Lecture No. 1. The subject and methods of the science of history.
The subject of historical science.
History Methods.
1. History (from the Greek. Historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned), is considered in 2 meanings:
1) as a process of development of nature and humanity;
2) as systems of sciences that study the past of nature and society.
The most important task of history is the generalization and processing of accumulated human experience. Historia est magistra vitae, said the ancients. Indeed, people are always trying to find answers to many questions. Based on historical examples, they are brought up in respect for eternal human values: peace, goodness, beauty, justice, freedom.
History is considered as a single process of evolution of nature and society.
“Respect for the past is the feature that distinguishes education from savagery,” said A.S. Pushkin.
The great Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “Without knowledge of history, we must recognize ourselves as accidents, not knowing how and why we came into the world, how and why we live in it, how and what we should strive for, mechanical puppets that they are not born, but are made, they do not die according to the laws of nature, life, but break according to someone's childish whim ”(Klyuchevsky V.O. Letters. Diaries, Aphorisms and thoughts on history. - M., 1968, p. 332.) .
Ideas about the world in antiquity and now differ significantly: the world has changed, and man has changed. History is an evolving array of social experience, passed down from generation to generation, which is rethought each time.
Interest in the past has existed since the beginning of the human race. Man himself is a historical being. It changes, develops over time, is the product of this development.
The original meaning of the word "history" goes back to the ancient Greek term meaning "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". History was identified with the establishment of authenticity, the truth of events and facts.
In Roman historiography (historiography is a branch of historical science that studies its history), this word began to denote a story about the events of the past. Soon “history began to be called in general any story about any case, incident, real or fictitious
Currently, we use the word "history" in 2 senses:
1) to indicate a story about the past;
2) when it comes to a single science that studies the past.
The subject of history defined ambiguously. Its subject may be social, political, economic history, the history of the city, village, family, private life. The definition of the subject of history is subjective, connected with the ideology of the state and the outlook of the historian. Historians who take materialistic positions believe that history as a science studies the patterns of development of society, which depend on the method of production of material goods. This approach prioritizes economics over people in explaining causality. Historians who adhere to liberal views are convinced that the subject of study of history is a person (personality). The famous French historian Mark Blok defines history as "the science of people in time". Historians use scientific categories in their research: historical movement (historical time, space), historical fact, the theory of the historical process (methodological interpretation).
Historical movement includes interrelated scientific categories: historical time and historical space. Historical time only moves forward. Outside the concept of historical time, history does not exist. Events following one after another form a time series. There are internal connections between events in time and space.
concept historical time changed repeatedly. This was reflected in the periodization of the historical process.
Almost until the end of the 18th century, historians distinguished between eras of savagery, barbarism, and civilization. Later, two approaches to the periodization of history took shape: formational (materialist historians of the 19th century) and civilizational (historical-liberal periodization of the early 21st century).
Under historical space understand the totality of natural-geographical, economic, political, socio-cultural processes occurring in a certain territory.
historical fact- these are real events of the past, what is considered a generally accepted truth (Egyptian pyramids, Macedonian wars, the Baptism of Rus', etc.), we receive specific historical data from historical sources.
Under historical sources refers to all the remnants of the past, in which historical evidence has been deposited, reflecting the real activity of man. All sources can be divided into groups: written, material, ethnographic, folklore, linguistic, film documents (phonic), architectural monuments, household items of the past, written documents, paintings, engravings, diagrams, drawings, sound recordings and much more.
Methods of knowledge of history.
The historical method is the way, the mode of action by which the researcher acquires new historical knowledge. Basic historical methods:
Historical and genetic;
Historical and comparative;
Historical and typological;
Historical and systemic.
General scientific methods are also applicable in history: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, description, measurement, explanation, etc.
The essence of the historical genetic method is reduced to a consistent disclosure of the properties and functions of the object under study in the process of its change. Cognition proceeds from the individual to the particular and further to the general and universal.
Historical comparative method is to compare events that took place at different times, but in many respects similar. Comparing them, scientists can explain the content of the facts and phenomena under consideration. The method allows to reveal the essence of the studied events by their similarity and difference, to compare them in time and space.
Historical-typological method(typology). Studying the history of the Second World War, one can raise the question of the balance of forces between the Nazi and anti-Hitler coalition. The opposing sides can be conditionally divided into two groups. The sides of each of the groups will differ only in relation to the allies and enemies of Germany (in other respects they may differ - in the anti-Hitler coalition there will be socialist countries and capitalist ones.
Historical-system method helps to study the unity of events, phenomena in socio-historical development. For example, the history of Russia is considered not as an independent process, but as a result of interaction with other states, an element in the development of the history of the entire civilization.
