Romance languages ​​features. Romance group: French and Spanish

I only regret the times I was too kind. (c) Anton Szandor LaVey

I had a dispute on the topic of the Romano-Germanic groups of languages.
The essence of the discussion was the penetration of Latin into various languages, and specifically into English.
This topic seemed interesting to me, and I decided to rummage through articles on the Internet.

Romance and Germanic are different groups, but belong to the same language family - Indo-European.
Indo-European languages is the most widespread language family in the world. Its distribution area includes almost all of Europe, both Americas and continental Australia, as well as a significant part of Africa and Asia. More than 2.5 billion people - i.e. about half of the world's population speaks Indo-European languages. All major languages ​​of Western civilization are Indo-European. All the languages ​​of modern Europe belong to this family of languages, with the exception of Basque, Hungarian, Sami, Finnish, Estonian and Turkish, as well as several Altaic and Uralic languages ​​​​of the European part of Russia. The name "Indo-European" is conditional. In Germany the term "Indo-Germanic" was formerly used, and in Italy the term "Ario-European" was used to indicate that ancient people and ancient language from which all the later Indo-European languages ​​are supposed to have descended. The alleged ancestral home of this hypothetical people, whose existence is not supported by any historical evidence (except linguistic), is Eastern Europe or Western Asia.

Image taken from planetashkol.ru

The Indo-European family of languages ​​includes at least twelve groups of languages. In order of geographical location, moving clockwise from northwestern Europe, these are the following groups: Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Tocharian, Indian, Iranian, Armenian, Hitto-Luvian, Greek, Albanian, Italic (including Latin and descended from her Romance languages, which are sometimes separated into a separate group). Of these, three groups (Italic, Hitto-Luvian, and Tocharian) consist entirely of dead languages.

Romance languages ​​are a group of languages ​​and dialects belonging to the Indo-European language family and genetically ascending to a common ancestor - Latin.
The Romance group includes French, Occitan (Provencal), Spanish, Catalan, Galician, Portuguese, Italian, Sardinian (Sardinian), Romansh, Romanian. Moldavian, Aromanian (or Aromunian, Macedonian-Romanian), Istro-Romanian, Meglenite, or Megleno-Romanian, which became extinct at the end of the 19th century. Dalmatian; on the basis of the Romance languages, the Creole language arose (as a result of crossing with the language of the natives on the island of Haiti) and some artificial international languages ​​such as Esperanto.

The Romance languages ​​originated in Europe in different parts of the Roman Empire. When Roman soldiers, merchants and colonialists appeared in these areas, they forced the indigenous population to speak their language.
In ancient Rome, there was a classical Latin language. This is the language of writers, speakers, official communication. But at the same time, there was the everyday speech of ordinary people. Their language was called Vulgar Latin.

It originated in Rome and spread throughout the provinces. But there were also local differences, separate nations began to emerge. And Vulgar Latin gave birth to many new languages.
Time passed. The various Romance languages ​​began to differ even in pronunciation. Words from other languages ​​began to appear in them. For example, French includes almost 400 Teutonic words. During the Crusades, the French language was replenished with words of Greek and Arabic origin. There are many words in Spanish that come from Arabic.
At the same time, the Romance languages ​​began to break up into dialects. People in one part of the country began to speak a language slightly different from the language in another part of the country. In Paris, for example, the French language is not exactly the same as that spoken in other parts of France.

Germanic languages(Germanic languages, English) - one of the branches of the Indo-European family of languages; come from the hypothetically postulated and reconstructed by means of comparative historical linguistics of the Proto-Germanic language (Proto-Germanic language, English).

The Germanic languages ​​are a branch of the Indo-European family. Distributed in a number of Western European countries (Great Britain, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Iceland), North. America (USA, Canada), South Africa (South Africa), Asia (India), Australia, New Zealand. The total number of native speakers is about 550 million people.
Originally the languages ​​of the peoples of northwestern Europe, the Germanic languages ​​spread over time throughout the world - Europe, America, Africa (Afrikaans in South Africa), Australia. The majority of Germanic speakers in the modern world are native English speakers (≈ 70%).
Inside the West Germanic area in the 1st century AD. 3 groups of tribal dialects were distinguished: Ingveon, Istveon and Erminon. The migration in the 5th-6th centuries of part of the Ingvaeonic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) to the British Isles predetermined the further development of the English language. The complex interaction of West Germanic dialects on the continent created the prerequisites for the formation of Old Frisian, Old Saxon, Old Low Frankish and Old High German languages.

