In the 12th century Kievan Rus breaks up into dozens of feudal principalities, by the 15th century. their number reaches 250. They are distinguished by their own features of cultural development. Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn and other art schools were formed.

Are being created epics, cycles historical songs, local (regional) annals.

architecture features a combination of local traditions with Byzantine and Western European elements Romanesque style. Becomes typical single-domed temple.

After Batu invasion Mongol-Tatar troops destroyed many temples, books and icons perished, monumental stone architecture was suspended for half a century. During Mongol-Tatar rule(1240–1480) Russian culture suffered enormous damage.

In the 14th-15th centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art. Not affected by the Mongol invasion, it preserved the cultural values ​​of pre-Mongol Rus, including those found in 1951. birch bark letters.

From the second floor. 14th c. starts national and cultural upsurge associated with the victory at the Kulikovo field (1380) and the unifying role of Moscow.

23. Culture of the Muscovite state in the 14th-17th centuries

The center of the state and cultural revival becomes Muscovy. Moscow was the center all-Russian chronicle And ecclesiastical capital.

In the 16th century under Ivan the Terrible created:

10 volumes "Cheti-Minei"(“Monthly Readings” - biographies of Russian saints, compiled by months);

"Power Book"- presentation of Russian history from Vladimir the Baptist to Ivan the Terrible;

set of rules and regulations "Domostroy".

First attempts typography belong to 1553. Seven anonymous books have been preserved from that time.

All R. 16th century in Moscow, Ivan the Terrible creates the first state printing house, wherein Ivan Fedorov And Petr Mstislavets March 1, 1564 "Apostle", in 1565 - "Book of Hours" and then other books.

At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. Moscow turns into a capital single centralized state, stronghold orthodoxy. This is reinforced by the monk Philotheus put forward in the beginning. 16th century theory "Moscow - the third Rome", which receives a monumental design in architecture.

From con. 15th c. the white-stone Kremlin is being rebuilt. Italian craftsmen dress it in red brick. To the beginning 16th century on the Cathedral Square of the Kremlin are being rebuilt or rebuilt Uspensky, Blagoveshchensky And Archangel Cathedral.

In the 16th–18th centuries traditional for wooden architecture is introduced into stone construction marquee style(Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square, etc.).

Painting this period is represented by icons and frescoes Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. The icon painting of Russian Bogomaz artists is a masterpiece of not only domestic, but also world culture.

non the threshold of the New Age. In the 17th century the history of the patriarchal ancient Russian culture, permeated with the church worldview, is coming to an end. The “secularization” of culture begins (strengthening of its secular character).

In the second floor. 17th century began to appear realistic trend in painting - in the icons of Simon Ushakov ("The Savior Not Made by Hands", etc.), in parsing(corrupted from lat. a person face, personality). this was the name given to portraits of real historical figures painted in the tradition of icon painting (a transitional stage to a secular portrait).

Appears rhymed poetry(Simeon Polotsky), dramatic works. First court theater in Russia (1672-1676) existed for 4 years at the court of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

In 1687 (during the regency of Princess Sophia) the first Russian institution of higher education- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.

The culture of Rus' in the period of political fragmentation

The period of feudal fragmentation is the time of extensive stone construction in all principalities. Beautiful cities were created in the capital cities architectural structures, and their number was more than ten. In the architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation, their own distinctive features appear. Buildings of the XII - XIII centuries. differed from the structures of the previous period by the smaller scale of buildings, simple but beautiful forms, and ease of decoration. A typical building was a cubic temple with a massive light drum and a helmet-shaped dome. From the second half of the XII century. Byzantine influence in architecture is weakening, which was reflected in the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of temples of a tower-like shape, unknown to Byzantine architecture. Rus' at this time joins the pan-European Romanesque style. This communion did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple, but affected the external design of buildings: arched belts, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columned belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, intricate stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls.
Elements of Romanesque architecture spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. The architectural buildings of the Galicia-Volyn land are poorly preserved and many of them are known only from literary descriptions and archaeological data. In the middle of the XIV century. Galicia-Volyn lands became part of the Catholic states - Poland and Hungary. The Catholic Church for many centuries destroyed all traces of Russian culture, so it is especially difficult to restore the true appearance of the churches of Western Rus'. The peculiarity of the architecture of this land was the combination of the Byzantine-Kyiv composition with Romanesque building techniques and elements of Romanesque decoration. The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, as well as block bricks instead of Kiev plinths, from which they erected temples of various plans: four- and six-pillared, and without pillars, and round in plan - rotundas. Round churches - rotundas - evidence of the influence of Western early Gothic architecture. The high level of Galician architecture of this period is evidenced by Church of Panteleimon near Galich(beginning of the 13th century) with its perspective portal and carving of capitals.

The general democratization of Novgorod life during the period of feudal fragmentation also affected Novgorod architecture. In 1136, Novgorod became a veche republic, and the princes turned into hired chiefs of a squad guarding the city with its possessions. The prince was evicted outside the city - on Gorodische, 3 km from Novgorod. There the princes settle down and build monasteries - fortresses with temples. The most remarkable of the princely temples is St. George's Cathedral of St. George's Monastery (1119), built by order of Vsevolod Mstislavich. The temple has three asymmetrically located domes, shifted to the west, which is not typical for Orthodox churches. The building was built using the technique of mixed masonry, combining stone blocks and bricks. The cathedral is actually devoid of decor, since Novgorod limestone is loose, oversaturated with shells and is difficult to process. History has not conveyed to us the names of the architects of that period, but the name of the architect of St. George's Cathedral has been preserved in the Novgorod annals - "Master Peter". The construction of the cathedral lasted 11 years, before the end of its walls were covered with frescoes, destroyed in the XIX century. On July 12, 1130, he was consecrated in the name of George the Victorious. In contrast to the interior decoration, the original external appearance of the cathedral has been almost completely preserved (during the restoration of 1931-1935, all its numerous extensions built at different times were removed).

