Publications in the Traditions section
History of the Russian language in the 18th–19th centuries
In the novel by Leo Tolstoy "War and Peace" - more than 450 thousand words. Of these, almost 700 are German, and more than 15 thousand are French. So the writer conveyed the linguistic atmosphere of high society in Russia in the era of the Napoleonic Wars, when aristocrats practically did not use their native language in living rooms and at court. "Kultura.RF" tells how the Russian language was expelled from the salons and how it returned to the world.
Reforms of Peter I and the new Russian language
Peter Van Der Werf. Portrait of Peter I. 1697. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
Charles van Loo. Portrait of Elizabeth Petrovna. 1760. State Museum-Reserve "Peterhof", St. Petersburg
Leonid Miropolsky. Portrait of Mikhail Lomonosov. Copy of a portrait by Georg Prenner. 1787. Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after Peter the Great, St. Petersburg
Foreign languages in pre-Petrine Russia were not widely spoken even among educated Russians. Soviet philologist Lev Yakubinsky wrote: “Foreign language classes were viewed with suspicion, fearing that Catholic or Lutheran “heresy” would penetrate into the minds of Muscovites along with them.. Peter I himself was taught German from childhood, and as an adult, the tsar mastered Dutch, English and French. After the reforms at the beginning of the 18th century, foreigners poured into Russia, and noble children began to be sent to study in Europe. A huge number of borrowed words appeared in the Russian language, which denoted phenomena new to Russia: assembly, ammunition, globe, optics, varnish, fleet, ballast and others.
“Although before this, apart from the Russian language, none of the Russian people knew how to read and write books, and, more, it’s a shame than it is revered for art, but now we see His Majesty himself speaking the German language, and several thousand subjects of his Russian people, male and female sex, skillful different European languages, like Latin, Greek, French, German, Italian, English and Dutch, and such treatment, moreover, that they can shamelessly be equal to all other European peoples.
Feofan Prokopovich
The future Empress Elizabeth Petrovna was taught French - not because it was fashionable (gallomania reached Russia only 50 years later), but because Peter expected to marry his daughter to a representative of the Bourbon dynasty. Otherwise, Elizabeth differed little from other titled ladies: it was believed that the ability to write and read was more than enough for them.
“Memoirist Ekaterina Elagina recalled her relatives, whose childhood fell on the first half of the 18th century: “Maria Grigoryevna Bezobrazova ... was then well educated, because she knew how to read and write. Her sister Alexandra Grigorievna did not achieve this. She signed papers under the dictation of her serf clerk; he told her: “Write“ az ”- she wrote. - Write "people" - wrote "people", - she repeated, etc.
Vera Bokova, “To observe piety for the youth...” How noble children were instructed”
Until the 18th century, primers and grammars were compiled in the high, Church Slavonic dialect. On it, the children studied the Book of Hours and the hymnal after memorizing individual syllables. Separate from Church Slavonic, the Russian literary language began to develop after the reform of the alphabet, which approved the civil script. The first edition of the new alphabet was personally reviewed by Peter in 1710.
In the 1730s and 1740s, works on Russian philology were published in Latin and German, as was customary in academic circles. Mikhail Lomonosov wrote the Russian Grammar in Russian only in 1755. The first detailed textbooks of the literary Russian language were published in the 1820s by the writer and publicist Nikolai Grech.
The language of royal brides, churches, armies and servants
Fedor Rokotov. Portrait of Catherine II. 1763. State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow
Jean-Laurent Monnier. Ceremonial portrait of Empress Elizabeth Alekseevna. 1805. State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
Orest Kiprensky. Portrait of Alexander Pushkin. 1827. State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow
Foreign brides of sovereigns learned the language of their new homeland without fail. Sophia Augusta Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Empress Catherine II, showed great diligence in this matter. Describing her life as the bride of the heir to the throne, Peter Fedorovich, she recalled: “I have already been given three teachers: one, Simeon Theodorsky, to instruct me in the Orthodox faith; another, Vasily Adadurov, for the Russian language, and Lange, the choreographer, for the dances. In order to make faster progress in the Russian language, I got out of bed at night and, while everyone was sleeping, memorized the notebooks that Adadurov left me..