Germanic languages ​​are divided into 3 groups:

Languages ​​of the western group of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family
-English language
-Dutch (Dutch)
-German
-Flemish
-Frisian
-Yiddish
-Afrikaans (Boer language, South Africa)

Languages ​​of the northern (Scandinavian) group of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family
-Swedish language
-Danish
-Norwegian
-Icelandic
-Faroese language
Languages ​​of the eastern group of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family
-Gothic language

And now about Latin and its influence on the Romano-Germanic languages.

Latin language(Latin lingua latina), or Latin, is the language of the Latin-Faliscan subgroup of the Italic languages ​​of the Indo-European language family. To date, it is the only actively used Italian language (it is a dead language).
Latin is one of the most ancient written Indo-European languages.
Latin is the ancestor of the Romance languages: all Romance languages ​​are genetically descended from the so-called folk Latin, a common and everyday means of communication in the part of Western Europe subject to ancient Rome.
Today, Latin is the official language of the State of the Holy See (Vatican City State), as well as the Roman Catholic Church and other Catholic churches.
A large number of words in European (and not only) languages ​​are of Latin origin.
The Latin language penetrated the conquered territories over a number of centuries, during which it itself, as the base language, changed somewhat and entered into a complex interaction with local tribal languages ​​and dialects.
All Romance languages ​​retain Latin features in their vocabulary and, although to a much lesser extent, in morphology.
Attempts by the Romans to subjugate the Germanic tribes, repeatedly undertaken at the turn of the 1st century BC. e. and 1st century A.D. e., were not successful, but the economic relations of the Romans with the Germans existed for a long time; they went mainly through the Roman garrison colonies located along the Rhine and Danube. This is reminiscent of the names of German cities: Cologne (German Köln, from Latin colonia - settlement), Koblenz (German Koblenz, from Latin confluentes - literally flocking, Koblenz is located at the confluence of the Moselle with the Rhine), Regensburg (German Regensburg , from lat. regina castra), Vienna (from lat. vindobona), etc.
The conquest of Britain in the 5th-6th centuries by the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes increased the number of Latin borrowings adopted by the British tribes at the expense of words already adopted by the Germans from the Romans.
It should be noted, however, that in the Old Russian language itself there are several very early borrowings from Latin, partly directly, partly through Greek (“Caesar” or “Tsar”, “mare”, “bath”, “chamber”, “legion”). In the field of grammar, the Slavic suffix -ary (lat. -arius) has a Latin origin, denoting a person performing some kind of permanent function (myt-ary, key-ary, gate-ary, etc.).
Latin vocabulary had a significant impact on English through French as a result of the conquest of England in the 11th century by the French Normans (Normans). Many borrowings were made into English during the Renaissance and directly from Latin.

Sources:

According to statistics, the inhabitants of the Earth speak 2.5 thousand languages. This includes both practically international and little-known. Many are dialects of more common languages, although it is always difficult to confirm or refute this theory. Some languages ​​are considered dead, although certain types are still used today. The most striking example confirming this is Latin.

Ancestor of modern languages

The first language that arose on our planet is called by historians the pre-world language. It is the hypothetical ancestor of all the languages ​​spoken by the modern population and of several language groups considered dead today.

Modern scientists are sure that the ancient language was used by ancient people and existed for more than one century. But there are other hypotheses as well. It is possible that different kinds of languages ​​arose independently of each other, in different groups of people. Alas, modern methods of linguistic research do not allow us to confirm or refute any of these hypotheses.

Indo-European language group

Several large language groups gradually formed from the pre-world language, which became the ancestors of modern ones. One of them belongs to the Indo-European language, from which the Germanic and Romance languages ​​\u200b\u200bare descended. Indo-European belongs to the most common group, which is spoken by most of the world's population - about 2.5 billion people. It is believed that the people who owned it lived in Eastern Europe or Western Asia. However, their existence, apart from language, is not supported by any fact.

One of the largest subgroups of Indo-European is the Romano-Germanic group of languages. It is about her that we will talk today.

The history of the appearance of the Germanic language group

The ancestor of the Germanic, as scientists suggest, is the Proto-Germanic. The inscriptions on it, alas, have not been found by archaeologists, but its presence is confirmed by various dialects reflected in ancient texts. Thanks to the comparison of these memos, scientists put forward the hypothesis that there is a Germanic language that laid the foundation for the entire language group. This theory has taken root in the scientific world.

The first inscriptions in Old Germanic were made in the 2nd century BC on tablets. These are very short runic texts, consisting of several words. The first long texts discovered by archaeologists date back to the 6th century BC. e. and written in Gothic. Later, historians discovered fragments of a translation of the Bible into Germanic, in particular Gothic.