First stone Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa on the Market (Saint Paraskeva-Pyatnitsa was considered the patroness of trade) was built in 1207 on the site of a wooden one built in 1156 by overseas merchants. The documents preserved 15 news about the fires and renovations that befell the temple. The modern appearance of the temple was acquired as a result of post-war restoration, during which many ancient forms were revealed.

A striking example of the monuments of Novgorod architecture of the last third of the XII century. It is rightfully considered Church of the Transfiguration on Nereditsa. It was erected in one season around 1198 under the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich in memory of two dead sons. Despite its relatively small size, it gives the impression of a monumental structure. The volume of the church, crowned with one dome resting on four pillars, is divided into 3 naves and completed from the east by three altar apses. A characteristic feature of its composition is sharply lowered side apses. The appearance of the church in Novgorod is restrained and strict: not a single detail violates the harmony of the whole. ITS only adornment - an arched belt under the dome of a massive drum cut through by eight narrow windows - enhances the impression of simplicity and grandeur.
The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Nereditsa became world-famous due to the frescoes, executed freely and energetically in unusually light colors: combinations of yellow-red ocher, pale green and blue. Unfortunately, during the Great Patriotic War, the church on Nereditsa was destroyed as a result of shelling, and its ancient frescoes were almost completely destroyed. In the restored in 1956-1958. only fragments of the murals of the altar part and the lower sections of other walls have been preserved.

With construction Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. On the site of the pagan sanctuary in Peryn (named after the god Perun), a new type of church is being created, which became decisive for the Novgorod architecture of the 14th-15th centuries. The highest achievements of Novgorod architects include Church of the Transfiguration on Kovalev (1345), Fyodor Stratilat on the Creek(1360-1361), Spas of the Transfiguration on Ilyina Street(1374), Peter and Paul in Kozhevniki (1406), Simeon the God-Receiver in the Animal Monastery(1467).
The facades of all Novgorod churches usually have a three-blade top, the roofs, as a rule, are eight-sloped. Such a deviation in the structure of the roof from the general Byzantine style was determined by local climatic conditions - frequent cold rains and snowfalls. Novgorod churches were built entirely of brick or multi-colored cobblestones with flat brick inserts - plinths, which provided color overflows from grayish-blue to bright red-brown and gave the building an extraordinary picturesqueness.
Temples were decorated very modestly: with brick crosses inserted into the masonry; three small slits where there should have been one large window; "eyebrows" above the windows and a typical Pskov-Novgorod pattern on the drum. This pattern consisted of squares and triangles. Above the ornamental belt, and sometimes instead of it, there was a chain of kokoshniks - arched stepped recesses. The altar apse was decorated with vertical roller patterns, connected on top with arcs. Special mention should be made of the so-called golosniks, peculiar only to Novgorod churches: pots and jugs smeared horizontally into the walls, into the drum of the dome, into the “sails” and vaults and served as a kind of microphones.

During the period of fragmentation, from the middle of the XII century, the largest center of Rus' becomes Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The outlying region of Kievan Rus, lying between the Oka and Volga, begins its rapid development. Large-scale construction of new cities unfolded during the reign of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), the son of Yuri Dolgoruky. In addition to the ancient cities - Rostov, Suzdal and Yaroslavl - new ones are being put forward: Pereslavl-Zalessky, Kideksha, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Moscow and especially Vladimir. Outstanding monuments of art are created here, many of which have survived to this day.
Temples were built mainly from hewn white stone. It was to this time that the creation of the all-Russian type of temple, which has a complex dynamic composition, dates back. Temples with four pillars were crowned with one dome, towering on a high drum with apses protruding from the eastern side. The architecture of this period was distinguished by the simplicity of decor, the severity of proportions, and symmetry.

Assumption Cathedral, erected in 1158-1160, was painted for the next year. The first stone in the foundation of the temple was laid by Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1158. On September 21, 1164, the miraculous icon of the Mother of God was transferred from Bogolyubovo to the newly built cathedral church, after which Prince Andrei proclaimed Vladimir the patron city. Moscow princes. The building of the Assumption Cathedral was erected from limestone and decorated with white stone carvings. The central dome of the temple, crowned with a gilded helmet, rose 33 meters high, surpassing the height of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. The splendor of the Assumption Cathedral was above all estimates. The craftsmen bound the solemn entrance portals arranged on three sides with sheets of gilded copper. The facades were decorated with complex pilasters with Corinthian capitals, and horizontally they were divided into two tiers by an arched frieze. The walls and vaults of the temple were painted with frescoes. From the original frescoes, only fragments of ornamental painting have survived, in which the high professionalism of the artists who performed it is guessed.