Count Fyodor Golovkin wrote about another born German - Elizaveta Alekseevna, wife of Alexander I: “She knows the language, religion, history and customs of Russia better than all Russian women”. The wife of Nicholas I, Alexandra Feodorovna, on the contrary, was embarrassed to speak Russian because of grammatical errors. Her teacher during her early years in Russia was the poet Vasily Zhukovsky. He discussed lofty subjects with his student and did not pay due attention to such prosaic topics as declension and conjugation.
However, the main language of living rooms at the beginning of the 19th century was French. Aristocratic women knew Russian only at the everyday level or did not speak their native language at all. Even a provincial young lady, as Tatiana Larina is described by Pushkin, “... I didn’t know Russian well / I didn’t read our magazines / And I expressed it with difficulty / In my native language”.
“Tatyana, of course, spoke everyday Russian speech, and also, having memorized prayers from childhood and attending church, she had a certain skill in understanding solemn church texts. She did not own a written style and could not freely express in writing those shades of feelings for which she found ready-made, well-established forms in French. A love letter required a more bookish style than spoken language ( "Until now, ladies' love / Not expressed in Russian"), and less bookish, more reduced than the language of church texts ( “To this day, our proud language / I’m not used to postal prose”).
Yuri Lotman, commentary on the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin"
Boys in noble families were taught the Russian language purposefully, because they had to serve in the army and command commoners. But if English misses and French monsieurs were invited to teach European languages, then children often learned Russian from servants. As a result, in the speech of aristocrats, borrowed from courtyard people slipped every now and then "nadys" or "entot". This was not considered ignorance, much more society ridiculed mistakes in French.
The family of Sergei Pushkin, the father of Alexander Pushkin, was French-speaking. French educators were replaced in their house, and the younger Pushkins spoke Russian only with their nanny Arina Rodionovna and their grandmother from their mother's side, Maria Gannibal. Later, teachers of their native language, clerk Alexei Bogdanov and priest Alexander Belikov, were assigned to Alexander Pushkin. When he entered the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum in 1811, 12-year-old Pushkin discovered knowledge "in Russian - very good". In the lyceum, children were taught in Russian - this was one of the basic principles of the educational institution.
From literature to high society
Peter Sokolov. Portrait of Nicholas I. 1820. All-Russian Museum of A.S. Pushkin, St. Petersburg
Ivan Kramskoy. Portrait of Alexander III. 1886. State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
Ilya Galkin. Portrait of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. 1895. State Museum-Reserve "Peterhof", St. Petersburg
By the 1820s, a situation had developed where it was almost indecent to speak Russian at court, especially in the presence of ladies. But the golden age of Russian literature began. In 1830, a costume ball was held in the Anichkov Palace, at which the maid of honor Ekaterina Tizenhausen read the poem "Cyclops", which Pushkin wrote especially for the celebration. It was one of three voiced that evening in Russian. The remaining 14 verses were read in French.
Sovereign Nicholas I acted as the protector of the native language. Under him, all office work (except for diplomatic correspondence) was again conducted in Russian, and foreigners entering the Russian service from now on had to pass an exam on knowledge of the language. Moreover, the emperor demanded that both men and women speak Russian at court.
“Most secular ladies, especially natives of St. Petersburg, do not know their native language; however, they learn a few Russian phrases and, in order not to disobey the emperor, pronounce them when he passes through those halls of the palace where they are currently performing their service; one of them always guards in order to give a signal in time, warning of the appearance of the emperor - conversations in French immediately fall silent, and the palace resounds with Russian phrases designed to appease the ear of the autocrat; the sovereign is proud of himself, seeing how long the power of his reforms extends, and his recalcitrant naughty subjects laugh, as soon as he leaves the door. I don’t know what struck me more in the spectacle of this enormous power - its strength or weakness!
Astolf de Custine, "Russia in 1839"
Alexander III also demanded to address himself in Russian, in French in his presence they spoke only with Empress Maria Feodorovna, a Danish by nationality, although she knew Russian quite well.