Based on the above facts, we can conclude that Germanic writing has existed for more than 2,000 years.

Groups of Germanic languages

The Germanic group of languages ​​is divided into 3 subgroups:

• western;
• northern (or Scandinavian);
• eastern.

Eastern includes languages ​​that became extinct in the first millennium. This is Burgundy, Vandal, Gothic. The latter is called classical, since it is the basis for the study of historical German studies. It was spoken by the tribes living on the territory of today's Germany.

The rest of the Germanic languages ​​(German is the first and most native of them) are modern. Let's consider each of them in more detail.

West Germanic language group

This branch includes the following languages:

• English (originally Old English), which is official in 54 countries;
• German;
• Dutch;
• Flemish (is a dialect of the Dutch language);
• Frisian (common in the Netherlands and northwest Germany);
• Yiddish (language of German Jews);
• Afrikaans (South Africa).

Northern group of Germanic languages

This branch of Indo-European is also called Scandinavian. It includes:

• Swedish;
• Danish;
• Norwegian;
• Icelandic;
• Faroese (common in the Faroe Islands and Denmark).

Germanic language group today

Now that we know the history of the Germanic languages, let's talk about modernity. Over time, changing more and more (probably due to the peculiarities of the pronunciation of Germanic words by different people), the language was enriched, its branches grew more and more.

Today, most people who use Germanic languages ​​speak English. It is estimated that more than 3.1 billion of the world's population uses it. English is spoken not only in the UK and the USA, but also in some Asian and African countries. In India, it became widespread during the time of British colonization and since then has been the official language of this state along with Hindi.

We teach literary English. But its dialects are presented in huge numbers, each of which is inherent in a particular region. One of the most popular representatives of this dialect is the London cockney - a type of vernacular.

But the German language - in fact, the most classic representative of the "modern Germanic languages" branch, which linguists call the second native language in the world - is undeservedly underestimated today. This is due to the fact that English is considered easier to learn and therefore more common. To date, experts believe that German is in danger of becoming a dialect of English, which is associated with the thoughtless linguistic behavior of politicians. Today, almost every medium-educated German knows English and easily switches to it. In addition, German is increasingly interspersed with English.

The Germanic language group is also used in Germany, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, Switzerland, AJR, New Zealand. The total number of speakers reaches 0.5 million people.

Romance languages

The Romance languages ​​are genetically descended from the dead Latin. The term romans is translated as "Roman", because it was in ancient Rome that Latin was used. In the early Middle Ages, this term denoted a simple folk speech, which differed significantly from both literary Latin and other dialects.

With the spread of the power of Rome, this language was transferred to subordinate cities, as the Romans forced the locals to speak Latin. It soon spread throughout the Roman Empire. However, at the same time, Ancient Rome spoke classical Latin, while the simple speech of the villagers was considered vulgar.

Today, the Romance group is used by about 60 countries, although there is still no consensus on the number of Romance languages.

Groups of Romance languages

Among the groups of modern Romance languages, the following are distinguished.

1. Ibero-Romance:

• Spanish;
• Portuguese;
• Catalan (it is spoken by about 11 million people in Spain, France, Italy);
• Galician (Galicia is an autonomous Spanish community).

2. Gallo-Romance group:

• French;
• Provencal (popular in the southeast of France).

Gauls are tribes of Celts who inhabited France, Italy, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland in the 5th century. For a long time they fought with the Roman Empire. There is a hypothesis that part of the modern population of France is the descendants of the Gauls.

3. Italo-Romance:

• Italian;
• Sardinian (Sardinia island).

In addition, the Romance group includes Romansh, which is a group of archaic Romance languages ​​and includes several names, as well as Romanian and Moldavian languages.

Creole, which was formed in America, Asia and Africa, is based on Romanesque. To date, the Romance language branch has more than a dozen languages, many of which are not used at all in modern speech. Others have become dialects of a number of languages, among which Italian prevails.

Romance language group in the modern world

Today the Romance language plays the role of one of the most important in the world language system. It is spoken by about 700 million people. The extremely popular English also borrowed many words from Latin, although it belongs to the "Germanic languages" branch. This is due to the fact that in the 17th and 18th centuries, Latin was considered the perfect language, which was persistently mixed with traditional English in literature. Today, many English words are Latin, which makes it possible to attribute English to the Romano-Germanic group.

The most common Romance is Spanish. It is used by more than 380 million people. And thanks to the similarity of the Romance languages, they are easy to learn. If you know one language from this group, it will not be difficult to learn others.