Simultaneously with the temple, the construction of the residence of the Vladimir princes in Bogolyubovo began, not far from which, on the banks of the Nerl River, among flood meadows, in 1165 a white-stone Church of the Intercession of the Virgin. The location of the temple is unique: the Church of the Intercession is built in a lowland, on a small hill, located on a flood meadow. Previously, near the church there was a place where the Nerl flows into the Klyazma (now the riverbeds have changed their position). The church was located almost on the river "arrow", making out the crossroads of the most important water trade routes. An elegant four-pillar temple with the division of the outer walls into 3 unequal sections (part of the surface of the outer wall of the building, bounded on both sides by pilasters or shoulder blades) was crowned with a dome placed on a tetrahedral pedestal. A clear rhythm of the arched-columnar belt on the surface of the drum, the main volume and galleries, carvings make up the main decorative decoration of the temple. The refinement of proportions and the general harmony of the temple are noted by many researchers; often the Church of the Intercession is called the most beautiful Russian church.
At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. Equally famous architectural masterpieces were erected on the Vladimir-Suzdal lands, such as: Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir(1190s), Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal (1222-1225), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky(1230-1234).
Stone carving played the most important role in the decoration of Vladimir churches. In an effort to express their own attitude to the world, to the beauties of nature, stone carvers showed true skill. Among the numerous temples of Vladimir, Dmitrievsky Cathedral stands out with elegance and an abundance of decorations. Thin carved lace, completely covering the surfaces of the walls from the arcade-columnar belt up to the dome itself, is the main feature of the cathedral, giving it a special lightness and grace. Figures of Christ, prophets and apostles, Christian martyrs and holy warriors are combined with images of animals, lion masks and flowering trees. The walls between the windows are decorated with intertwined medallions with images of "mountain" birds.
The reliefs were not repeated anywhere and were located from top to bottom. The upper images were larger than the lower ones, which contributed to their better view from the ground. In general, the sculptural decoration of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral is one of the highest achievements of Vladimir carvers, which is the glory and special pride of ancient Russian art.

The collapse of Kievan Rus had extremely important positive consequences. Small areas were easier manage . Now every ruler took care of the principality as if it were his own property, sought to strengthen and enrich it. Rising to a new quality level economy (handicraft, agricultural production). The absence of internal borders promotes development trade , commodity-money relations .
Rus' used to be called "country of cities". Now there are more of them, they are increasing in size, their social and political significance is growing.
Cities played a huge role in Rus'. First of all, the city is the center of power: the prince or his governor was here. Boyars and other noble people lived in the cities, their estates were located here. The military significance of the cities is also great: a military garrison was located in well-fortified fortresses, and the inhabitants of the cities formed their own militias - city regiments. The city was the religious center of the surrounding lands; a metropolitan was appointed here, to whom archpriests and parish priests were subordinate. Monasteries arose in cities or near them. The city was also a center of culture.

Old Russian cities most often grew on hills, at the confluence of rivers or a river and a ravine. The rivers at that time were the main trade routes, and their steep banks were the natural protection of the city. First, a fortress arose on a hill (it could also be called "detinets" or Krom, Kremlin), the settlement was surrounded by a fortified wall to protect it from enemies, originally wooden, at a later time - stone. Inside the fortifications there was a princely palace, temples, administrative offices, orders, farmsteads, trading, houses of residents.
Let us give as an example the city of Pskov, where the citadel, called Krom, was located on a rocky cape at the confluence of the Pskov River with the Velikaya River and was a formidable fortress, cut off from the settlement by a moat. In Pskov, it was the veche center - the heart and guardian of all city "ends" (quarters) and the entire Pskov land. The harsh impregnability of the city core was addressed to the enemies. For the owners, Krom was a safe haven, the keeper of their shrines, property and lives themselves. Something similar can be seen in other ancient Russian cities, where, during enemy raids, the inhabitants of the towns and suburban villages shut themselves up in citadels, and often burned their towns' courtyards with their own hands.

Pskov Kremlin

If in the IX-X centuries. the territory of Russian cities mainly fit within the limits of small fortresses - detintsy. (The inner castle - detinets - got its name from the "children", combatants who made up its garrison.) Then by the XII-XIII centuries. the cities grew significantly and soon ceased to fit within the narrow limits of the citadels. Settlements of craftsmen and merchants, who settled outside the castle walls, grew up next to the citadel, and two urban worlds were created: princely and free (trade and handicraft). The most striking example of such a neighborhood of two different worlds is Kyiv. In the annalistic news, two parts of Kyiv clearly appear - Gora and Podol. Posadas were subsequently attached to the city, and they were surrounded by a new wall. It formed the outer fortified belt. In large centers, the city suburbs gradually included in the city, surrounded by light fortifications in the form of a palisade, set on a low rampart. Such a fortification was called a "fort".

At the intersection of streets with defensive structures, towers with gates were built. Their number depended on the size of the settlement. In Kyiv there were at least 4 gates, in Vladimir-on-Klyazma - 4, in small fortresses they were content with one gate. The significance of the gate for the city is emphasized by the fact that the term "open the gate" meant the surrender of the city. In large princely cities, there is a noticeable desire to allocate special front gates. In Kyiv, they received the name Golden, in imitation of the Golden Gate in Constantinople. In medieval Rus', churches were always built over the gates, or icons were installed in icon cases. Churches and chapels were often placed next to the gates - for their spiritual protection.