Common methods for all humanities are historical and logical.
historical method- this is a consideration of the process in a complex development: how it arose, what it was like at the beginning, what path it took.
With the logical method the studied phenomena are considered from the point of view of proof and refutation.
In historical science, in addition, the following methods are used:
Chronological method - presentation of phenomena in a strictly sequential, temporal order.
Chronological-problematic- the study of history by periods, topics or eras, inside - by problems.
Problem-chronological- one side of the activity of a person or society in its consistent development is studied.
Synchronistic - establishes relationships between processes and phenomena occurring at the same time in different regions.
There are also comparative-historical, retrospective, system-structural, statistical methods, mathematical analysis and sociological research.
Functions of historical science:
Cognitive - to know the essence of the historical process, its patterns, in order to avoid the mistakes of the past;
Evaluative - to assimilate universal human values, to understand the fallacy of a one-dimensional approach to the analysis of historical phenomena;
Practical - the application of the most effective ways to solve social problems known in the history of various countries.
History is a short term for describing events that happened in the past at different times and places. It is also a science that studies the sources of the past in order to learn about events, their sequence, causes, and to form an objective picture of the process that took place. Methods and sources for studying history include chronicles, archaeological finds, the study of official documents, the use of logic, and modeling.
What and how does history study?
In modern literature, one can count up to 30 different definitions of the subject of history. Such a large number is provoked by the fact that this science is studied and developed by people with different views on the world, different experiences and life positions. The same variety of views reigns among scientists regarding the explanation
But if different objects and processes can act as a subject, then the methods remain the same. Both the subject and deal with objective phenomena, for which you can use proven standard approaches. The whole variety of methods can be divided into three categories: general scientific, historical, developed specifically for working with the sources and concepts of this science, and special (created by scientists from other areas and borrowed by historians).
Various approaches and methods of study
Two can be attributed to - logical and historical. These two approaches to the study of phenomena complement and enrich each other, logic allows you to generalize what has been studied and draw conclusions where the historical approach is powerless.
To study the events and processes that took place, scientists use the following methods:
- chronological - all events are arranged strictly in chronological order;
- synchronous - various events and their interconnection are considered in different parts of the country and the globe at the same time.
Within the chronological method, there are also different approaches. The chronological-problem approach explores what happened by epochs, within epochs - by problems. Problem-chronological - on the contrary: some one problem or side of life is taken, the development and change of which is studied in the context of passing time.
In addition to the above, there are also comparative-historical, system-structural, statistical and retrospective methods, as well as the method of periodization and sociological research.
Data sources - the basis of historical science
Methods and sources of studying history are interconnected. Facts are everything. The study of the sources of facts is carried out by a separate auxiliary discipline - source study. It is possible to single out primary and secondary sources for the study of history, classify them according to the method of transmitting information and the nature of the medium:
- written clay tablets, papyri and books);
- material (tools, utensils, furniture, clothing, weapons, architectural structures);
- ethnographic sources;
- folklore (fairy tales, songs, legends, traditions, ballads);
- linguistic;
- film and photo documents.
Each source requires careful analysis and a thoughtful approach, an assessment of its reliability.
controversial points
However, history is not only the science of facts, it is also the interpretation of facts. Therefore, the methods and sources of studying history seriously affect the results of research, the conclusions about the events and their causes.
There are many historical documents reporting facts that different scholars interpret differently. There are also different opinions about the origin and purpose: one of them is that the wall was built by China's northern neighbors to protect the North. At the same time, a common theory of its appearance says that the Chinese themselves built this wall.
The historical events described in the textbooks are only one, the "official" version of history. Many historical facts allow at least two, or even more, interpretations of causal relationships. Different interpretations appear not only because of the inconsistency of sources, the methods and sources of studying history, the subtleties of the translation of ancient texts, and the peculiarities of the worldview of research scientists play a role here.
Fact Study Principles
Considering all this, the principles of studying historical facts are important for the historian. The principle is the tool that allows you to "stand with both feet on the ground" when studying the past. The principles and methods of studying history are similar in that there are several of the first and second:
- the principle of historicism. Requires that all events and known facts be considered only through the prism of the time to which they relate. It is impossible to study phenomena separately, by themselves, since they appeared from the interaction of many factors, and make sense only in context.
- The principle of objectivity. It requires studying and taking into account all known facts, without excluding or discarding anything, without trying to fit the known to the “necessary” scheme or theory.
- The principle of social approach, or the principle of party membership.
- The principle of alternative.
Compliance with all the principles does not guarantee reliable conclusions, moreover, another researcher with the same data set and also following the principles of the study may get a completely different result.
Methodology of historical science.
Historical knowledge is provided by scientific methodology (in the translation from the Greek. Methodos - the path of research, logos - teaching).