Latin and Romano-Germanic languages

According to you, Latin also belongs to the Indo-European branch. Presumably, it originated in the west of the Apennine Peninsula, in a tribe of Latins. Later, the center of this region became Rome, whose inhabitants began to be called Romans.

Today, Latin is the only Italian language still in active use. The rest are dead. Latin is the official language of the Vatican and the Roman Catholic Churches.

The Romano-Germanic group of languages ​​has its own history. Despite the fact that in fact such a classification does not exist, and it occurs only as the names of faculties in institutes, there is a close relationship between these two groups. Starting from the 1st century BC. e. The Romans repeatedly tried to subjugate the Germanic tribes, but their persistent attempts were unsuccessful. But the Romans and Germans cooperated for a long time. Their economic ties can be traced even in the names of cities that have a Latin basis, including those located on the banks of the Danube and Rhine rivers. The conquest of Britain by the Germans in the 5th century caused many Latin words to migrate to the Germanic languages.

In Russian, Latin inclusions can also be traced, mostly through Greek. Especially in Old Russian. For example, the Russian suffix -ary was taken from Latin. It denotes a person performing some kind of permanent task. For example: gate-ary, myt-ary.

There is also a hypothesis that the Germanic languages ​​are a mixture of Turkic and Slavic. This hypothesis, if we consider it in more detail, really has a right to exist. Thanks to a careful analysis of Russian and German words, a parallel between them is easily traced.

Conclusion

Today, researchers continue to study and interpret ancient languages. Most likely, all our languages ​​\u200b\u200bcame from the same ancestor, and then began to change due to differences in geographical location and cultural characteristics. This is explained by the fact that in almost all modern languages, even at first glance they are completely different, one can find the similarity of words and signs. But over the question of whether Neanderthals spoke, scientists are still pondering. If they were capable of such a degree of communication, most likely their language was different from those that arose later.

- (from lat. romanus Roman). Languages ​​derived from Latin, Romanian, Spanish, Portuguese. predominantly the ancient French language, which was spoken in the south of Europe. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Romance languages- ROMAN LANGUAGES. By this term is meant a group of languages ​​of a more or less homogeneous system, which developed from colloquial Latin. (see, so-called Vulgar Latin) in those areas of the Roman Empire where he was in circulation. Latin V… … Literary Encyclopedia

ROMAN LANGUAGES- (from Latin romanus Roman) a group of related languages ​​of the Indo-European family that developed from the Latin language: Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician; French, Occitan; Italian, Sardinian; Romansh; Romanian, ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Romance languages- Romance languages ​​are a group of languages ​​​​of the Indo-European family (see Indo-European languages), related by a common origin from the Latin language, common patterns of development and significant elements of structural commonality. The term "Romance" goes back to ... ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

Romance languages- (from Latin romanus Roman) a group of related languages ​​belonging to the Indo-European family (see Indo-European languages) and derived from the Latin language. The total number of speakers of R. i. over 400 million people; official languages... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Romance languages- (from Latin romanus Roman), a group of related languages ​​​​of the Indo-European family that developed from the Latin language: Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician; French, Occitan; Italian, Sardinian; Romansh; Romanian, ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Romance languages- languages ​​​​that arose from the common vernacular Latin language (lingua latina rustica) in Italy and various provinces conquered by the Romans: Gaul, Spain, parts of Rhaetia and Dacia. Lingua latina rustica (country Latin) first arose in ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Romance languages- Languages ​​included in the Indo-European family and forming a branch in it. Romance languages ​​include French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldavian, Provençal, Sardinian, Catalan, Reto Romance, Macedonian Romanian… … Dictionary of linguistic terms

Romance languages- (Latin romanus Roman) A group of Indo-European languages ​​that developed on the basis of the colloquial form of the Latin language (the so-called folk, vulgar, Latin, which, in connection with the Roman conquests, spread in Europe from the Iberian Peninsula to ... ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology

Romance languages- (Romance languages), child languages. Latin, which is spoken approx. 500 million people in Europe, Sev. and Yuzh. America, Australia, and also in some countries on other continents. There are different opinions about the number of these languages, since the question of ... ... Peoples and cultures

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Answers

1. Distribution areas of the Romance languages. The number of speakers. Varieties of Romance speech. The question of the completeness of the functional paradigm of various Romance languages. national options. Regional languages. Typology of sociolinguistic situations in the countries of Romance speech. Sociolinguistic situation in the countries of the Portuguese language / in Italy.

concept

Romance languages ​​are a group of languages ​​of the IE family, related by a common origin from Latin, common patterns of development and significant elements of structural commonality.