However, foreign bonnes and governesses were still invited to the children of aristocrats. At the end of the 19th century, English became the language of the highest aristocracy. Academician Dmitry Likhachev wrote about the Anglophilism of that time: “It was considered a special sophistication to speak French with an English accent”. English was the home language in the family of Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna. Contemporaries noted the impeccable British pronunciation of the emperor and the noticeable foreign accent with which he spoke Russian.
And yet, at the beginning of the 20th century, the situation of 100 years ago, when a noblewoman could not understand the speech of the common people, was already unthinkable. The literary Russian language, which took shape in the 18th-19th centuries, was in demand in all spheres of life.
“I once asked Academician A.S. Orlova (Russian and Soviet literary critic. - Ed.) - in what social environment was the best, most correct and beautiful Russian language? Alexander Sergeevich thought, and not immediately, but already confidently answered: with the middle nobility, in their estates.
Dmitry Likhachev, "On Russian and Foreign"
One of the methods of teaching languages in the 19th-20th century was “immersion” in the language, which was possible when receiving home education, when everyone from the nanny to the parents spoke a foreign language (often English, French and German) to surround a child with a foreign speech, so that he learns it from early childhood. This method was popular among representatives of the middle and upper classes, as it required, first of all, considerable funds to pay nannies, governesses, teachers and, of course, the possibility of practical application (balls, court meetings, acquaintances with foreigners, and so on) .
It should be said that the methodology and principles of teaching languages were based, to a large extent, on the work of the professors of Moscow University “Method of Teaching”, which was intended for teachers of gymnasiums, boarding schools and for home teachers.
Books that should have been used for learning languages (according to the above work):
1) Primer and alphabet;
2) Grammar book;
3) Recipe;
4) Dictionary.
How did they study languages in institutions? Take, for example, the Academic Gymnasium in St. Petersburg.
At the Academic Gymnasium, students studied German, French and Latin. The German language, for example, began to be taught in the 5th grade, students learned to read (for example, the Bible), write in German and studied German grammar. From the 6th grade, students have already begun to translate simple texts. The most popular textbooks for learning the German language were those by Ivanov, Shvanovich and Sharmint. For example, in Ivanov's book, which, unlike Charmint's book, each page was divided into two columns, with parallel text in Russian and German (Sharmint's book was entirely in German) and was divided into four main chapters: “Orthographia ”, “Etymologia”, “Syntaxis” and “Prosodia”. Therefore, it could be used not only to teach the rules of grammar, but also spelling and pronunciation. German calendars were also used for reading and translation. As for oral practice, the book “School Dialogues” (“Schul-Gespräche, Dialogues”) was used. As homework assignments, the students had to memorize parts of German works and poetry.
In the 19th-20th centuries, special attention, when studying a language, was paid to grammatical correctness, the practical study of grammar, and the translation of not individual words, but coherent texts. Students should be able to retell and ask questions about the text.
The idea of how foreign languages should be taught was expressed by Wilhelm Fietor in his pamphlet "The teaching of foreign languages must be radically changed" in 1882, where it is said:
1. The language does not consist of letters, but of sounds, therefore, it is necessary to put oral speech, and not written language, as the basis for teaching a foreign language. Particular attention should be paid to pronunciation;
2. The language consists of sentences, not words, so the original should be a sentence, not individual words;
3. Learning should be based on a coherent text, not isolated sentences;
4. Grammar should be acquired practically, inductively, by observing the text, learned first orally;
5. The main way of learning a new language is imitation, and not the construction of sentences from words according to the rules of grammar based on translation from the native language into a foreign one;
