by an equation. Pascaml's theorem and Brianchon's theorem. abstract, added 01/26/2011 On the origin of the problem of doubling the cube (one of the five famous problems of antiquity). The first known attempt to solve the problem, the solution of Archit of Tarentum. Problem solving in ancient Greece after Archytas. Solutions using the conic sections of Menechmus and Eratosthenes. abstract, added 04/13/2014 The main types of section of the cone. A section formed by a plane passing through the axis of the cone (axial) and through its apex (triangle). The formation of a section by a plane parallel (parabola), perpendicular (circle) and not perpendicular (ellipse) to the axis. TEXT EXPLANATION OF THE LESSON: We continue to study the section of solid geometry "Body of revolution". The bodies of revolution include: cylinders, cones, balls. Let's remember the definitions. Height is the distance from the top of a figure or body to the base of the figure (body). Otherwise, a segment connecting the top and bottom of the figure and perpendicular to it. Remember, to find the area of a circle, multiply pi by the square of the radius. The area of the circle is equal. Recall how to find the area of a circle, knowing the diameter? Because let's put it into the formula: A cone is also a body of revolution. A cone (more precisely, a circular cone) is a body that consists of a circle - the base of the cone, a point that does not lie in the plane of this circle - the top of the cone and all segments connecting the top of the cone with the points of the base. Let's get acquainted with the formula for finding the volume of a cone. Theorem. The volume of a cone is equal to one third of the base area multiplied by the height. Let's prove this theorem. Given: a cone, S is the area of its base, h is the height of the cone Prove: V= Proof: Consider a cone with volume V, base radius R, height h, and apex at point O. Let us introduce the axis Ox through OM, the axis of the cone. An arbitrary section of a cone by a plane perpendicular to the x-axis is a circle centered at the point M1 - the point of intersection of this plane with the axis Ox. Let us denote the radius of this circle as R1, and the cross-sectional area as S(x), where x is the abscissa of the point M1. From the similarity of right-angled triangles OM1A1 and OMA (ے OM1A1 = ے OMA - straight lines, ےMOA-common, which means that the triangles are similar in two angles) it follows that The figure shows that OM1=x, OM=h or whence by the property of proportion we find R1 = . Since the section is a circle, then S (x) \u003d πR12, we substitute the previous expression instead of R1, the sectional area is equal to the ratio of the product of pi er square by square x to the square of height: Let's apply the basic formula calculating the volumes of bodies, with a=0, b=h, we get the expression (1) Since the base of the cone is a circle, the area S of the base of the cone will be equal to pi er square in the formula for calculating the volume of a body, we replace the value of pi er square by the area of \u200b\u200bthe base and we get that the volume of the cone is equal to one third of the product of the area of \u200b\u200bthe base and the height The theorem has been proven. Corollary of the theorem (formula for the volume of a truncated cone) The volume V of a truncated cone, whose height is h, and the areas of the bases S and S1, is calculated by the formula Ve is equal to one third of ash multiplied by the sum of the areas of the bases and the square root of the product of the areas of the base. Problem solving A right triangle with legs 3 cm and 4 cm rotates around the hypotenuse. Determine the volume of the resulting body. When the triangle rotates around the hypotenuse, we get a cone. When solving this problem, it is important to understand that two cases are possible. In each of them, we apply the formula for finding the volume of a cone: the volume of a cone is equal to one third of the product of the base and the height In the first case, the drawing will look like this: a cone is given. Let radius r = 4, height h = 3 The area of the base is equal to the product of π times the square of the radius Then the volume of the cone is equal to one third of the product of π times the square of the radius times the height. Substitute the value in the formula, it turns out that the volume of the cone is 16π. In the second case, like this: given a cone. Let radius r = 3, height h = 4 The volume of a cone is equal to one third of the base area multiplied by the height: The area of the base is equal to the product of π times the square of the radius: Then the volume of the cone is equal to one third of the product of π times the square of the radius times the height: Substitute the value in the formula, it turns out that the volume of the cone is 12π. Answer: The volume of the cone V is 16 π or 12 π Problem 2. Given a right circular cone with a radius of 6 cm, angle BCO = 45 . Find the volume of the cone. Solution: A ready-made drawing is given for this task. Let's write the formula for finding the volume of a cone: We express it in terms of the radius of the base R: We find h \u003d BO by construction, - rectangular, because angle BOC=90 (the sum of the angles of a triangle), the angles at the base are equal, so the triangle ΔBOC is isosceles and BO=OC=6 cm.
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