In the Middle Ages, this term had various modifications. It meant languages, on the one hand, different from Latin, on the other hand, different from barbarian (Germanic, Slavic, Turkic, Arabic, etc.).

There is also the term "Neo-Latin languages".

Romanesque area - Europe, both Americas (sp, it, fr, port, cat), Africa (fr, port), Asia (fr, port), Oceania.

In the Americas, it is common to speak Romance languages. Africa is usually a second language (culture, interethnic communication). Creoles are formed in Africa, Asia and Oceania.

Characteristics by the number of speakers

The most common in terms of the number of speakers is Spanish, then Portuguese, then French, then Italian, then Romanian.

By the number of users, the most common is French, then Spanish, then Portuguese.

Spanish- more than 300 million speakers, the official language of 20 countries (Spain, Andorra, Latin America except Brazil).

Portuguese- more than 200 million (Portugal, Brazil, 7 African countries).

French- more than 100 million (France, Belgium, Canada, Luxembourg, Andorra, Switzerland, Africa).

Italian- about 70 million (Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican).

Romanian- about 30 million (Romania, Moldova?).

Status

The issue of the Moldovan language - there are different approaches. Some consider it a regional variant of Romanian, others consider it a separate language.

The area of ​​distribution of the Romance languages ​​does not necessarily coincide with state borders (most often they do not coincide).

The concept of "national variant". A dialect is a part of a given language area (hierarchically below the literary language). It cannot be said that Belgian French is a dialect. It is no worse and no lower than the national language of France. The national version has its own literary norm.

Literary language is a processed language.

How is the literary language formed? Some region stands out as a leader (for example, Florence in Italy). Gradually, texts are created, options are selected, first spontaneous (in oral speech), then more conscious (in written speech; Dante included many Venetian and Sicilian forms here), then the norm is fixed (normative, codification). We get the literary norm.

In Italy, this happened long before communication, the codification was quite artificial, this created a number of problems.

The language of literature does not necessarily coincide with the national literary language, the first concept is wider.

On the territory of the state there may not even be one Romance language.

Spain - regional languages. Galician (Northwest Spain, over Portugal), Catalan. Asturleone, Aragonese - disputed.

Mirandese (Portugal, formerly considered a dialect of Portuguese).

Catalan is the official language in some regions of Spain, in Andorra, in part of France.

Romansh language(s) - Switzerland (southeast), Italy (Alpine zones).

France - initially there has always been a tendency to recognize only French (dialect of Île-de-France) as an official language. It is unrealistic not to recognize the existence of the Provencal (Occitan) language. However, the linguistic community, the EU, distinguish the Franco-Provençal language (east of France), some also recognize the Gascon language (south of France).

Italy - Sardinian (Sardian), Friulian, Sicilian (?).

National literary languages ​​(+ national variants)

Regional languages ​​(Dalmatian)

Non-territorial languages ​​(Sephardic=Ladino, but not to be confused with the Ladino of northern Italy)

Non-written languages ​​(in the Balkans and the Istrian peninsula there are Romance inclusions that are only now beginning to be studied)

Languages ​​with lost and revived writing (Catalan, Occitan, Galician)

Composition of Romance languages

It is important to understand the difference between the national literary language and just the literary language.

The question of the status of this or that idiom is solved in different ways, it is connected with sociolinguistic and extralinguistic factors.

Eastern Romagna - Moldavian/Romanian?

Iberian Peninsula - change in the status of Catalan, Galician, Mirandese in recent decades.

The EU is essentially working towards varietal research and autonomization. But much depends on the legislation, which is different everywhere.

Functional paradigm

A set of functions that a particular language performs. We can talk about the completeness/incompleteness of the functional paradigm.

National literary language - a complete set of functions.

It is the language of official, everyday communication, education, media, culture, literature…

The regional language does not have a full set of functions within the whole country. The rest depends on the legislation. There are countries that recognize linguistic autonomy, and there are those that do not.

The Catalan language has a complete functional paradigm in the territory of Catalonia.

Aragonese is an incomplete functional paradigm.

Sociolinguistic situation

See talks on comparative grammar.

2. Factors that determined the similarities and differences of the Romance languages. Romanization. The role of language contacts in the formation of Romance languages. Substratum, superstratum, adstratum in different zones of Romagna.

Classification of Romance languages

The classification is made not according to social aspects, but according to linguistic parameters.

The very first attempt at classification was by Dante: sik, ok and oil.

In novelism, the following division of Friedrich Dietz was first adopted.