Methodology is the doctrine of the methods of cognition and transformation of reality. It is a system of scientific principles and methods of historical research.
The methods of studying history include the following:
1. Comparative method study of history is to compare historical objects in space and time.
2. Typological method- in the classification of historical phenomena, events, objects
3. Ideographic method study of history is to describe historical events and phenomena.
4. Problem - chronological method study of history is to study the sequence of historical events in time.
5. System method is to reveal the internal mechanisms of functioning and development.
The following principles of scientific historical research are applied in modern historical science:
1. The principle of objectivity involves consideration of historical reality in all its versatility and inconsistency, regardless of personal attitude to events and facts, without distorting or adjusting to given schemes and concepts.
2 . The principle of historicism, is fundamental in historical science. Historical phenomena are studied taking into account the specific historical situation of the corresponding era in the interconnection of events, from the point of view of the reasons why it arose, what it was like at the beginning, how it developed in connection with internal and external changes in the general situation.
3 . The principle of social approach provides for the simultaneous observance of objectivity and historicism, which is especially necessary for the study of political parties and movements.
4. The principle of comprehensiveness the study of history provides for the need for completeness and reliability of information, taking into account all aspects that affect all spheres of society.
Thus, the methods and principles of study provide a scientific approach to the study of the course of history.
The study and knowledge of history is carried out with the help of methodological approaches. Approach - a set of techniques, ways in the knowledge of historical reality. The following approaches are used to study history:
1. Theological approach- consideration of the historical process as a result of the manifestation of the divine will, the world spirit.
2. Geographical determinism- an approach according to which the course of history is determined by the geographical environment.
3. Subjectivism- an approach in accordance with which the course of history is determined by outstanding people.
4. Evolutionism- an approach that considered history as a process of human ascent to a higher level of development.
5. Rationalism- an approach that considers the mind the only source of knowledge and historical development.
In historical science, 2 approaches are most widely used: formational or Marxist and civilizational.
6. Formative approach, prevailed in the Soviet era and arose in the 19th century, according to which the historical process was presented as a successive change in the history of mankind of socio-economic formations. Formation - a historically defined type of society with a specific economic basis, political and spiritual superstructures corresponding to it. History, according to the formational approach, appeared as a change of 5 stages of social development: from a primitive classless society through class ones (slave ownership, feudalism, capitalism, socialism) to a new classless society - communist. The change of formations had to take place through a social revolution and constitute the general law of historical development. Hence, history is the struggle of classes.
7. Civilization approach, which considers the history of the state and peoples, taking into account all the features: natural-climatic, socio-economic, socio-political, cultural, etc. The origins of the civilizational approach were O. Spengler (1822 - 1885) - a German philosopher, A. Toynbee (1889 - 1975) - English. philosopher, sociologist, Russian philosophers Pitirim Sorokin, N. Berdyaev, N. Danilevsky.
Civilization in the lane. from lat. Civis - city, state, civil.
In world science, civilization is considered from 4 positions:
1) as a synonym for culture (A. Toynbee). 2) As a certain stage in the development of local cultures, namely the stage of their degradation and decline (O. Spengler). 3) As a step in the historical development of a particular region or ethnic group. Now civilization is considered as the integrity of the economic, socio-political, spiritual spheres of society. The basis for the selection of these civilizations is the corresponding level of development of productive forces, the proximity of the language, the commonality of everyday culture, the quality of life.
An objective study of history requires a complex historical sources, which include:
1. Written (chronicles, codes, documents, etc.)
2. Material (tools, household items, coins, architectural structures, etc.)
3. Oral folk art (folklore, fairy tales, sayings, etc.)
4. Linguistic (place names, personal names, etc.)
5. Cinema-photo-documents.
Lecture No. 1. The subject and methods of the science of history.
The subject of historical science.
History Methods.
1. History (from the Greek. Historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned), is considered in 2 meanings:
as a process of development of nature and mankind;
as systems of sciences that study the past of nature and society.
The most important task of history is the generalization and processing of accumulated human experience. Historia est magistra vitae, said the ancients. And, indeed, people are always trying to find answers to many questions. Based on historical examples, they are brought up in respect for eternal human values: peace, goodness, beauty, justice, freedom.
History is considered as a single process of evolution of nature and society.
“Respect for the past is the feature that distinguishes education from savagery,” said A.S. Pushkin.
The great Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “Without knowledge of history, we must recognize ourselves as accidents, not knowing how and why we came into the world, how and why we live in it, how and what we should strive for, mechanical puppets that they are not born, but are made, they do not die according to the laws of nature, life, but break according to someone's childish whim ”(Klyuchevsky V.O. Letters. Diaries, Aphorisms and thoughts on history. - M., 1968, p. 332.) .
