State educational institution
secondary vocational education
Novokuibyshev State College of Humanities and Technology
Report on the topic:
Theories of the origin of man on Earth
Kuznetsova Yulia Olegovna
Anthropogenesis. The origin of man as a biological species
A) evolutionary theory
B) Creationism
C) The theory of external interference
D) Theory of spatial anomalies
The main stages of human evolution
1. Australopithecus
2. Pithecanthropus
3. Palianthropus
4. Neoanthrope
Ancestral home of man
List of used literature
ANTHROPOGENESIS. ORIGIN OF HUMAN AS A BIOLOGICAL SPECIES
Each person, as soon as he began to realize himself as a person, was visited by the question "where did we come from." Despite the fact that the question sounds absolutely banal, there is no single answer to it. Nevertheless, this problem - the problem of the emergence and development of man - is dealt with by the science of anthropology, which singles out such a concept as anthropogenesis.
Anthropogenesis is the process of separating a person from the animal world. Until recently, there was only one theory of the appearance of man - Darwin's, but, as a person living in real time, I cannot help but point out alternative theories that have appeared recently. It should be noted that there are a number of different theories, but the main ones are as follows.
1) Evolutionary theory
The evolutionary theory assumes that man descended from higher primates - great apes through gradual modification under the influence of external factors and natural selection.
The evolutionary theory of anthropogenesis has an extensive set of diverse evidence - paleontological, archaeological, biological, genetic, behavioral, cultural, psychological, and others. However, much of this evidence can be interpreted ambiguously, which allows opponents of evolutionary theory to challenge it. Nevertheless, below I will more fully consider this particular theory, despite the fact that it is much more pleasant to realize that you came from God, in extreme cases, from a "stray humanoid" than the fact that your ancestor was something that is now swinging on vines, chewing bananas and making faces... But back to the theories...
2) Creation theory (creationism)
This theory states that man was created by God, gods or divine power from nothing or from some non-biological material. The most famous biblical version, according to which the first people - Adam and Eve - were created from clay. This version has more ancient Egyptian roots and a number of analogues in the myths of other peoples.
Orthodox theology considers the theory of creation to be unprovable. Nevertheless, various proofs of this theory are put forward, the most important of which is the similarity of myths and legends of different peoples that tell about the creation of man. Modern theology uses the latest scientific data to prove the theory of creation, which, however, for the most part do not contradict evolutionary theory. Some currents of modern theology bring creationism closer to evolutionary theory, believing that man evolved from apes through gradual modification, but not as a result of natural selection, but by the will of God or in accordance with a divine program.
3) Theory of external interference
According to this theory, the appearance of people on Earth, one way or another, is connected with the activities of other civilizations. In the simplest version, TVV considers people to be direct descendants of aliens who landed on Earth in prehistoric times.
More complex TVV options involve:
a) interbreeding of aliens with the ancestors of people;
b) generation of Homo sapiens by genetic engineering methods;
c) the creation of the first people in a homuncular way;
d) management of the evolutionary development of terrestrial life by the forces of extraterrestrial superintelligence;
e) the evolutionary development of earthly life and mind according to the program originally laid down by the extraterrestrial supermind.
There are other, to varying degrees, fantastic hypotheses of anthropogenesis associated with the theory of external interference.
4) Theory of spatial anomalies
The followers of this theory interpret anthropogenesis as an element of the development of a stable spatial anomaly - the humanoid triad "Matter-Energy-Aura", characteristic of many planets of the Earthly Universe and its analogues in parallel spaces. TPA assumes that in humanoid universes on most habitable planets the biosphere develops along the same path, programmed at the level of the Aura - informational substance. In the presence of favorable conditions, this path leads to the emergence of a humanoid mind of the earth type.
In general, the interpretation of anthropogenesis in RTA does not differ significantly from evolutionary theory. However, TPA recognizes the existence of a certain program for the development of life and mind, which, along with random factors, governs evolution.
So, back to the first theory, according to which anthropogenesis - the process of separating a person from the animal world - went through, according to most researchers, four main stages.
MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
Time of successive existence of human anthropoid ancestors (Australopithecines),
· The most ancient people: pithecanthropus or ancient man, or proteranthrope or archanthrope.
· Neanderthal, or ancient man, or paleoanthrope.
modern people (neoanthropes).
Australopithecus
Australopithecus or "southern monkeys" - highly organized, upright primates, are considered to be the original forms in the human pedigree. Australopithecus inherited many properties from their arboreal ancestors, the most important of which were the ability and desire for a variety of handling of objects with the help of hands (manipulation) and the high development of herd relations. They were quite terrestrial creatures, relatively small in size - an average body length of 120-130 cm, weight 30-40 kg. Their characteristic feature, as I noted above, was a two-legged gait and a straightened body position, as evidenced by the structure of the pelvis, skeleton of the limbs and skull. Free upper limbs made it possible to use sticks, stones, etc. The medulla of the skull was relatively large, and the front part was shortened. The teeth are small, densely spaced, without diastemas, with a pattern of teeth characteristic of a person. They lived in open plains such as savannahs.
Judging by the find of Louis Leakey, (Zinjanthropus of the Boys), the age of Australopithecus is 1.75 million years.
Pithecanthropus
For the first time, the fossil remains of the most ancient people, called archanthropes, were discovered by the Dutchman E. Dubois on about. Java in 1890. But only in 1949, thanks to a find near Beijing, 40 individuals of the most ancient people, together with their stone tools (called Sinanthropus), scientists agreed that it was the most ancient people who were the intermediate "missing link" in the human genealogy. Archanthropes already knew how to use fire, thereby standing one step above their predecessors. Pithecanthropes are upright creatures of medium height and dense build, which, however, have retained many monkey features, both in the shape of the skull and in the structure of the facial skeleton. In synanthropes, the initial stage of development of the chin has already been noted. Judging by the finds, the age of the most ancient people is from 50 thousand to 1 million years ...