6. Translation is an art, it has nothing to do with school.
ing, and realistic elements of his vocabulary, without being artistic
justified in the same way as it takes place in creativity
Pushkin, are often perceived in poetry as prosaism. High-
about his poetry of three great contemporaries (Pushkin,
Gogol and Belinsky) each in its own way, they understand how she could
Via to appear not only to them!. Their estimates are different and
contradictory, and this inconsistency is not accidental: Vyazemsky
1 In a letter from Pushkin to Vyazemsky on May 22, 1826, we read: “Your
the verses to Imaginary Beauty (ah, sorry: Lucky) are too smart; A
poetry, God forgive me, must be stupid, ”- a characteristic that
ruyu mutatis mutandis can be attributed to much that came out of the pen
Vyazemsky. Pushkin spoke about other, early things of Vyazemsky,
which is undeniably commendable. Compare, for example, in a letter of 1820: “For the time being,
send us your poems, they are captivating and invigorating. First snow -
charm. Despondency is prettier."
Gogol in the article “What, finally, is the essence of Russian poetry and in
than its peculiarity ”(Choose, places from correspondence with friends, 1847) is characteristic
Vyazemsky's work pays several very expressive
lines: “In Prince Vyazemsky,” he writes, “the opposite of Yazykov:
how much the poverty of thoughts strikes in that, so much in this abundance of them. Poem
used by him as the first weapon that came across: no external
doing it, also no concentration and rounding of thought then, what-
to expose it to the reader as a jewel: he is not an artist and does not care
huffing about all this. His poems are improvisations ... It contains
elk abundance of unusual all qualities: visual, observant,
unexpectedness of conclusions, feeling, intelligence, wit, gaiety and even sadness;
each poem of his is the motley pharaoh of everything together. He is not a poet
vocation: fate, endowing him with all the gifts, gave him, as it were,
giving the talent of the poet in order to make something complete out of it ... But the absence
the effect of great and full labor is the illness of Prince Vyazemsky, and this
can be heard in his very poems. They show a noticeable absence of internal
harmonic agreement in parts, discord of words is heard: the word is not
combined with a word, a verse with a verse, near a strong and firm verse, like
who no poet has,
another is placed, nothing like him; then suddenly he pinches something
torn alive from the very heart, it will suddenly push away from itself with a sound,
almost alien to the heart, resounding completely out of step with the subject;
there is a lack of concentration in oneself, not a full life on one's own; heard
at the bottom of everything is something crushed and oppressed. Wed and below: “... this cha-
yellow, as if dragging along the ground, Vyazemsky's verse, sometimes imbued with
caustic, aching Russian sadness ....
In "Literary Dreams" (1834) Belinsky about the Vyazemsky
remarked: “Prince Vyazemsky, Russian Karl Nodier, wrote in verse and prose
about everything and everything ... Between his countless poems, many
are distinguished by the brilliance of genuine and original wit, others even strange
power; many are strained, as, for example, “No matter how!” etc. But, in general
say, Prince Vyazemsky belongs to the number of our wonderful
these and writers.
A different opinion, which has in mind only the weak sides of Vya-
zemsky, and, moreover, expressed in irritation, we find in his letter
Gogol from Salzbrunn (July 15, 1847): “You,” Belinsky wrote angrily, “
did it out of passion for the main idea of your book and inadvertently
and Vyazemsky ^ this prince in the aristocracy and a serf in literature, different
forked your thought and printed on your admirers (and therefore on me
more than anyone else) a private denunciation He did it, probably in gratitude to you
because you made him, a bad rhymer, into great poets,
zhetsya, as far as I remember, for his "sluggish, dragging along the ground verse."
Branch of St. Petersburg State University of Engineering and Economics in Cherepovets
Department of Socio-Humanitarian Disciplines
TEST
In the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech"
Topic No. 2 "Russian national language of the 18th - 19th centuries"
StudentsIcourse
Group 4 FCC-08
Lyubavicheva V.E.
Cherepovets
Russian national languageXVIII - XIX centuries…..…………………………..……………….….3
References……………………………………………………………………………..11
The Russian national language belongs to the Slavic group of Indo-European languages. In the language in the fullest way - and, moreover, in the understanding of the people themselves - all stages of the history of the people from further times are imprinted, all the steps along which the movement of its culture was directed. Therefore, the rich past of the people, the intensive development of its culture is the key to the rich and powerful development of the very language of this people.