Of exceptional importance for the city were monasteries, located both far from the cities, and in their centers, and among the settlements, and on the near and far approaches to the cities, where they sometimes became "watchmen" - advanced outposts, speaking the language of another era. The walls of the monasteries could acquire a fortress character. But monasteries had another meaning in the life of cities: it was in the monasteries that the cultural life of cities proceeded, chronicles and books were written here, and beautiful works of art were created.
In the center of the ancient Russian city there was a temple and a princely palace - symbols of two authorities, spiritual and secular. In pre-Christian times, the religious center of the city was a pagan temple, with the advent of Christianity in Rus', Orthodox churches began to be erected in the cities. The largest cathedrals of pre-Mongol Rus were erected in Kyiv. The second largest princely and episcopal cathedrals appeared in Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk, and somewhat later - in Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich. Cities of lesser importance, which were given into the possession of the younger princes (or where the princely governors were sent), received correspondingly more modest churches. For example, the cathedral of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky received such a size, which in the grand ducal capitals was given only to secondary township and palace churches.

The symbol of secular power was the prince's palace - "prince's court", which was the center of the political and administrative life of the city. Thieves caught overnight at the scene of a crime were brought here for reprisals, litigation between the townspeople was sorted out by the prince and his tiun (steward), here the city militia converged before setting out on a campaign - in a word, “prince’s court” or the posadnik’s court replacing him in small towns was the center around which urban life was concentrated. Of all the buildings, the prince's tower or mansions stood out. Buildings for the housing of boyars and other noble people competed with the dwelling of the prince. Separate parts of rich houses rose high above the poor dwellings of artisans and other townspeople. An outstanding part of the boyar or princely choir was the tower - a high tower or tower, with rooms for women. In Rus', the word "vezha" was also known, which denoted not only city towers, but also towers at houses. The princely or boyar courtyards, fenced with a high fence, contained not only the master's mansions, but also utility rooms: medushki for storing honey, cellars, baths, even dungeons - cuts.

And yet, the main population of the ancient Russian cities were artisans and people associated with various crafts and daily work. They did not live in chambers and mansions, but in simple houses - huts. Each hut, or cage, whether it was spacious or cramped, above ground or semi-underground, was located in a special courtyard. A fence (“tyn”) made of stakes, or wattle fence, separated one yard from another. Yards, fenced with wattle and tyn, made up the landscape of a typical city street of Ancient Rus'. The words "street" and "end" were used to designate urban areas in Ancient Rus'. In a number of cities (for example, in Moscow), one can observe that the direction of the streets was closely related to the direction of the original roads that converged on the fortified city.

The Mongol-Tatar invasions suddenly interrupted that brilliant flowering of art, which is embodied in the architecture, painting, sculpture of the Kyiv state and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Although the northern Russian lands defended their independence in the struggle against enemies, here, too, during the period of increased threat of raids, artistic life froze. The Mongol-Tatar yoke caused enormous damage to the culture of the Russian people, many crafts disappeared, construction stopped for a long time, a huge amount of material values ​​\u200b\u200bwas taken to the Horde. Thousands of handwritten books, hundreds of thousands of icons, works of applied art perished in the fires, many architectural monuments were lost.

After getting acquainted with the presented materials, it is necessary to complete the verification and control tasks presented here. If necessary, control materials are sent to the teacher's e-mail at: [email protected]

Features of the formation of ancient Russian culture

1. The Eastern Slavs received from the primitive era a folk, basically pagan, culture, the art of buffoons, rich folklore - epics, fairy tales, ritual and lyrical songs.

2. The culture of Kievan Rus was formed in the era of the formation of a single ancient Russian people and the formation of a single Russian literary language. It was created on the basis of ancient Slavic culture. It reflected the cultural traditions of individual Slavic tribes - Polyans, Vyatichi, Novgorodians, etc., as well as neighboring tribes - Utro-Finns, Balts, Scythians, Iranians. Various cultural influences and traditions merged and melted under the influence of common political and socio-economic relations. The culture of Kievan Rus reflected the life and way of life of the Slavic peoples, it was associated with the flourishing of trade and crafts, the development of interstate relations and trade ties.

3. A huge influence on culture as a whole - on literature, architecture, painting - had Christianity. At the same time, the existing dual faith led to the fact that pagan spiritual traditions were preserved in the culture of medieval Rus' for a long time. The harsh canons of church Byzantine art in Rus' have undergone changes, the images of saints have become more worldly, humane.

Writing, school education. Chronicles. Literature

1. For a long time there was an opinion that the letter came to Rus' along with Christianity. However, the facts irrefutably testify that Slavic writing existed as early as the beginning of the 10th century:

> an earthenware Smolensk vessel with an inscription in Slavonic (late 9th century);

> agreement (911) between Prince Oleg and Byzantium is one of the first monuments of Slavic writing;

> Cyril and Methodius created their own alphabet based on the Slavic script.

2. After the adoption of Christianity in the XI century. in Rus', literacy begins to spread among princes, boyars, merchants, and wealthy citizens. In rural areas, the population was illiterate. Yaroslav the Wise, his children knew several languages. Craftsmen put inscriptions-brands on their products. There were translations of Greek, Bulgarian books, historical works - the famous "Academy" - a book about the campaigns of Alexander the Great, books on natural science and geography. Books were expensive, made from parchment. They were written by hand with goose or swan feathers, decorated with colored miniatures. Of the 130 surviving books of the XI-XII centuries. more than 80 - liturgical.