Paleoanthropist
We have the opportunity to judge the culture of the paleoanthrope by numerous Mousterian sites. The Mousterian culture, in relation to the previous one, was more advanced both in terms of processing techniques and the use of tools, and in terms of the diversity of their shape, the thoroughness of processing, and the production purpose. Neanderthals were people of medium height, strong, massive build, in general skeletal structure, standing closer to modern man. The volume of the brain box ranged from 1200 cm/cube to 1800 cm/cube, although the shape of their skull differed from that of modern humans. In my opinion, the biggest inconsistency in evolutionary theory is precisely the period of the Neanderthals. How to explain such a sharp dissimilarity between the appearance of the Neanderthal and Homo sapiens? And what could have caused the sudden disappearance of paleoanthropes? How could it happen that the ancient people, the creators of a fairly high material culture, to some extent close to us in the manifestation of their intellect, emotions, suddenly disappeared from the face of the Earth so quickly and "mysteriously", giving way to non-anthropic Cro-Magnons ... and so on? .d. and so on.
Neoanthrope
The time of the appearance of modern humans falls on the beginning of the Late Paleolithic (70-35 thousand years ago). It is associated with a powerful leap in the development of productive forces, the formation of a tribal society and the consequence of the completion of the biological evolution of Homo sapiens. Neoanthropes were tall people, proportionately built. The average height of men is 180-185 cm, women - 163-160 cm. Cro-Magnons were distinguished by long legs due to the large length of the lower leg. A powerful torso, a wide chest, a highly developed muscular relief - an impressive characteristic, isn't it?
Neoanthropes are multi-layered sites and settlements, flint and bone tools, residential buildings. This is a complex burial rite, jewelry, the first masterpieces of fine art, etc.
The area of settlement of neoanthropes is unusually extensive - they appeared in various geographical regions, settled on all continents and climatic zones. They lived wherever man could live.
To date, there are various versions of the origin of man on Earth. These are scientific theories, and alternative, and apocalyptic. Many people consider themselves descendants of angels or divine forces, contrary to the convincing evidence of scientists and archaeologists. Authoritative historians deny this theory as mythology, preferring other versions.
Since ancient times, man has been the subject of study of the sciences of the spirit and nature. There is still a dialogue between sociology and natural sciences about the problem of being and the exchange of information.
At the moment, scientists have given a person a specific definition. This is a biosocial creature that combines intellect and instincts.
Modern science clearly separates biology and the essence of man. Leading research institutes around the world are searching for the boundary between these components. This area of science is called sociobiology. It looks deep into the essence of a person, revealing his natural and humanitarian features and preferences. A holistic view of society is impossible without drawing on the data of his social philosophy. Today, man is a being that has an interdisciplinary character. However, many people around the world are concerned about another issue - its origin. Scientists and religious scholars of the planet have been trying to answer it for thousands of years. -
The question of the appearance of intelligent life beyond the Earth attracts the attention of leading scientists of various specialties. Some people agree that the origins of man and society are not worthy of study. Basically, those who sincerely believe in supernatural powers think so. Based on this opinion about the origin of man, the individual was created by God. This version has been refuted by scientists for decades.
Regardless of which category of citizens each person refers to, in any case, this issue will always excite and intrigue. Recently, modern philosophers have begun to ask themselves and those around them: "Why were people created, and what is their purpose of being on Earth?" The answer to the second question will never be found. As for the appearance of an intelligent creature on the planet, it is quite possible to study this process.
Today, the main theories of the origin of man are trying to answer this question, but none of them can provide a 100% guarantee of the correctness of their judgments. Currently, archaeologists and astrologers around the world are exploring all sorts of sources for the origin of life on the planet, be they chemical, biological or morphological. Unfortunately, at the moment, mankind has not even been able to determine in which century BC the first people appeared.
Darwin's theory. Currently, there are various versions of the origin of man. However, the theory of a British scientist named Charles Darwin is considered the most likely and closest to the truth. It was he who made an invaluable contribution to biological science. His theory is based on the definition of natural selection, which plays the role of the driving force of evolution. This is a natural-scientific version of the origin of man and all life on the planet. The foundation of Darwin's theory was formed by his observations of nature while traveling around the world. The development of the project began in 1837 and lasted more than 20 years.
At the end of the 19th century, another natural scientist, A. Wallace, supported the Englishman.Soon after his report in London, he admitted that it was Charles who inspired him. So there was a whole direction - Darwinism. The followers of this movement agree that all types of representatives of fauna and flora on Earth are variable and come from other pre-existing species. Thus, the theory is based on the impermanence of all living things in nature. The reason for this is natural selection. Only the strongest forms survive on the planet, which are able to adapt to the current environmental conditions. Man is just such a being. Thanks to evolution and the desire to survive, people began to develop their skills and knowledge.
intervention theory. At the heart of this version of the origin of man is the activity of extraneous civilizations. It is believed that humans are the descendants of alien creatures that landed on Earth millions of years ago. Such a history of the origin of man has several outcomes at once.
According to some, people appeared as a result of crossing aliens with progenitors. Others believe that genetic engineering of higher forms of mind, which brought Homo sapiens out of the flask and their own DNA, is to blame.
Someone is sure that people originated as a result of an error in experiments on animals.
On the other hand, the version of alien interference in the evolutionary development of Homo sapiens is very interesting and probable. It is no secret that archaeologists still find numerous drawings, records and other evidence in various parts of the world that some supernatural forces helped ancient people. This also applies to the Maya Indians, who were allegedly enlightened by extraterrestrial creatures with wings on strange celestial chariots. There is also a theory that the entire life of mankind from origin to the peak of evolution proceeds according to a long-written program laid down by an alien mind. There are also alternative versions about the resettlement of earthlings from the planets of such systems and constellations as Sirius, Scorpio, Libra, etc.
evolutionary theory The followers of this version believe that the appearance of man on Earth is associated with the modification of primates. This theory is by far the most widespread and discussed. Based on it, people are descended from certain types of monkeys. Evolution began in ancient times under the influence of natural selection and other external factors. The theory of evolution does have a number of interesting pieces of evidence and evidence, both archaeological, paleontological, genetic, and psychological. On the other hand, each of these statements can be interpreted in different ways. The ambiguity of the facts is what does not make this version 100% correct.