An indispensable component of a person's national identity is a sense of pride in their native language, which embodies the cultural and historical traditions of the people.
The state of the Russian language is currently a real problem for the state, for the whole society. This is explained by the fact that the entire historical experience of the people is concentrated and represented in the language: the state of the language testifies to the state of the society itself, its culture, its mentality. Disorder and vacillation in society, the decline of morality, the loss of characteristic national features - all this affects the language, leading to its decline.
The development of the Russian language in different eras took place at different rates. An important factor in the process of its improvement was the mixing of languages, the formation of new words and the displacement of old ones. The Russian literary language began its formation in Kievan Rus. In the ancient Russian state, during the period of fragmentation, territorial dialects and adverbs developed, and the Old Church Slavonic language became such a language. The history of its origin and formation in Rus' is connected with the Byzantine policy of the Russian princes and with the mission of the brothers - monks Cyril and Methodius. The interaction of Old Slavonic and Russian spoken language made possible the formation of the Old Russian language.
A new significant stage in the development of the language is associated with the development of the Russian people into a nation - during the period of the growing role of the Muscovite state and the unification of Russian lands. At this time, the influence of the Church Slavonic language weakened, the development of dialects ceased, and the role of the Moscow dialect increased.
The preservation of the language, concern for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture. It is necessary to have an idea about the development and position of the Russian language in different periods of its existence, since the present is deeply and comprehensively comprehended, known only in comparison with the past.
The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, who formed the Old Russian people within the Kievan state in the 9th century. In the XIV-XV centuries, as a result of the collapse of the Kievan state, on the basis of a single language of the ancient Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which, with the formation of nations, took shape in national languages.
The Russian national language begins to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development of capitalist relations and the development of the Russian people into a nation. The phonetic system, grammatical structure, and the main vocabulary of the Russian national language are inherited from the language of the Great Russian people, which has developed in the process of interaction between the northern Great Russian and southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north and the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. It was the Moscow business vernacular that had a significant impact on the development of the national language. During the period of its formation, firstly, the development of new dialect features in dialects stops, although the old dialect features turn out to be very stable. Secondly, the influence of the Church Slavonic language is weakening. Thirdly, a literary language of a democratic type is developing, based on the traditions of the business language of Moscow.
An important stage in the development of the Russian national language was the 18th century. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. The democratization of the language was required, the introduction of elements of live colloquial speech into its structure.
Of greatest interest for understanding the formation and development of the literary language is the 18th century, when progressive-minded circles of society tried to raise the authority of the Russian language, to prove its viability as the language of science and art.
In society, there is an understanding of the role of the Russian language as a distinctive feature of the Russian people. main role in the theoretical substantiation of the meaning of the Russian language played by M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a "Russian grammar", which has theoretical and practical meaning: ordering of the literary language and development rules for the use of its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have a need for grammar. Stupid oratorio, tongue-tied poetry, unfounded philosophy, incomprehensible history, dubious jurisprudence without grammar. Lomonosov pointed to two features of the Russian language which made it one of the most important world languages:
"the vastness of the places where he reigns"
"your own space and contentment."
Possessing talent, vast knowledge, passionately desiring to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he creates the first in Russian "Russian Grammar", in which for the first time he presents the scientific system of the Russian language, creates a set of grammatical rules, shows how to take advantage of its rich potential. It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language as a means of communication, he constantly emphasized what people needed for “consistent common affairs of a flow that is controlled by the combination of different thoughts”, i.e. necessary for joint activities, its organization. According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and dormant, which makes their very “existence vain and useless.”
Wishing to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable for most students, M.V. Lomonosov argued that Russian professors should also teach in Russian at the first Russian university.
About the superiority of the Russian language over others, about the undeserved disdain for the Russian language, about its underestimation on the part of not only foreigners, but also Russians themselves, M.V. Lomonosov wrote in the preface to the Russian Grammar: “The master of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where he dominates, but also by his own space and contentment, he is great before everyone in Europe. Incredibly, this will seem foreign to some natural Russians, who applied more to foreign languages than to their own. And further: “Charles V, the Roman emperor, used to say that it was decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with women. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would add to that that it was decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would find in it the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, richness and strength in images brevity of Greek and Latin.