3. The first schools were opened at churches, monasteries, in cities. Yaroslav the Wise created a school in Novgorod for the children of clerics. Monomakh's sister set up a school for girls in Kyiv. Posad people (townspeople - artisans, merchants), as a rule, were literate, knew how to count well. This is evidenced by birch bark letters found in Novgorod and Pskov - letters, economic documents, court decisions, petitions, as well as graffiti - inscriptions on the walls of churches (complaints, prayers); the inscription of Monomakh has been preserved: “Oh, it’s hard for me.” The Slavs had a fairly extensive knowledge of geography, obtained from books and as a result of travel. They were well aware of the four operations of arithmetic, fractions, the beginnings of geometry, and astronomy.

4. The most important monuments of ancient Russian culture are the chronicles - the weather account of historical events. Chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary gifted monks who knew translated literature, legends, epics, described events and facts related mainly to the life of princes, the affairs of monasteries, and occasionally non-Ryad affairs. The first chronicle appeared at the end of the 10th century; it told about the history of the Ruriks before the introduction of Christianity. The chronicle has not survived. The second chronicle was compiled under Yaroslav the Wise. The third and fourth were created by Metropolitan Hilarion under Prince Svyatoslav.

5. Many legends were included in the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", which became the main work on the history of Rus'. It was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor in 1113. A highly educated person for his time, a talented writer and deep historian, he raises the question of the origin of the Russian state and its development: “Where did the Russian land come from, who in Kiev began the first prince, and from where the Russian land began to eat. Nestor not only reports facts, but also makes philosophical and religious generalizations, shows the history of Rus' and the princely power of the Kyiv state against the backdrop of world history. He describes boyars, posadniks, vigilantes, monks, speaks of military campaigns, uprisings, princely strife, and the life of ordinary people. Nestor condemns murders, betrayal, praises honesty and courage. The chronicler evaluates all events from the standpoint of religious morality and statehood. Nestor also left two other outstanding works: The Tale of Boris and Gleb and The Life of Theodosius. In 1118, during the reign of Monomakh, hegumen Sylvester wrote a new code, which specifically described the deeds of Vladimir Monomakh. As Rus' collapsed, centers of local chronicle writing appeared in Smolensk, Pskov, Galich, Vladimir, Suzdal and other cities. Local chronicles were written by order of the prince close boyars or warriors. They told about the life of the prince and his family, his relationship with the boyars, other princes, etc. Local chronicles differed in the subject of narration and style. A library of chronicles appeared in Kyiv.

6. In addition to historical works in Kievan Rus, works of other genres are also created. In 1049, Metropolitan Hilarion wrote "The Sermon on Law and Grace" - a famous work that testified to the deep penetration of the ideology of Christianity into the minds of the Russian Church Fathers. In it, Hilarion glorifies the new ideas and concepts of Christianity, as well as Rus', the Russian people, the “old” and “glorious” princes of the Russian land, emphasizes the right of the Russian church to independence. At the end of the XI century. written works: "The memory and praise of Vladimir" monk Jacob, "The legend of the initial spread of Christianity in Rus'." The most famous was Vladimir Monomakh's Teaching to Children, the main goal of which is the need to combat princely civil strife. Monomakh draws the image of an ideal prince who cares about the power of the Russian land. The work “Journey of Abbot Daniel to the East” describes a long, difficult journey to the tomb of the Lord in Palestine. Two related works stand out: “Word” and “Prayer”. Scientists believe that they were written - one in the XII century, the other in the XIII century. - by two authors who bore the name Daniel and called themselves the Sharpeners. Both from imprisonment turn to their princes, both stand up for a strong princely power. The great monument of ancient Russian literature is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The only manuscript that has come down to modern times, The Lay..., perished in a fire in Moscow during the invasion of Napoleon in 1812. The work tells about the campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich in 1185 against the Polovtsians. The first battle ended with the victory of the Russian troops. In the second battle, the Russian army was defeated, and Igor was captured. The Polovtsy devastated the left bank of the Dnieper. The unknown author of the “Word...” overcame the narrowness of the interests of his principality and spoke from the standpoint of all-Russian interests, he stands up for the unity of all Russian princes in the struggle against the nomads and condemns those of them who did not come to the aid of Igor. This is a poetic story about the courage of the Russian people and lamentation for the dead.

Architecture

1. Archaeological excavations show that up to the tenth century. in Rus' they built exclusively from wood. The wooden buildings of pagan Rus' have not been preserved, but the architectural style - turrets, towers, tiers, passages, carvings - passed into the stone architecture of Christian times. In Rus', they began to build stone churches according to the Byzantine model: the squares formed an architectural cross. The earliest building in Kyiv is the Church of the Mother of God-Tsyatinnaya (end of the 10th century), so named because church tithes were allocated for its maintenance. Under Yaroslav the Wise, the Kiev Sophia Cathedral was built, the architecture of which organically combines Slavic and Byzantine traditions: 13 domes stand on the basis of a cross-domed church.

2. Sophia Cathedral became a symbol of the power of Kievan Rus. The walls of the cathedral are made of pink brick - plinths, alternating with a thick layer of white lime. The central dome was surrounded by 4 medium domes, behind which stood 8 small ones. There was an open gallery around the temple. Inside, the walls and ceiling were decorated with frescoes and mosaics. A fresco is a painting with water-based paints on wet plaster. Many frescoes were devoted not only to religious, but also to everyday subjects: they depict the family of Yaroslav the Wise, buffoons, fistfights, hunting, etc. The mosaic had 130 shades. There were many icons in the cathedral. Cathedrals in honor of St. Sophia were also built in Novgorod, Polotsk; in Chernigov - the Transfiguration Cathedral (multi-domed churches).