Theory of creation This branch is called creationism. His followers deny all major theories of the origin of man. It is believed that people were created by God, who is the highest link in the world. Man was created in his likeness from non-biological material. The biblical version of the theory says that the first people were Adam and Eve. God created them from clay. In Egypt and many other countries, religion goes far into ancient myths. The vast majority of skeptics consider this theory impossible, estimating its probability in billionths of a percent. The version of the creation of all living things by God does not require proof, it simply exists and has the right to do so. It can be supported by similar examples from the legends and myths of the peoples of different parts of the Earth. These parallels cannot be ignored.
Theory of space anomalies This is one of the most controversial and fantastic versions of anthropogenesis. Followers of the theory consider the appearance of man on Earth an accident. In their opinion, people have become the fruit of an anomaly of parallel spaces. The forefathers of earthlings were representatives of the civilization of humanoids, which are a mixture of Matter, Aura and Energy. The theory of anomalies assumes that in the Universe there are millions of planets with similar biospheres, which were created by a single informational substance. Under favorable conditions, this leads to the emergence of life, that is, the humanoid mind. Otherwise, this theory is in many ways similar to the evolutionary one, with the exception of the statement about a certain program for the development of mankind.
Aquatic theory This version of the origin of man on Earth is almost 100 years old. In the 1920s, the aquatic theory was first proposed by a famous marine biologist named Alistair Hardy, who was later supported by another authoritative scientist, the German Max Westenhoffer. The version is based on the dominant factor that forced the anthropoid primates to reach a new stage of development. This is what forced the monkeys to exchange the aquatic lifestyle for land. So the hypothesis explains the absence of thick hair on the body. Thus, at the first stage of evolution, man moved from the stage of hydropithecus, which appeared more than 12 million years ago, to homo erectus, and then sapiens. Today, this version is practically not considered in science.
Alternative theories One of the most fabulous versions of the origin of man on the planet is that the descendants of people were some bats. In some religions they are called angels. It is these creatures from time immemorial inhabited the entire Earth. Their appearance was similar to a harpy (a mixture of a bird and a person). The existence of such creatures is supported by numerous rock paintings. There is another theory according to which people in the early stages of development were real giants. According to some legends, such a giant was a half-man-half-god, since one of their parents was an angel. Over time, higher powers stopped descending to Earth, and the giants disappeared.
ancient myths There are a huge number of legends and tales about the origin of man. In ancient Greece, they believed that the progenitors of people were Deucalion and Pyrrha, who, by the will of the gods, survived the flood and created a new race from stone statues.
The ancient Chinese believed that the first man was formless and came out of a clay clod. The creator of people is the goddess Nuwa. She was human and dragon rolled into one.
According to Turkish legend, people came out of the Black Mountain. In her cave was a hole that resembled the shape of a human body. Jets of rain washed the clay into it. When the form was filled and warmed by the sun, the first man emerged from it. His name is Ai-Atam.
Myths about the origin of man of the Sioux Indians say that people were created by the Rabbit universe. The divine creature found a blood clot and began to play with it. Soon he began to roll on the ground and turned into intestines. Then a heart and other organs appeared on a blood clot. As a result, the rabbit dashed off a full-fledged boy - the ancestor of the Sioux.
According to the ancient Mexicans, God created the human form from potter's clay. But due to the fact that he overexposed the workpiece in the oven, the man turned out to be burnt, that is, black. Subsequent attempts over and over again became better, and people came out whiter.
Mongolian tradition is one to one similar to Turkish. Man emerged from a clay mold. The only difference is that the god himself dug the hole.
Stages of evolution Despite the versions of the origin of man, all scientists agree that the stages of his development were identical.
The first upright prototypes of people were Australopithecus, which communicated with each other with the help of hands and were no higher than 130 cm.
The next stage of evolution produced the Pithecanthropus. These creatures already knew how to use fire and adjust nature to their own needs (stones, skin, bones).
Neoanthropes became the last stage of evolution before the advent of Homo sapiens. Outwardly, they practically did not differ from modern people. They made tools, united in tribes, elected leaders, arranged voting, ceremonies.
Ancestral home of mankind Despite the fact that scientists and historians around the world are still arguing about theories of the origin of people, the exact place where the mind originated was still able to be established. This is the African continent.
Many archaeologists believe that it is possible to narrow down the location to the northeastern part of the mainland, although there is an opinion that the southern half dominates this issue.
On the other hand, there are people who are sure that humanity appeared in Asia (on the territory of India and adjacent countries).
Conclusions that the first people settled Africa were made after numerous finds as a result of large-scale excavations. It is noted that at that time there were several types of prototypes of man (races).
The strangest archaeological finds Among the most interesting artifacts that can affect the idea of what the origin and development of man actually was, were the skulls of ancient people with horns.
Archaeological research was carried out in the Gobi Desert by a Belgian expedition in the middle of the 20th century. On the territory of the former Sumerian civilization, images of flying people and objects heading to Earth from outside the solar system were repeatedly found.
Several ancient tribes have similar drawings. In 1927, as a result of excavations in the Caribbean Sea, a strange transparent skull, similar to a crystal, was found. Numerous studies have not revealed the technology and material of manufacture. The descendants of the Mayan tribe claim that their ancestors worshiped this skull as if it were a supreme deity.
Modern science considers man to be an animal that occupies a clearly defined place in the classification of living organisms: class - mammals, detachment - primates, superfamily - hominoids, family - hominids, species - Homo sapiens. Its closest "relatives" are considered neighbors in the superfamily of hominoids - the family of gnids, that is, great apes, which is divided into 2 subfamilies: gibbons and true anthropoids (this includes gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutans).
In 1871, Charles Darwin published The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection, in which he tried to prove that modern man evolved as a result of the selection of females by males with certain characteristics. However, even at that time, this theory raised a lot of questions. It is not at all clear why the women selected for any particular traits. In addition, the theory of sexual selection does not explain how a person's brain volume increased, certain proportions of the body arose, and articulate speech. Subsequently, many other theories were created that tried to give a scientific explanation for the appearance of man on Earth. Serious scientists suggest that the most important reason was direct walking, that is, the moment when the monkey stopped moving on four limbs and stood on two. It is also assumed that mutations caused by radiation exposure could play a large role. One way or another, there is still no scientifically based answer to the question of how a person appeared. However, in the course of genetic research, the biological relationship between humans and monkeys was proven. It turned out that a person is only 2.5% different from a chimpanzee and a little more from a gorilla, and the separation of man and great apes occurred about 5 million years ago.