In the 18th century, the Russian language was updated and enriched at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language, its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical. However, excessive enthusiasm for foreign words did not contribute to the clarity and accuracy of the expression of thought. Peter the Great was forced to issue an order according to which "it was prescribed to write everything in Russian, without using foreign words and terms," since "it is impossible to understand the matter itself" from the abuse of other people's words.
Thus, an emotionally rich stream of Western European gallant phraseology flows into the Russian literary language of the early 18th century, which corresponded to the changed secular etiquette and Europeanized forms of secular manners, especially in the relationship between a man and a woman in secular society. Phraseology in its lexical composition reveals the forms of a motley, inorganic mixture of different languages and styles typical of the Petrine era. The lexical basis of both the lyrical and narrative style continues to be Church Slavonicisms and, in general, the words and expressions of the old church-literary language. The morphology of this language also adjoins here - archaic forms of declension with softening of back-lingual ones: forms of declension of non-member participles and the comparative degree of adjectives. This language does not do without the participation of command vocabulary.
And finally, the Russian colloquial and everyday vernacular and the reflection of folk poetry appear in a very peculiar form. In fact, the vernacular of the city plays a prominent role in this new style - a secular expression of chivalry and erotic languor.
The struggle against the dominance of foreigners in the highest government and bureaucratic apparatus, the growth of national self-consciousness in Russian society in the 40s of the 18th century were reflected in the understanding of the literary functions of the Church Slavonic language, especially in the sphere of high syllable.
The desire to limit the increase in "Europeanisms", to eradicate the distortion of the Russian language into German or French, led to a reassessment of the historical role of the Church Slavonic language in the system of the national Russian literary language. The question of the regulation of literary styles on the basis of mixing in various doses and proportions of the Church Slavonic language with the Russian people acquired unusual urgency.
With his numerous scientific works, M.V. Lomonosov contributes to the formation of a scientific language. A scientist who made many discoveries in various fields of knowledge, he was forced to create scientific and technical terminology. He owns the words that have not lost their significance and the present: atmosphere, fires, degree, air pump, matter, circumstance, shaking, electricity, thermometer and others.
In 1771, the Free Russian Assembly was established in Moscow. Its members are professors, university students, writers, poets, for example, M. M. Kheraskov, V. I. Maikov, D. I. Fonvizin, A. N. Sumarokov. The main task of the society is to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. In addition, it sought to draw attention to the Russian language, to promote its dissemination and enrichment.
The propaganda of the Russian language was helped by the magazine Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word, the first issue of which was published in 1783. It published works only by Russian authors, there were no translations. The purpose of the magazine is to serve for the benefit of native speech.
By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century preferred use of native Russian elements oral and written speech of the Russian language becomes a sign of patriotism, respect for one's nation, one's culture. This is precisely what the publicist F.N. Glinka, a participant in the Patriotic War of 1812, emphasizes, speaking of Suvorov: “Suvorov knew French very well, but he always spoke Russian, he was a Russian commander.” Favorite heroes of Leo Tolstoy, living at that time (“War and Peace”), mostly speak their native, Russian language.
The writer, historiographer N.M. Karamzin in “Letters of a Russian Traveler” writes with bitter irony “... in our so-called good society, without the French language, you will be deaf and dumb. Aren't you ashamed? How not to have national pride? Why be parrots and monkeys together? Our language for conversations, really, is no worse than others. In another article “On love for the fatherland and national pride”, he connects the attitude towards the native language with citizenship, respect for one’s country, one’s people:
“Our language is expressive not only for lofty eloquence, for loud pictorial poetry, but also for gentle simplicity, for the sounds of the heart and sensitivity. It is richer in harmony than French, more capable of outpouring the soul in tones, represents more similar words, i.e. consistent with the expressed action: the benefit that only indigenous languages have! Our misfortune is that we all want to speak French, and do not think of working on working on our own language; Is it any wonder that we do not know how to explain to them some subtleties in a conversation? One foreign minister said in my presence that our language must be very obscure, because the Russians speak to them, according to his remark, they do not understand each other and must immediately resort to French. Are we not ourselves giving rise to such absurd conclusions? Language is important for a patriot."