3. In the XII century. single-dome churches were built: Dmitrovsky and Assumption in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, the Church of the Intercession-on-Nerl. New fortresses, stone palaces, chambers of rich people were laid in Chernigov, Galina, Pskov, Suzdal. The stone, as a rule, was decorated with carvings. Temples were placed on high hills, they were combined with the natural landscape. The city of Vladimir was surrounded by a stone wall with gilded Golden Gates.

Art, music, oral folk art

1. Iconography has also become widespread. An icon is an image on specially processed boards of saints revered by the church. In Rus', the strict Byzantine technique of icon painting was influenced by ancient Russian culture, which brought softness, depth, and lyricism to the ascetic Byzantine canons. The oldest monument of icon painting that has come down to us is the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir. It was named after the transfer of the icon by Andrey Bogolyubsky from Kyiv to Vladimir. One of the oldest surviving monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal art of icon painting is the main “Deesis”, written at the end of the 12th century. (“Deesis” means “prayer”). The “Oranta” icon also belongs to the same school of icon painting. Novgorod icons have come down to us: “The Angel of Golden Hair”, “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, “The Assumption of the Virgin” (all from the 12th century), which depict the passions of the divine and human. The Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir was decorated with frescoes of the Last Judgment.

2. The art of carving in wood and stone reached a high level; the palaces of princes and the dwellings of the boyars were decorated with it. Russian jewelers, using the most complex technique - filigree, niello, granulation, filigree, created gold and silver jewelry, which were masterpieces of world art. Magnificent chasing and elegant artistic decoration of weapons put Russian goldsmiths on a par with Western European ones. The frame of tury horns from the Black Grave in Chernigov is known. Many products were exported to the Czech Republic, Poland; and bone carving in Byzantium was called “Russian carving”.

3. Folk art is reflected in Russian folklore: incantations, spells, proverbs, riddles that were associated with agriculture and the life of the Slavs, wedding songs and funeral lamentations. A special place is occupied by such an epic genre as “old times” - epics, especially the Kyiv heroic cycle. Their heroes - Kyiv, Dnieper, princes Vladimir the Red Sun and Monomakh, Russian heroes Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Ilya Muromets - folk heroes, defenders of the Motherland. Their deeds are fabulous and heroic. Gradually, oral folk art acquires a social coloring: the rich, the boyars are denounced.

4. The most ancient genre of Russian music is ritual and labor songs, “old times”. Musical instruments - tambourines, psaltery, pipes, horns. Buffoons performed on the squares - singers, dancers, acrobats, there was a folk puppet theater. Accordions - storytellers and singers of the "stars" enjoyed great respect.

Life and customs of Ancient Rus'

1. The culture of the people is inextricably linked with their way of life and customs. People lived in cities (20-30 thousand people), villages (≈50 people), villages (25-40 people). The main type of Slavic dwelling was a manor, a house - a log cabin, often two-story. Kyiv was a big and rich city: palaces, cathedrals, towers of boyars, wealthy merchants, clergy. Feasts were often held in palaces, women sat on an equal footing with men, harp sang, food and money were distributed on behalf of the owner to the poor. The favorite pastime of the rich is falconry, hawk hunting, dog hunting. For ordinary people, horse races, fistfights, and games were arranged. The bath was very popular.

2. Clothes were sewn from homespun canvas or cloth. The basis of the costume was a shirt, men's pants were tucked into boots, a women's shirt - to the floor, with embroidery and long sleeves. Hats: the prince had a hat framed with bright fabric, women covered their heads with a scarf (with a towel - married), decorated with pendants, peasants and townspeople wore fur or wicker hats. Outerwear - cloak-votola made of thick linen fabric. The princes wore barmas around their necks - chains of silver or gold medallions with enamel decorations.

3. They ate bread, meat, fish, vegetables. They drank kvass, honey, wine. The annals noted the predilection of the people of Kiev for drinking wine.

4. Newborns were given names according to the church calendar. Most of them are of Jewish or Greek origin. In Russian, they changed their sound: Jacob - Jacob, Joseph - Osip, Abram, John - Ivan. Princely names became calendar ones - Vladimir, Boris, Gleb, Oleg. For ordinary people, the name often became a nickname - Molchan, Oladya, Fool.

5. Russian culture on the eve of the Mongol invasion was at a very high level of development, not inferior to the culture of the advanced countries of Europe and actively interacting with it.

After the collapse of Kievan Rus, certain changes took place in its culture associated with the development of individual Russian principalities. This was primarily reflected in Russian chronicle writing, since already from the 11th century local chronicle appeared along with the all-Russian chronicle. The Novgorod chronicle was especially striking. Its creators were only interested in local Novgorod events, but they are captured with amazing observation and immediacy, which we will not find in The Tale of Bygone Years.

A monument of the church literature of the city of Kyiv is the “Kiev-Pechersk Patericon”, written at the beginning of the 13th century, which A.S. was so fond of reading. Pushkin! It was compiled in the form of a correspondence between Bishop Simon of Suzdal and the Pechersk monarch Polycarp. This correspondence contains fascinating and instructive stories (there are 24 of them in total). Some of them belong to the early stages of the history of the monastery (mid-11th c.)