In the second half of the 19th century, many scientists enthusiastically accepted Darwin's idea and began to look for evidence for it. In principle, in science, a theory is built on the basis of collected data, but with the question of the origin of man, everything turned out the other way around: first a hypothesis appeared, and then they began to look for material that could confirm it. The German biologist Ernst Haeckel, carried away by the ideas of Darwin, drew up a theoretical scheme of human evolution, which consisted of 22 stages. The lowest step was Pithecanthropus (monkey-man), the so-called "missing link" - the transitional stage from monkey to man. Gradually it turned out that this scheme was wrong, but at that time it inspired the search for the Dutch anatomy professor Dubois. During excavations on the island of Java, starting in 1890, he discovered fragments of the skeleton of a creature that was called Pithecanthropus erectus - erectus ape-man. By that time, the remains of a more perfect person, Homo sapiens Neanderthalensis, had already been found in Germany near Düsseldorf. In 1924, Raymond Dart found in Africa the bones of a creature more primitive than Pithecanthropus - Australopithecus, that is, southern. After 3 years in China, near Beijing, parts of the skeleton of a creature very similar to Pithecanthropus, which was called Sinanthropus, were found. The modern scheme of human development, adopted by most experts, looks like this:
ancient ape → australopithecine → homo habilis (handy man, transitional stage) → archanthrope (homo erectus, ancient man) → paleanthrope (Neanderthal, ancient man) → neoanthrope (Cro-Magnon, Homo sapiens, modern man).
The primitive communal system is divided into the following stages:
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Lower (Early) Paleolithic:
Olduvai era - 3 million - 700 thousand years BC. e.
Acheulian era - 700 thousand - 150-100 thousand BC e.
Middle Paleolithic (Musterian era) - 150-100 - 40-35 thousand years BC. e.
Upper (late) Paleolithic - 40-35 - 10 thousand years BC. e.
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) - 11 - 10 - 8 - 6 thousand years BC. e.
Neolithic (New Stone Age) - 8-6 - 4 thousand years BC. e.
Eneolithic (Copper Age) - 4 thousand - beginning of 3 thousand BC. e.
Bronze Age - 3 thousand - 2 thousand BC e.
Iron Age - the beginning of 1 thousand BC. e. - the middle of 1 thousand AD. e.
Paleolithic and Mesolithic
Australopithecus
The first Australopithecus was found by Professor Dart of the University of Johannesburg back in 1924. Soon, scientists discovered in Africa other remains of the fossil "southern monkey", which was recognized as the first human ancestor. Australopithecus lived 4.5 - 1 million years ago in the African savannah and moved on its hind limbs. Since their forelimbs turned out to be free, they could take branches or stones in them, with the help of which they hunted small animals or defended themselves from attack. It is assumed that Australopithecus lived in primitive herds and hunted together. However, their hunting was unorganized and extremely primitive, often they ate carrion. In general, Australopithecus had more features of a monkey than a man.
Australopithecus made the first stone tools by splitting pebbles into sharp edges. The ability to make tools gave the ancient man the name "habilis". Outwardly, he looked like an Australopithecus: he was small in comparison with the height of a modern person (120 - 150 cm), he had a stooped gait. But the brain was larger than that of an Australopithecus. However, the main difference from Australopithecus was the extremely skillful hand of the “habilis”, with which he could hold the tool not only by forceful compression, but also deftly manipulate the thumb and forefinger.
"Khabilis" were able to make tools that their discoverer Leakey called "choppers", which means "cuts" in English. They were pebbles, slightly pointed at one end. Pebbles pointed on both sides, Leakey called "chopping". These sharp-edged stone tools helped the Habilis cut into pieces the meat of the hunted animals, break the bones in order to get the bone marrow. Fruits and bird eggs also served as food for the habilis. The ancient man used meat raw, because he did not yet know and was afraid of fire.
Archanthrope
The next stage of human evolution is considered to be the archanthrope, or homo erectus - a erect man. Exactly how Homo habilis evolved into Homo erectus is unknown. We only know that about 1 million years ago, the Australopithecus disappeared and their place was taken by creatures that can rightly be called the first people. The main criterion for this was the level of brain development. Australopithecus already differed from monkeys in that it knew how to make the simplest tools. Homo erectus made tools much better than its predecessor, was able to organize joint hunting, and also used fire to warm itself and cook food. Homo erectus could talk, although his speech was extremely primitive. In addition, there was no hairline on the body of Homo erectus, and below the neck it looked almost like modern Homo sapiens. But a skull with a massive lower jaw devoid of a chin, a sloping forehead and a protruding brow ridge made up its fundamental difference from modern man.
Shortly after Eugène Dubois discovered the first remains of Homo erectus in Java in 1907, the mandible of a creature called the Heidelberg man was discovered during earthworks in Germany. Later, Sinanthropus was discovered. In the course of long-term studies, it turned out that Homo erectus arose in East Africa about 1 million years ago and over the next 300-400 thousand years settled in the expanses of Eurasia from Java to Spain.
Even in the caves of the sinanthropes, large heaps of ash were found, which meant only one thing: the sinanthropus knew how to use fire and keep it constantly. This has become a fundamental difference between people and animals - all animals are afraid of fire, and only a person could use it for his own purposes. Having lit the first fire, humanity opposed itself to the rest of the animal world. People ceased to be just a part of nature, they rose above it and began to subjugate the rest of the world.
Most likely, at first Homo erectus did not know how to make fire himself, but took branches and coals burning in a forest fire, brought them to his parking lot and there maintained his constant burning. Having discovered that the meat that fell into the fire is much tastier than raw, the most ancient people now began to eat only fried meat.