He had phonetic, morphological criteria: potere → port. poder, Spanish poder (slit /ð/), fr. pouvoir (slit /ð/ dropped out, v appeared in place of /w/ between diphthongs), but it. potere, rum. a putea.

The voicing of intervocalic consonants is a Celtic substratum. There is a similar phenomenon in English - aspirated consonants.

When the muscle tension is weakened during articulation, at first there will be voicing, then we get a fricative, then the consonant may disappear altogether (as in French).

The Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, in the west, the influence of this substrate is felt:

p, t, c → b, d, g.

pacare (from Latin pax, originally “reconcile”, then “pay”) → rum. a impaca, it. pagare (in the north, among the Celts, voicing), port. pagar, Spanish, Gal. pagar (slit g), fr. payer.

substrate- a concept from the theory of strata, which was developed by the Italian scientist Ascale.

Ascale lived in the Veneto region, where the Italian literary language, the Venetian dialect, and the Friulian language coexisted. There, people easily switch from one language to another.

The stratum is Latin. They conquered the Celts, they begin to switch to Latin, retaining their own characteristics. These features are the phenomena of the substratum (the language of the conquered affects).

Then the Germans (West Goths and Franks, for example) conquer these territories. The language of the Franks was not preserved, it was at a low cultural level, so the Germans also learn Latin. This stratum is superimposed on top, it's superstrat(affects the language of the conquerors).

There are also adstratum. The Tatars did not conquer us, but we coexisted for a long time, the words entered the language neither from above nor from below. Arab influence on the Iberian Peninsula - adstratum.

Western and Eastern Romance languages ​​also differ in the formation of the article.

Ille, illu → il, el, le, o.

Not only the article itself is fixed, but also the position. In the Eastern Romance languages, the post-position is fixed.

Future tense.

Latin - cantabo.

Folk Latin - cantare habeo → cantare ho.

Romance languages ​​- e.g., it. canterò, Spanish cantaré, port. cantarei, fr. chanterai (except Romanian, there through the verb "want").

Palatalization: /k/ - /t∫/ - /ts/ - /s/ - /q/.

Palatalization of c, g before front vowels (e, i). Palatal - when the tongue touches the palate.

The French a is very anterior, closed, they also had palatalization in front of it (therefore cantare → chanter).

In the Balkans, there is no agreement of tenses in Romance speech.

Plural:

Lat. 2 sk., Nom.Pl. -i → it., rom. -i

Lat. 2 fold, Acc.Pl. -es (+ Celtic substratum) → Spanish, Porto, Fr. -s

The classification proposed by Dietz is not always successful. Now they usually do not use it.

Now the classification is based on the territorial-geographical principle. This is successful both from the point of view of history and from the point of view of substrates. A classification is needed that corresponds to the structural features.

In addition, differences in Romance languages ​​are due to archaisms and innovations at various levels. Italian (and partly Romanian) is archaic at the level of phonetics, in Portuguese (and to a lesser extent in Spanish) there are many grammatical archaisms. French is bad in every way...

3. Formation of Romance literary languages. Sociolinguistic situation in the countries of Romance speech in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Codification of the Romance languages. Achievement of the completeness of the functional paradigm by national literary languages

Formation of Romance languages

In the early Middle Ages, the Germanic tribes of the Goths found themselves in the northern Black Sea region. At some stage, Crimea was even called Gothia. They are divided into 2 groups: Visigoths and Ostrogoths. The Visigoths are closer to Rome, and they are the first to make serious contact with it.

The Romans allow the Visigoths to settle in the Balkans. There they live compactly and for some time coexist normally with the Romans. At the beginning of the 5th century hunger starts. There is a constant shortage of workers, and the Romans offer the Visigoths to send their children into slavery for grain. The Visigoths are greatly indignant and, having taken their places, go to Rome. This is the first serious threat from the barbarians to the state.

Frightened, the Romans offer the Visigoths to settle in the western part of the Empire, on the site of modern Provence with the center in Toulouse. There, even before the collapse of the Empire, a Visigothic kingdom was formed.

Soon after the collapse of the Roman Empire, through its territory, the Suevi (Svevi - modern Swabia in Germany) come to the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. They pass in the eastern Mediterranean and come to Spain not alone, but with the Alans. These are Indo-Europeans from the eastern Black Sea region. Together with the Suebi, they pass through Gaul and end up in Spain. There, the Alans were quickly destroyed, but a Suevian kingdom was quickly formed there.

At the same time, the Germans come to Gaul. Franks immediately flood it. They had a far greater influence on the future French than other Germanic peoples had on other Romance languages. Diphthongization of closed (avoir, savoir) - from the Germans, this is nowhere else.