Along with church literature significant development in the XII century. Received oratory - preaching. The famous preacher of this time was Cyril of Turov (2nd half of the 12th century). Cyril's teachings are devoted mainly to church holidays and parables.

It would be completely wrong to limit the literary centers of Ancient Rus' only to the ecclesiastical environment. The annals contain many purely secular writings. The Hypatian Chronicle, compiled within Galicia-Volyn Rus, is especially replete with them. Characteristics of the princes, their military campaigns, descriptions of the course of state affairs - all this in its spirit betrays secular, sometimes simply "knightly" (military), sources of its origin.

The pinnacle of ancient Russian literature is the epic poem "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". It is dedicated to the campaign of Russian troops led by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in April - May 1185. This campaign itself was not some kind of exceptional event, but the brilliant author, who remained unknown, saw in it and in its consequences, what so worried the Russian society of that time: the need to fight the Polovtsy, but without fail by common, and not by scattered efforts. Igor's campaign became, as it were, a harsh lesson and a warning to other princes. Such is the socio-political meaning of the Lay. The author of the Lay contrasts the power and unity of Rus' in the past with the time of strife.

"The Word" is a monument of national and at the same time world culture. The emergence of professional literature occurred in Rus' no later than in France, Germany and England.

During the period of fragmentation, other aspects of culture also acquire new features, in particular architecture. Chernihiv architects were full of creative quests and at the very end of the XII century. They created a fundamentally new architectural form, embodying it in the temple of Friday at the auction.

The white-stone architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus has gone through a special path of development. At an early stage, at the beginning of the XII century, it was closely connected with the Kievan traditions. But the buildings of the middle of the XII century. (Yuri Dolgorukov's time) already have an independent character. During these years of development of Zalesky land, first of all, fortresses were built - strongholds of princely power, an example of which can be the powerful ramparts of Pereyaslavl Zalesky. Features of the Romanesque style fully flourish in the Vladimir architecture of the second half of the 12th century (the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest). At this time, the Assumption Cathedral was being built, originally built in 1158-1161 and significantly expanded in 1185-1189.

Visual arts also underwent certain changes. So, in the XII century. in Rus', the art of mosaic ceased to exist, but the fresco at that time was most widely developed. The features of this art made it possible to more flexibly reflect the needs and ideals of the schools that were being formed at that time. The severity and inner tension of squat figures with a sharp look is an example of Novgorod frescoes of the 12th century. In Vladimir frescoes, as well as in the architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, there is more sublime and spiritual aristocracy and sophistication.

In the second half of the XII century. Vladimir has its own school of icon painting, whose works are characterized by a departure from the Byzantine canons. The Savior Not Made by Hands can serve as a model here, striking in its expressiveness, expressed in the unusual construction of the face and in huge expressive eyes. At the beginning of the XIII century. the Yaroslavl school of icon painting became famous. Many icons-masterpieces were painted in the monasteries and churches of Yaroslavl.

Applied art of Rus' in the XII century. reached a high level. His products were valued and were in great demand not only in Rus', but also abroad. Russian products made of filigree, cloisonne enamel, and granulation were also distinguished by the finest craftsmanship.

Analyzing the results of the development of culture XII - early XIII century. we can say that she managed to catch up at that time with Byzantium - the most cultured country of that time. The national identity of Russian culture is becoming more and more noticeable. The beginning of the specific period was marked by the creation of the first local specific art schools.

Art historians and philologists note that the spiritual life of various Russian lands, with all its diversity, retained common features and unity of styles. Political fragmentation and even the Mongol-Tatar invasion did not interrupt the cultural development of the people and did not lead to its decline. On the contrary, those who lived in the XII-XII centuries. artists, architects, writers left us many masterpieces of literature and art. This was the second "golden age" of Russian culture.

So, summing up, it should be emphasized that feudal fragmentation in Rus' in the XII-XIV centuries. was a natural phenomenon associated with the peculiarities of the formation of the feudal system. For all the progressiveness of this process, feudal fragmentation had a significant negative point, such as the weakening of the military potential of Rus', but at the same time it contributed to the improvement of the management system, created favorable conditions for the development of the economy and culture in regional centers.

Culture experienced a further upsurge. Local centers of culture arose (Vladimir, Novgorod, etc.).

Craft. Blacksmithing, processing of silver and gold is being improved. From the 12th century watermills are used.

Chronicle. The all-Russian chronicle was replaced by the local one. The number of centers of chronicle writing has increased (Vladimir, Suzdal, Galich, etc.), and its local features are taking shape. Novgorod chronicles were characterized by efficiency and simplicity of presentation of events, the absence of church rhetoric. The Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle had a religious character, asserted the idea of ​​a strong princely power, the claim of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes to supremacy.

Literature. Pearl of literature of the XII century. is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", telling about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich(1151–1202) to the Polovtsian Khan Konchak V 1185 d. An unknown author calls on the princes to stop the strife, to unite in the fight against the nomads: “Brother said to brother:“ This is mine, and that is mine.” And the filthy from all sides came with victories to the Russian land. Some scientists consider this monument to be a forgery of the 18th century. (A. A. Zimin). D.S. Likhachev proved its authenticity.