Since homo erectus did not know how to make fire, it had to be constantly maintained in the hearth in the parking lot. The hearth, on which people's lives depended, became the center of the human group. Under the protection of a bright flame, they could calmly, without fear of wild animals, make tools, cook food, eat and sleep. Sitting by the fire, people communicated with each other and gradually turned into one family, a community.
Homo erectus learned to make massive hand axes, which became a sign of the so-called Acheulean culture (named after the French village of Saint-Acheul), which spans the entire existence of homo erectus. A hand ax is an elongated egg-shaped stone, worked on both sides so that both sides converge to a sharp end. Apparently, this tool was universal. In addition to axes made of solid stones, people began to use thinner and more elegant flakes - plates chipped from a large stone called a nucleus. These sharp blades were chipped from the core using tools made of wood or bone.
Neanderthal
The first remains of a Neanderthal were found by the British in 1848 during the construction of a fortress in Gibraltar. In 1856, in Germany, near the city of Düsseldorf in the valley of the Neander River, while clearing a small cave for a quarry, workers stumbled upon the remains of a creature that they first mistook for a cave bear. They found a skullcap and limb bone fragments, all taken to a local teacher, Johann Fulrott, who determined that the remains belonged to an ancient man. In 1908, the skeleton of an old Neanderthal man was discovered in a grotto near the village of La Chapelle-aux-Seine in southwestern France, and many stone tools were unearthed nearby in Le Moustier cave. According to the place of finds, the European type of Neanderthals was called Chapelian, and its culture was called Mousterian. With its appearance on Earth, the Middle Paleolithic began.
It is believed that Neanderthals evolved from Homo erectus between 300,000 and 150,000 years ago. Their remains are found throughout Europe, in the Near and Middle East and in Uzbekistan. Neanderthals living in different areas differed from each other and changed over time. The Neanderthal was stocky, with powerful muscles and a massive skeleton. His height was small, in men he reached 165 cm. The superbly developed Neanderthal brain made it possible to call him a reasonable person. The volume of his brain was equal to the volume of the brain of a modern person.
The main weapon of the Neanderthals, apparently, was a spear. In the Mousterian era, the old tools of labor, known back in Acheul, changed quite a lot and new ones were added to them. Previously, massive hand axes, which sometimes weighed up to 2 kg, have now significantly decreased in size, and the technique of their manufacture has become more refined. New tools invented by Neanderthals are divided into two main types: pointed and side-scrapers. Perhaps it was Neanderthal man who figured out how to make fire himself. It is not known exactly where and when man first invented this method and what method it was, but Neanderthals knew it perfectly in various areas of the globe.
The Neanderthal man did not live, as his ancestors did, as a primitive herd; the herd is being replaced by a tribal community. Unlike the animal, man cared not only for himself and not only for his own children, but for the whole community. Instead of eating all the prey at the hunting place, the Neanderthals carried it to the cave, where the women, children and the elderly, who were busy with housekeeping, remained by the blazing fire.
The most important sign of the reasonableness of the Neanderthal was the emergence of abstract thinking in him. It found its expression in the emergence of religious ideas, as evidenced by the emergence of the rite of burial of the dead.
The Neanderthal could talk. However, studies have shown that if Chapelle Neanderthals could not pronounce most of the consonants and vowels, then their counterparts who lived in the Middle East had a fairly coherent speech.
Cro-Magnons
In 1868, during the construction of a railway between the cities of Agen and Perigueux in France, workers found human remains under a rocky canopy of Cro-Magnon. The scientist found that the discovered bones belong to a modern type of person - Homo sapiens (reasonable man), who was called Cro-Magnon.
The oldest remains of Homo sapiens were found in the caves of Borden and Clasis River Mount in southern Africa, their age is 90-100 thousand years. Modern DNA studies of 148 people belonging to 14 peoples from different parts of the world have shown that all these people have a common ancestor - a woman who lived in Africa about 150 thousand years ago. Another DNA study of 38 men found that the lower limit of the appearance of Homo sapiens on Earth is 270 thousand years ago. Appearing in southern Africa, within 100 thousand years, a modern type of man settled throughout the continent and about 90 thousand years ago penetrated into Asia. About 40 thousand years ago, it came to Europe, 50 thousand years ago it reached Australia, and about 40 thousand years ago it reached North America along the isthmus that existed then on the site of the Bering Strait.
The first people of the modern type were almost no different from us, they were only a little taller and wider in the spit. Arriving in Europe from Asia through the Balkans, they exterminated the Neanderthals and populated the liberated territories. So about 35 thousand years BC. e. the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic.
With the advent of a modern type of man, not only did the pace of cultural development increase faster and faster, but also previously unknown areas of creative activity that were unknown to people of the Lower Paleolithic were opened. Cro-Magnon people were able to make tools of different shapes and more advanced in processing.
The spear became the main weapon of hunters. Some tools for convenience and strengthening of actions were supplied with frames and handles. The handle was tied to flint. This is how composite tools appeared, the transition to which was an important stage in the development and complication of the technique of making tools. The spear thrower was the first mechanical means to increase the force of impact. She served for throwing darts and was a rod with a hook at the end. By lengthening the span of the arm, the spear thrower thereby greatly increased the range of the dart. From flint, arrowheads with a side notch at the base and large arrowheads of elegant laurel-leaved shape were made.
Scientists have found a lot of evidence that during the Upper Paleolithic period, ancient people widely used various, including mechanically acting traps and traps for the prey of animals.
During this period, temporary warming was replaced by a cold snap, and, judging by the finds of flint and bone punctures, as well as bone needles with miniature holes for threads, a person had to learn how to sew more perfect clothes from specially dressed skins.
In the Upper Paleolithic era, man settled America, which until that time had been uninhabited. There are many different theories regarding the way people came to America. It is generally accepted that no earlier than 40 thousand years ago people entered the New World through Beringia - a strip of land that existed then on the site of the strait of the same name, settled Alaska and began to slowly penetrate south. This process dragged on for about 30 thousand years. About 20 thousand years ago, man reached South America and after another 10 thousand years settled throughout its territory.