Karamzin's opponent was Slavophil A.S. Shishkov, who thought that Old Church Slavonic should become the basis of the Russian national language. dispute over language Slavophiles and Westerners was brilliantly resolved in the work of the great Russian writers of the early 19th century. A.S. Griboedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of live colloquial speech, the originality and richness of Russian folklore. The creator of the national Russian language was A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportion and conformity”: any element will be appropriate if it accurately conveys thought or feelings.
In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing a common language in order to create unified orthoepic, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I.Dal.
Academician V.V. Vinogradov in his work “The main stages of the history of the Russian language” deeply and comprehensively identified the weaknesses of Karamzin’s activity in creating a “new style of the Russian language”: “The absence of broad democracy and nationality, disregard for the “common” language and its poetic colors, too straightforward denial of the Slavic-Russian linguistic culture, which still continued to supply the language of science and technology with vocabulary material, and the styles of artistic prose and especially verse with images and phraseology, excessive addiction to Europeanisms in the field of phraseology and syntax, finally, the annoying lightness, smoothness and mannerism of presentation in the language of Karamzin - dissatisfied with the various strata of modern Russian society. The need for democratization and comprehensive original national development of the language of literature - scientific, political and artistic - in accordance with the growing breadth and depth of social needs has already been recognized by wide circles.
The 19th century is the "silver age" of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, an unprecedented dawn of Russian literature takes place. The works of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov - Shchedrin, Chekhov and others are gaining universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are receiving worldwide recognition.
Representatives of the democratically minded Russian intelligentsia, expressing their attitude to the activities of Karamzin and Shishkov in the field of reforming the Russian literary language and its styles, emphasized that the issue of a new literary language should not be resolved without taking into account the problem of nationality, without determining the role of living folk speech in the structure of the national language . In this regard, the work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century, Griboedov and Krylov, is indicative, they proved what inexhaustible possibilities live folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is.
And all this is expressed in such original - Russian, images and phrases that are not transmitted by any language in the world; all this is such an inexhaustible wealth of idioms, Russianisms that make up the folk physiognomy of the language, its original means and original, native wealth - that Pushkin himself is not complete without Krylov in this respect.
A.S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language. His contemporaries wrote about the reformist nature of Pushkin's work.
N.V. Gogol: “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns. It, as if in a lexicon, contains all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than all, he further than all pushed the boundaries for him and more showed all his space.
V. G. Belinsky: “Pushkin killed the illegal dominion of French pseudoclassicism in Rus', expanded the sources of our poetry, turned it to the national elements of life, showed countless new forms, made friends with Russian life and Russian modernity, enriched it with ideas, recreated the language to such an extent that even the illiterate could no longer fail to write good poetry.
I.S. Turgenev: “Pushkin's services to Russia are great and worthy of people's gratitude. He gave the final processing to our language, which is now recognized even by foreign philologists in terms of its richness, strength, logic and beauty of form, perhaps the first after ancient Greek.
A.S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle proportionality and conformity. He wrote: "true taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn, but in a sense of proportion and conformity." Therefore, unlike the Karamzinists and Shishkovists, he did not reject Old Slavonicisms, did not oppose the use of words borrowed from the French language, did not consider it impossible or shameful to use common and colloquial words. Any word is acceptable in poetry if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. Folk speech is especially rich in this respect.
Acquaintance with his works shows how creatively, original Pushkin will include colloquial words in poetic speech, gradually diversifying and complicating their functions. No one before Pushkin wrote in such a realistic language, no one so boldly introduced ordinary everyday vocabulary into a poetic text.