Ideas about the world in antiquity and now differ significantly: the world has changed, and man has changed. History is an evolving array of social experience, passed down from generation to generation, which is rethought each time.
Interest in the past has existed since the beginning of the human race. Man himself is a historical being. It changes, develops over time, is the product of this development.
The original meaning of the word "history" goes back to the ancient Greek term meaning "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". History was identified with the establishment of authenticity, the truth of events and facts.
In Roman historiography (historiography is a branch of historical science that studies its history), this word began to denote a story about the events of the past. Soon “history began to be called in general any story about any case, incident, real or fictitious
Currently, we use the word "history" in 2 senses:
1) to indicate a story about the past;
2) when it comes to a single science that studies the past.
The subject of history defined ambiguously. Its subject may be social, political, economic history, the history of the city, village, family, private life. The definition of the subject of history is subjective, connected with the ideology of the state and the outlook of the historian. Historians who take materialistic positions believe that history as a science studies the patterns of development of society, which depend on the method of production of material goods. This approach prioritizes economics over people in explaining causality. Historians who adhere to liberal views are convinced that the subject of study of history is a person (personality). The famous French historian Mark Blok defines history as "the science of people in time". Historians use scientific categories in their research: historical movement (historical time, space), historical fact, the theory of the historical process (methodological interpretation).
Historical movement includes interrelated scientific categories: historical time and historical space. Historical time only moves forward. Outside the concept of historical time, history does not exist. Events following one after another form a time series. There are internal connections between events in time and space.
concept historical time changed repeatedly. This was reflected in the periodization of the historical process.
Almost until the end of the 18th century, historians distinguished between eras of savagery, barbarism, and civilization. Later, two approaches to the periodization of history took shape: formational (materialist historians of the 19th century) and civilizational (historical-liberal periodization of the early 21st century).
Under historical space understand the totality of natural-geographical, economic, political, socio-cultural processes occurring in a certain territory.
historical fact- these are real events of the past, what is considered a generally accepted truth (Egyptian pyramids, Macedonian wars, the Baptism of Rus', etc.), we receive specific historical data from historical sources.
Under historical sources refers to all the remnants of the past, in which historical evidence has been deposited, reflecting the real activity of man. All sources can be divided into groups: written, material, ethnographic, folklore, linguistic, film documents (phonic), architectural monuments, household items of the past, written documents, paintings, engravings, diagrams, drawings, sound recordings and much more.
Methods of knowledge of history.
The historical method is the way, the mode of action by which the researcher acquires new historical knowledge. Basic historical methods:
Historical and genetic;
Historical and comparative;
Historical and typological;
Historical and systemic.
General scientific methods are also applicable in history: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, description, measurement, explanation, etc.
The essence of the historical genetic method is reduced to a consistent disclosure of the properties and functions of the object under study in the process of its change. Cognition proceeds from the individual to the particular and further to the general and universal.
Historical comparative method is to compare events that took place at different times, but in many respects similar. Comparing them, scientists can explain the content of the facts and phenomena under consideration. The method allows to reveal the essence of the studied events by their similarity and difference, to compare them in time and space.
Historical-typological method(typology). Studying the history of the Second World War, one can raise the question of the balance of forces between the Nazi and anti-Hitler coalition. The opposing sides can be conditionally divided into two groups. The sides of each of the groups will differ only in relation to the allies and enemies of Germany (in other respects they may differ - in the anti-Hitler coalition there will be socialist countries and capitalist ones.
Historical-system method helps to study the unity of events, phenomena in socio-historical development. For example, the history of Russia is considered not as an independent process, but as a result of interaction with other states, an element in the development of the history of the entire civilization.
Common methods for all humanities are historical and logical.
historical method- this is a consideration of the process in a complex development: how it arose, what it was like at the beginning, what path it took.
With the logical method the studied phenomena are considered from the point of view of proof and refutation.
In historical science, in addition, the following methods are used:
Chronological method - presentation of phenomena in a strictly sequential, temporal order.
Chronological-problematic- the study of history by periods, topics or eras, inside - by problems.
Problem-chronological- one side of the activity of a person or society in its consistent development is studied.
Synchronistic - establishes relationships between processes and phenomena occurring at the same time in different regions.
There are also comparative-historical, retrospective, system-structural, statistical methods, mathematical analysis and sociological research.
Functions of historical science:
Cognitive - to know the essence of the historical process, its patterns, in order to avoid the mistakes of the past;
Evaluative - to assimilate universal human values, to understand the fallacy of a one-dimensional approach to the analysis of historical phenomena;
Practical - the application of the most effective ways to solve social problems known in the history of various countries.