Mesolithic
Approximately 11 thousand years ago, warming began in Europe. Climate change has led to the fact that the spaces previously occupied by the steppe and tundra, on which herds of deer and mammoths grazed, were covered with forests. This had a huge impact on the way of life of a person who now had to hunt not in open spaces, but in the thicket of the forest, as a result of which the bow and arrows replaced the spear. The change in tools of labor marked the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind - the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age). The main feature of the Mesolithic culture was the dominance of microliths, which were used as arrowheads.
Microliths were the working edge of tools and weapons. A composite tool equipped with microliths was lighter and, in terms of its qualities, was not inferior to a tool made entirely of flint, the manufacture of which was laborious and required a large amount of material. A broken liner could be easily replaced, but a broken flint gun could not be repaired.
The invention of the bow and arrow was a great conquest of man. He had a rapid-fire, long-range weapon, the accuracy and strength of the battle which favorably distinguished him from the spear.
At the end of the Mesolithic period, macroliths appear - roughly upholstered chopping tools for working wood, such as an ax. Horns served as ax handles for such stone axes. However, in the northern regions they were also found at earlier sites. There, their distribution, obviously, was associated with adaptation to the post-glacial conditions of life in the forest. A little later, large stone tools appeared, made by completely new methods, previously unknown in the Stone Age: by point retouching, that is, by successively cutting out stone particles, and then by drilling.
A man of the Mesolithic time invented a boat, a net, a hook with a beard - something that was necessary for catching fish in deep waters. The wide distribution of harpoons, the presence of nets, boats, the abundance of fish bones in the parking lots - all this indicates the intensive development of fishing, which by the end of the Mesolithic becomes the main branch of the economy throughout Europe.
In the Mesolithic, the domestication of wild animals began. Cattle breeding arose from hunting as a result of taming and then breeding the very animals that people used to hunt. Domesticated animals began to breed in captivity and give new breeds of livestock.
In the Mesolithic, the beginnings of agriculture appear. Its signs are found in the upper layer of the Shanidar cave, in the settlement of Zavi-Chemi in Iraq 11-13 thousand years ago, in Palestine and Jordan - 10 thousand years ago. Harvesting knives, mortars, hoes, and pestles found there were most likely used to collect and process wild cereals. No traces of weaving have been found in the Mesolithic. Judging by the rock paintings, in the south people wore loincloths, in the north they sewed clothes from animal skins.
Neolithic
About 12 thousand years ago, in Southwest Asia and Egypt, a transition began from hunting and gathering to agriculture and cattle breeding, that is, from an appropriating economy to a producing economy. The transition to a manufacturing economy took quite a long time and occurred gradually. The term "Neolithic" itself characterizes the era when the basis of the economy was cattle breeding and agriculture, people discovered ceramics, but did not yet know metal and continued to use stone tools.
The Neolithic manufacturing economy arose in several separate regions of the planet, from where it then spread to larger territories. Such agricultural and pastoral centers were: part of Western Asia from the Levant in the west to the Taurus Mountains in the north and the foot of the Zagros mountain range in the east, Upper Egypt and the southeastern part of the Sahara, the valleys of the Huang He and Yangtze rivers in China, in the New World - Central America and Andes. In these areas, independently of each other, people moved from hunting and gathering to cattle breeding and agriculture. It is still unknown why this happened in these areas and how exactly this process took place. Apparently, the main role was played by climatic conditions.
The Neolithic began its march across Europe from Anatolia, spreading across the Bosphorus, first to the Balkans, then to. Greece and beyond. The colonists, having moved from Anatolia to the Balkans, somehow influenced the Mesolithic population of Europe, prompting them to move on to the Neolithic.
Nutrition has changed radically. If earlier people ate mainly fried and dried meat, now their diet was supplemented by bread and other food products prepared from cereals, as well as dairy products, in particular butter and cheese. In addition, the invention of ceramics made it possible to cook food, including meat. This led to the fact that people began to eat salt, which very soon became a subject of trade. Such changes in nutrition caused a rapid increase in the population of the Earth.
Thanks to agriculture in the Neolithic era, mankind moved to a settled way of life. If in the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic hunter-gatherers built only temporary camps, since they were forced to roam after the herds of animals, then in the Neolithic villages appear everywhere - a permanent place of residence. Having switched to a settled way of life, a person began to build long-term dwellings. The dilapidated huts and huts were replaced by stone, clay and brick houses.
The social stratification of society and specialization, that is, the division of professions, began. In the tribe of primitive hunters there was only one "specialist" - a shaman priest who performed religious and magical rites. The tribe, or rather that part of it that was engaged in hunting, also had a leader - the most powerful and experienced hunter. However, this leader did not have any power, he was the first among equals and was engaged only in the organization of hunting. In addition, the position of chief was not hereditary. In general, in the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic there were no such concepts as "power", "inequality" and "property". The hunting booty was divided equally among all members of the tribe, who had a common very uncomplicated property - skins and tools. In the Neolithic village, things were different. In addition to people who were engaged only in agriculture, potters, craftsmen who made tools, weavers and carpenters lived there. Soon they were joined by craftsmen who made carts on wheels, and people engaged in trade. Gradually, this specialization led to the emergence of professional warriors who protected the village, and a hereditary ruler who wielded political, military and religious power.
With the beginning of the Neolithic, giving up hunting and gathering, man had his own house, his own cattle, his own tools for cultivating the land and his own land. The emergence of property brought to life previously unknown phenomena - robbery and war. The community, whose crop was lost and the cattle mowed down by the disease, could improve its affairs only by attacking a more successful neighbor, who, however, defended his possessions and property with weapons in his hands. So most of the Neolithic villages were fortified in case of such an attack.
Gradually, some Neolithic villages begin to turn into the first cities that became political and religious centers. Villages located in the district united around such centers. There were three main reasons due to which the village turned into a city. This is the development of technical means and an increase in agricultural production, the end of the economic self-sufficiency of the Neolithic village, the concentration of political and military power in the hands of the military and priests.