Russian literary language - a form of the Russian national language, as a written and oral language of educated people - acquired by the end of the 19th - early 20th centuries, all the qualities of a fairly normalized, multi-genre and stylistically diverse, i.e., statistically free language. At the same time, in those social conditions, within the literary language itself, a great fragmentation of social and speech varieties was observed. On the other hand, the literary language of that time, in the conditions of a sharply class, socially emphasized dismemberment of society, was amorphously opposed by numerous folk dialects and socially limited - petty-bourgeois, merchant, etc. n.p. - urban speech (traditional vernacular), slang and jargon of the so-called unprivileged classes. Unfortunately, the stubborn unwillingness to understand that the modern Russian literary language is not a synchronously stable language of the early 19th - 20th centuries leads to the fact that assessments of the linguistic state of the 19th century. unhistorically transferred to the linguistic state of our time.
Literature:
- "Russian language and culture of speech": a textbook for universities / L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva edition 22 - e. - Rostov - on - Don Phoenix 2008.
- "Russian language and culture of speech": textbook by N.V. Nefedov - Rostov - on - Don Phoenix 2008
- Russian language and speech culture”: examination answers for university students / L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva Phoenix 2003.
- "Russian language and culture of speech": a course of lectures by G.K. Trofimov Moscow publishing house "Flinta" 2007
- "Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th - 19th centuries" V.V. Vinogradov Moscow "Higher School" 1982
The preservation of the language, concern for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture.
The position of the Russian language in the 18th century. M. V. Lomonosov played a special role in strengthening the spread of the Russian language during this period. He creates the first in Russian "Russian Grammar" and a set of grammatical rules.
Wishing to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable to most students, M. V. Lomonosov argued that Russian professors should also teach in Russian at the first Russian university. There were only two Russian professors: N.N. Popovsky and A.A. Barsov. N.N. Popovsky began to lecture in Russian. In fiction, official business documents, scientific treatises, the so-called Slavic-Russian language was widely used. It was the Russian language, which absorbed the culture of the Old Slavonic language. Therefore, the paramount task was to create a single national Russian language.
The concentration of national elements is planned due to the selection of the most common features of the South Russian North Russian dialects.
In the 18th century, there was an update, enrichment of the Russian language at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language, its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical.
In 1771, the Free Russian Assembly was established in Moscow. Its members are professors, students, writers and poets. The main task of the society is to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. It sought to draw attention to the Russian language, to promote its dissemination and enrichment.
By the end of the 18th century, the preferred use of the Russian language in oral and written speech became a sign of patriotism, respect for one's nation, one's culture.
In the 19th century, throughout the century, disputes continue about what should be considered the basis of the Russian national language. N.M. Karamzin believed that the Russian language was too difficult to express thoughts and needed to be processed. The transformation of the language, according to Karamzinists, requires its release from the consequences of the Church Slavonic language. Focus should be on new European languages, especially French. The Russian language must be given lightness, made simple and understandable to a wide range of readers. On the other hand, the language needs to create new words, to expand the semantics of old words to designate concepts introduced into everyday life, mainly in secular society.
The Slavophiles, their inspirer A. S. Shishkov, considered Old Church Slavonic as the primitive language of all mankind and believed that it should become the basis of Russian literary speech. According to him, there are only stylistic differences between the Church Slavonic Russian languages.
The work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century, Griboedov and Krylov, is indicative, they proved what inexhaustible possibilities live folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is.
A. S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator of the modern Russian language. The reformist nature of Pushkin's work was written by his contemporaries: N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky and I.S. Turgenev. A.S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity.
The 19th century is the silver age of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, there is an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature. The work of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others is gaining universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky, and others are receiving worldwide recognition. The development of literature, journalism, and science contributes to the further development and enrichment of the Russian national language. Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology. Fiction serves as a basis for replenishing Russian phraseology and forming new words. One of the most important features of the literary language as the highest form of the national language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, the process of processing the national language was going on in order to create unified grammatical, lexical spelling, orthoepic norms. The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries (historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words) that appear in the 19th century. The largest event was the publication in 1863-1866. the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl. The dictionary was highly appreciated by contemporaries. Its author in 1863 received the Lomonosov Prize of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences and the title of honorary academician.