The Burgundians also come to the east of France. The late Germans push the Visigoths out of Provence, and they go to the Iberian Peninsula. In the end, they also conquer the Suebi, and gradually all of Spain becomes Visigothic.

France: Frankish kingdom and Burgundian county (strong rivalry, and at first the Burgundians were stronger), later the French kingdom. The Normans later came to the north (Normandy).

Italy: Ostrogoths flood the north of the peninsula. Later, the Lombards come and overrun half of Italy.

Dacia: the Ostrogoths and Huns passed, later the Slavs and Turks settled.

So what do we get. Once upon a time there was a completely uniform Latin, although, of course, with some differences, within the framework of one state. Now different states, different peoples are settling in the Romanesque territories.

In a situation of serious cultural superiority of the Romanesque population, by the 6th-7th centuries. nothing remained of the Frankish, Norman, Gothic, Lombard and other languages, although the superstratum remained.

Lat. companium - German tracing paper. gihleip - sippy. It is the Germans and Slavs who have a strong tradition of sharing a meal.

The formation of Romance speech continues, but now it is independent in each territory.

Everywhere Romance speech is already quite different. When the Germanic languages ​​are already in complete decline, they speak the developing Romance languages, they write in Latin, but due to errors, syntax, etc., features of colloquial speech are visible. At first it is called Romance speech, volgare, later they begin to be called by locality.

The peoples who came at first were very different from the Romans, and not only in terms of their cultural level. On the one hand, they became rulers, again climbed into the mountains and built castles. There are also religious differences. Initially, they accept Arianism, but by the 8th century. accept the Catholic faith. In any case, this is a different religious, domestic law, a different marriage. Initially do not mix with the local population. When they accept Christianity, they very quickly mix with novels.

We get a completely homogeneous population in cultural and linguistic aspects. They write in Latin, but later they also begin to write in Romance languages. Sociolinguistic situation of diglossia. Study, service, legislation, documents, court - all this is Latin adapted to these matters.

The first people to write in Romance languages ​​are in France. These are the "Oaths of Strasbourg", 842 (the troops of two brothers are friends against the third). It is necessary that everyone understand everything and be able to repeat it, so not in Latin, but someone wrote it down.

The lives of the saints begin to be written in Romance languages, later also the charters of monasteries, sermons. "Cantilena about Saint Eulalia".

They write everything in Latin, but the scribes do not understand something, they comment on something, and in the margins they write a translation into Romance speech. This is the harbinger of the dictionary, the dictionary-glossary ("Silo glosses" - the first monument of the Spanish language).

Epics and religious poetry are written in Romance languages.

In Portuguese - "Note on Injustice" - one of the first Portuguese texts written by a notary, a short synopsis of testimony.

Later, large, serious works appeared in the Romance languages. However, until the 16th century, more texts were produced in Latin than in the Romance languages.

There are tutorials on how to write poems. Such treatises are the first descriptions of Romance languages.

Dante writes a treatise "On Popular Eloquence" in Latin, "Feast" in Italian. The questions of correlation between Latin and Italian are considered. The first attempt to classify the Romance languages ​​(si, sik and oil).

There is a selection of options, certain forms are gradually approved, which become the most common. First, this is a spontaneous selection, then the authors fix the most frequent options. Later, grammarians come along and codify it all. The norm is fixed, the idea of ​​protecting and glorifying the native language is being affirmed. Port. - "Dialogue in praise of the native language."

Romance languages ​​begin to push Latin. It completely fell into disuse in the 18th century, when it was still the language of diplomacy.

4. Romance vocalism. The main historical processes that determined the composition of vowel phonemes in modern Romance languages. Longitude and brevity. Diphthongization, areas and time of distribution of this phenomenon. Metaphony, areas of distribution, the nature of metaphony in different languages. Nasalization. Labialization. Phonetic and phonological characteristics of the Portuguese/Italian vowel system.

ī ĭ ē ĕ ā ă ŏ ō ŭ ū Latin vocalism

| \ / | \ / | \ / |

i ẹ ę a ǫ ọ u Western Romanesque vocalism

(. - closed, ˛ - open)

percussive vocalism

In Latin, the changes began with vowels. These changes are prosodic in nature. The rate of speech changes, reduction intensifies → the drop of stressed vowels in the middle of the word begins.

In Latin, percussion and unstressed vocalism did not differ.

The vowels differed in brevity-longitude, they also differed in openness-closedness (respectively, it can be seen on the vocalism diagram).