In the Neolithic, agricultural technology developed quite rapidly. 9 thousand years ago, along the banks of the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus, the Yangtze and the Yellow River, the first irrigation systems appeared, which ensured an uninterrupted supply of water to the fields. About 7 thousand years ago, a wheel was invented, on the basis of which not only a cart was created, but also a potter's wheel. Around the same time, the sail was invented. In principle, boats have been known for a long time, but only now people have learned to use the power of the wind to move them. Mining developed, thanks to which the extraction of silicon turned into an entire industry. All this contributed to the development of production, which led to the emergence of surplus products and items that could be exchanged for the right things. If the original Neolithic village was fully self-sufficient in almost everything necessary, then with the advent of such surpluses, wheeled vehicles and sailing boats, a brisk trade became possible. In the Neolithic, people created a whole system of trade in salt, ceramics and obsidian, which, along with silicon, was used to make tools.
Trade led to the accumulation of wealth and the creation of a dominant group of warriors and priests, over whom towered the leader, who turned into a hereditary monarch. This is confirmed by archaeologists who find rich burials and houses of the nobility in Neolithic cities. As a result of the strengthening of their power, the community members ceased to be owners of the land and turned into tenants burdened with taxes. At the same time, the rapid development of the economy further stimulated population growth, especially in cities.
The emergence of strong power and the concentration of a large number of people in a fairly small space led to the following. Large irrigation systems were set up in swampy river valleys, which only strong political power could maintain. This led to improved soil fertility and increased crop yields. Those in power forced the tenant farmers to work even harder, to produce even more product in order to increase their wealth. Craftsmen worked mainly to order for warriors and priests, although quite often they made things for ordinary peasants. This is how the first states were born, which finally took shape in the next era - the Eneolithic, that is, the Copper Age, when metallurgy appeared on earth.
This question has always worried both scientists and ordinary people. Many scientists still devote their entire lives to studying this issue, never finding an exact answer. And although no one knows for sure yet, in the scientific world they took as a basis the theory of Darwin, who believed that man evolved from apes in a natural way. At the same time, so far no one has found such evidence of the origin of man from animals, which are completely irrefutable.
Darwin's theory
In the modern world, Darwin's theory is no longer as strong as it used to be, but still it is the basis for understanding where man came from.
The question of the origin of animal species is considered by such a science as biology. The origin of man is also a question of concern to this science.
The British biologist and geologist Charles Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species in 1859, which is one of the most famous works in the history of the science of biology.
In his book, Darwin outlined the theory on the basis of which he made an assumption about the evolution of living beings. He believed that living beings have evolved over billions of years through natural selection, that is, the strongest survived and adapted to new conditions.
Then, in the book “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection,” he tried to substantiate the theory of Georges-Louis de Buffon, who suggested that the first people on Earth appeared due to evolutionary processes. After Darwin published this work, it was recognized by the entire scientific world.
The descendants of Darwin, the followers of his school - Darwinists, then stated that man originated precisely from the ape. This opinion is currently considered to be the only correct scientific explanation of what the origin of man was. There is still no scientific refutation of this theory.
Scientists believe that the first people on Earth appeared about 7 million years ago from ancient monkeys. Of course, there are also antagonists of this statement. The further evolution of man took place in a very complex way, leaving the right to life only to more advanced species.
Australopithecus
Australopithecus is considered the first link in the human evolutionary chain. In the Republic of Chad, the remains of this species were found, which are more than 6 million years old. The "youngest" Australopithecus was found in South Africa. No more than 900 thousand years have passed since his death. Of all the links found in human evolution, this species lasted the longest period of time.
Australopithecus have pronounced features of both human and ape-like creatures. Their growth was up to one and a half meters, and their weight ranged from 30 to 50 kg. The absence of large fangs suggests that they could not use them as a weapon, therefore, they ate more plant foods than meat. They would not have been able to kill large animals, so they hunted small animals or picked up already dead creatures.
These primates knew how to use primitive tools that did not need to be made: stones, branches, etc. Based on this, Australopithecus is called a “handy man”.
Pithecanthropus
The life of the first people on Earth was clearly not easy, given the weak adaptation to simple survival.
The first remains of a great ape of this species were found on the island of Java, which is located in South Asia. This species existed on planet Earth about 1 million years ago. Australopithecus completely disappeared during the same period. Pithecanthropes also died out about 400 thousand years ago.
Thanks to the found remains, from which it was possible to determine the structure of the skeleton, scientists suggest that this species almost always walked on two legs, for which it was nicknamed "upright man." This was found out due to the fact that the femur of such a primate is very similar to a human.
Also, during the excavations, their tools were found. They cannot be described as masters of this business, but the Pithecanthropes already at that time understood that sharp sticks and stones were more suitable for hunting and butchering food than untreated wood and cobblestones.
In addition, scientists believe that they managed to learn how to coexist peacefully with fire. That is, they were not as afraid of him as other animals, but they still did not know how to get it on their own.
Pithecanthropes did not yet know how to talk and communicated with their own kind of primates at the level of ordinary ancient monkeys.
Often they are associated with another branch of evolution - synanthropes, which existed at the same time. Scientists believe that they were similar to each other and led a similar lifestyle.
Neanderthal
Neanderthals existed in Europe and Western Asia for hundreds of thousands of years, they were isolated from other branches of great apes.
For the most part, Neanderthals were predators and ate meat. To do this, they had huge jaws, which at the same time did not protrude forward, as in more ancient primates. They even hunted very large animals: mammoths, ancient rhinos, etc.
The brain volume was the same as that of a modern person, although scientists suggest that in some groups of individuals it was even larger.
Due to the fact that they lived during the ice age, these great apes were well adapted to survive in a cold environment. In addition, they had very broad shoulders, a pelvis, and well-developed muscles.
About 40 thousand years ago, Neanderthals as a species of great apes began to die out sharply. And 28 thousand years ago there was not a single living representative of this species. Their extinction is associated with another link in human evolution - the Cro-Magnons, who could hunt and kill them.
Cro-Magnon
Representatives of this species are referred to as "modern man." Modern man, especially representatives of Caucasian races, is considered completely identical to the late Cro-Magnons.
The remains of the Cro-Magnons found tell us that the representatives of the early species were as tall as a tall modern person (about 187 centimeters) and had a large skull.