Famous works of the Bishop from the city of Turov Kirill Tyurovsky(1130–1182) and Metropolitan from Smolensk KleeMenta SmallIticha († 1164). "Kyiv-Pechersky PaterAndTo” contains teachings, lives of the saints of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. "The Word of Daniil the Sharpener" And "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" they criticize the willfulness of the boyars, stand up for the strengthening of princely power and the state in the face of foreign danger.

Architecture. A typical building of the XII century. was a cubic temple of the cross-domed style with light drum and the head of a helmet-shaped form (temple-"hero").

Monumental rigor and simplicity of forms are characteristic of Novgorod architecture. The temples of Novgorod are outwardly modest, but they are in perfect harmony with the harsh northern nature: churches Savior on Nereditsa, Peter and Paul on Sinichya mountain, Paraskeva Fridays. In the beginning. 12th century artel of the master Petra built cathedrals in Antonievsky And Yurievsky monasteries, churches Nicholas at Yaroslav's Court.

Vladimir-Suzdal architecture, in contrast to the harsh architecture of Novgorod, was distinguished by the elegance and sophistication of carving on white stone - limestone blocks measuring 50 by 50 cm. romanesque style expressed in arcature-columnar belts And drankI fear. Under Andrei Bogolyubsky, fortress walls and towers were built in Vladimir (the ramparts and golden gate), in 1158–1161. built Assumption Cathedral, in 1165 - the church Veil on the Nerl, and a castle was erected in Bogolyubovo - the residence of the prince. (There is an assumption that the builders were Europeans - Germans or Italians). In 1194–1197 Vsevolod the Big Nest built in Vladimir Dmitrovsky Cathedral, characterized by the richness of stone carvings, as well as St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky.

Painting . Icon " Our Lady of Vladimir"(" Our Lady of Bogolyubskaya "), a wonderful work of Byzantine art early. XII century., It is distinguished by softness, depth of feelings. A mosaic icon of the 12th century is known. " Dmitry Solynsky” from the Mikhailovsky Cathedral in Kyiv (now in the Tretyakov Gallery). Novgorod painters of the XII century. created the icons Angel Golden Hair», « Savior Not Made by Hands”, church frescoes Spas on Nereditsa.

sculpture in Rus' it was poorly developed, it was forbidden in churches due to the struggle against pagan idols. Woodcarving was a characteristic feature of dwellings, wooden temples.

Life - the way of everyday life of the people (food, clothing, housing, maintaining health, recreation, entertainment). Life develops and changes under the influence of the level of culture, geographical conditions and influences the formation of personality, mentality.

marriage customs . In Rus', as in Western Europe, early marriages were practiced. According to church norms, people who had reached the age of 12–14 were considered adults. Vsevolod the Big Nest married his son Konstantin at the age of 10, and married his daughter Verkhuslava at the age of 8.

dwelling . Princely mansions were built of wood, later - of stone. Glass in windows until the 16th century. replaced by mica. Daughter of Yaroslav the Wise Anna Yaroslavna, who married King Henry I of France, was surprised by the provinciality and dullness of Paris in the 11th century. compared to the lavishly decorated Kyiv.

The rural population lived in villages weights. The center of several villages was churchyard- A village with a church. Log huts with earthen floors were heated without a chimney, in black, lit by a torch. The windows were covered with a bull bubble. Ordinary people used earthenware or wooden utensils. They slept on benches, without pillows.

There were two types of residential buildings:

-northern(log walls, a floor raised above the ground, a large stove);

-southern(the floor is deepened, a small adobe stove-heater).

Nutrition . The basis of the diet was plant and animal products - bread, vegetables, fish, less often - meat. Potatoes replaced turnips. Russians did not know strong alcohol, they used honey intoxicating drinks.

Cloth . The main type of clothing was a shirt: from expensive fabrics from the nobility, coarse homespun votola at the common people. Men wore long pants ports, or leggings". The outerwear of ordinary people was retinue- a long, tight-fitting robe. Women's clothing - sundress, headscarf - ubrus. The princes wore cloaks fastened on the shoulder - " basket"and fur coats (" casings"), leather boots. Bast shoes- Lychenitsa With onychs were peasant shoes. To know, following Byzantine traditions, she wore underwear. Anna Yaroslavna impressed the French royal court not only with her literacy, but also with the use of nightgowns.

Whealth . Anthropologists believe that in Rus' the average life expectancy was 32-44 years, and in Western Europe - 30-35 years. Common diseases were scurvy, rickets, caries - diseases associated with lack of food and low quality nutrition. The overcrowding of the urban population created conditions for the spread of plague epidemics.

It was widespread bath. In the PVL of Nestor, a description of the Novgorod bath is given: “The baths of the Drevyans will burn ramyan and will undress and be naked. And they will pour strong kvass on them, and take young rods, and beat themselves and finish themselves off before they barely get out alive. And they will pour themselves over with icy water, and so they will come to life. And they do this every day, they are not tormented by anyone, but they torment themselves. And then they make a move for themselves, and not torment. Rus' in the development of hygienic skills was ahead of Europe, where there was a ban on washing off dirt from the body by the Catholic Church.

Entertainment . The entertainment of the nobility was falconry, dog hunting ( "fishes") and squad feasts. The common people sang songs, danced round dances, played the harp and flute, arranged buffoons and games.

Thus, Before the Mongol conquest, the culture of Ancient Rus' was strongly influenced by Byzantium and developed in line with Western European culture.