Cro-Magnons already knew how to express their thoughts with characteristic sounds, which is associated with the appearance of speech. They were all divided into hunters and gatherers, each using stone tools.
Later representatives of the Cro-Magnons already skillfully used fire, built primitive ovens in which pottery was fired. Scientists also suggest that they could use coal for these purposes.
They also advanced far enough in the creation of clothing that both sheltered them from the bites of wild animals and helped keep them warm in the cold seasons.
The feature that distinguishes this species from all the early great apes is the emergence of such a thing as art. Cro-Magnons lived in caves and left various drawings of animals or some life events in them.
Due to the fact that the number of different types of activities began to grow rapidly, more and more differences appeared between the hands and feet. For example, the thumb on the hand developed more and more, with which the Cro-Magnons managed to hold heavy tools just as easily as small objects.
Homo sapiens
This species is the prototype of modern man. It appeared about 28 thousand years ago, as evidenced by the finds of the most ancient people.
Even then, our ancestors learned to express their emotions in coherent speech and increasingly improved their social relationship with each other.
Different climate and weather conditions entailed the formation of different features of a particular race that lived on different continents. It was about 20 thousand years ago that three different races began to appear: Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid.
Thus, in a very condensed form, it is possible to express the evolutionary chain of Darwinists, which can describe the origin of man.
Thanks to scientific research, the similarity of human genes with chimpanzees by 91% has been established.
Refutations of Darwin's theory and the teachings of his followers
Despite the fact that this theory is the foundation for all modern human science, there are also findings by various researchers that refute the understanding accepted by the entire scientific world of where the first people on Earth came from.
The found footprints, which are more than 3.5 million years old, prove that humanoids began to move on straight legs much earlier than primitive labor appeared.
The evolution of man, connected with the origin from the monkey, is unclear if you ask the question about human limbs. Why are human arms so much weaker than legs, while apes have the opposite? What contributed to the weakening of the limbs, since strong hands are clearly more useful for hunting and other work, is not clear.
To date, not all the links have been found that could completely unite the ancient ape with modern man.
In addition, there are a number of incomprehensible questions and facts that cannot be answered using the well-known scientific theory of the origin of man.
Religious theory of the origin of man
Every religion that has survived to this day says that man appeared thanks to a higher being. Adherents of such a theory do not believe in all the evidence for the origin of man from animals that exists today. For example, Christians say that man descended from Adam and Eve, the first people God created. Also, everyone knows the phrase: "God created man in his own image."
Regardless of the type of religion, they all claim that a person did not come into the world in a natural way, but is a creation of the Almighty. No one has yet found proof of the origin of man from the Creator.
creationism
There is such a science as creationism. Scientists who are engaged in it are looking for evidence of theories of the origin of man from God and confirmation of information from religious books.
To do this, they use almost sound scientific calculations. For example, they calculated that the ark that Noah built could indeed accommodate all animals (about 20 thousand different species), without taking into account waterfowl.
Human evolution is a theory of the origin of humans created by the English naturalist and traveler Charles Darwin. He claimed that the ancient one was descended from a monkey. To confirm his theory, Darwin traveled a lot and tried to collect different ones.
It is important to emphasize here that evolution (from Latin evolutio - “deployment”), as a natural process of the development of wildlife, accompanied by a change in the genetic composition of populations, really takes place.
But regarding the emergence of life in general and the emergence of man in particular, evolution is rather scarce in scientific evidence. It is no coincidence that it is still considered just a hypothetical theory.
Some tend to believe in evolution, considering it the only reasonable explanation for the origin of modern people. Others completely reject evolution as an anti-scientific thing, and prefer to believe that man was created by the Creator without any intermediate options.
So far, neither side has been able to scientifically convince opponents that they are right, so we can confidently assume that both positions are based purely on faith. What do you think? Write about it in the comments.
But let's deal with the most common terms associated with the Darwinian idea.
australopithecines
Who are Australopithecus? This word can often be heard in pseudo-scientific conversations about human evolution.
Australopithecus (southern monkeys) are upright descendants of driopithecus that lived in the steppes of Africa about 4 million years ago. These were quite highly developed primates.
skillful man
It was from them that the most ancient species of people originated, whom scientists call Homo habilis - "handy man."
The authors of the theory of evolution believe that in appearance and structure a skilled man did not differ from anthropoid apes, but at the same time he already knew how to make primitive cutting and chopping tools from roughly processed pebbles.
Homo erectus
The fossil species of people Homo erectus (“upright man”), according to the theory of evolution, appeared in the East and already 1.6 million years ago spread widely across Europe and Asia.
Homo erectus was of medium height (up to 180 cm) and was distinguished by a straight gait.
Representatives of this species learned to make stone tools for labor and hunting, used animal skins as clothing, lived in caves, used fire and cooked food on it.
Neanderthals
Once upon a time, the Neanderthal man (Homo neanderthalensis) was considered the ancestor of modern man. This species, according to the theory of evolution, appeared about 200 thousand years ago, and ceased to exist 30 thousand years ago.
Neanderthals were hunters and had a powerful physique. However, their height did not exceed 170 centimeters. Scientists now believe that Neanderthals were most likely just a side branch of the evolutionary tree from which man originated.
Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens (in Latin - Homo sapiens) appeared, according to Darwin's theory of evolution, 100-160 thousand years ago. Homo sapiens built huts and huts, sometimes even living pits, the walls of which were sheathed with wood.
They skillfully used bows and arrows, spears and bone hooks for catching fish, and also built boats.
Homo sapiens was very fond of painting the body, decorating clothes and household items with drawings. It was Homo sapiens who created the human civilization that exists and develops to this day.
Stages of development of ancient man according to the theory of evolution It should be said that this entire evolutionary chain of human origin is exclusively Darwin's theory, which still has no scientific evidence. does not have information that even in such ancient civilizations as or there were at least some hints of a monkey as the progenitor of man.
Charles Darwin himself was well aware of the absolute hypothetical nature of his judgments, which he wrote about more than once. For all that, one cannot fail to pay tribute to this naturalist, who nevertheless tried to explain the origin of man through natural selection and evolution.