The long vowel on the second sea was closed.

At some point, there is a change in the type of stress from musical to expiratory (power). It is usually said that the changes in longitude and shortness are associated with this, but this is debatable. The given is that longitude / brevity cease to play a semantic role. Now the difference in openness / closeness comes to the fore.

Initially, the difference was weak, then increased. The former short ones become more open (ŭ → ọ, etc.).

Convergence occurs: ĭ → ẹ, ā and ă are mixed, ŭ opens in ọ in the same way, etc.

We see such a situation in the Roman Empire in the first centuries.

In Latin, the diphthongs ae, oe, and au (this one is especially long in French) held on for a long time.

In stress position ae → ę, oe → ẹ, au → ou → ọ

This is most of Italy and western Romania. Part of northern Italy (Venice, eastern Lombardy) and the Balkans received a different vocalism.

The left side is the same there (i, ẹ, ę), the right side is not symmetrical. There is only u, ọ, a.

There is also a Sicilian and Sardinian type of vocalism (you can see it).

Most Latin words were stressed on 2 syllables (paroxytonia). When the stress is on the 3rd syllable from the end (proparaxitonia), the 2nd syllable eventually fell out.

vinea → vin[j]a → vigna

Characteristic was the transfer of stress from the prefix to the root.

convenit → convenit

The same thing - from the suffix to the root (cf. calls → calls).

amavisti → amavisti → it. amasti, port. amaste, etc. (in the perfect, the regular stem ‘amav-’ is dropped -v- due to the transition of the stress to the root and the dropping of the stressed vowel)

Changing the tempo of speech turns unstressed full vowels into semivowels.

mulier → muer → muer, etc.

Here the Romans come to the collapse of the Roman Empire, and further development is different.

In Portuguese, as in Catalan, nothing else happens to stressed vowels, 7 vowels are preserved.

In Spanish, 5 vowels are obtained, 2 have become diphthongs (ę and ǫ).

Diphthongization occurred in Italian and French, but only in open syllables.

In the Balkans, there could be diphthongization, but it was associated with grammatical forms: there is diphthongization in the feminine, but not in the masculine. This is due to metaphony, in the female the vowel was open, in the male it was closed.

There was no diphthongization: in the west of the Iberian Peninsula, in Sardinia, in Sicily, in some places in Provence, Catalonia, Asturias.

There was another process in French that was not found in other Romance languages. There was diphthongization not only of open, but also of closed vowels (but not in Occitania).

habere → it. avere, Spanish aver, port. haver, but fr. avoir

Unstressed vocalism

The following changes occurred: the loss of vowels (syncope, apocope, apheresis) or their appearance.

At the beginning of the word, sounds that were not there could appear: lat. studare → Spanish, port. estudar.

This is called a prosthesis, historically it took place before st-, sp-, sc- in Ibero-Romania and Gallo-Romania.

In Italy, this is not the case, because there was no apocope, the words end in a vowel. Even where there was no vowel at the end, it grows or the consonant turns into it (habent → hanno, nos → noi).

But in Ibero-Romania, the final o, a remain (in some Italian dialects only these final ones remain). And in French, they disappear altogether, like the feminine endings (a → e → Æ), and they are not even written.

The consonant before the missing ending also ceases to be pronounced in the masculine gender (cf. in Latin amat → ama).

petit - petite are actually distinguished by the presence of a consonant.

In modern Portugal, in fast speech, the prosthesis has ceased to sound.

That is, the fate of prostheses is different everywhere.

In the vast majority of languages ​​(from the literary ones in all but Spanish) there is a strong difference between stressed and unstressed vocalism.

There is no reduction in Spanish and no open/closed, so there is no difference (this is generally rare).

In Italian, the difference is that in unstressed there is no opposition in terms of openness / closeness.

The most common process is diphthongization. However, there are languages ​​in which diphthongs are not the result of diphthongization (Portuguese).

As soon as everything tightened up in Latin, diphthongization began in percussive vocalism. With the exception of French, it is an open vowel.

This is influenced by the openness / closeness of the sound, the proximity of the palatal (noche-nueche).

In some languages, the old Latin diphthongs are also preserved (Romanian, Romansh, Friulian, Occitan retain au), in some there was an assimilation of the diphthong (lat. aurum → port. ouro).

French has an important feature: the diphthongization of closed vowels.

o → ue → oe → … → œ

e → … → ua (avere → avoir)

Could also happen monophthongization.

Diphthongs could also appear:

1) after falling consonants (vedere → ox. veire)

2) vocalization (altrum → port. outro)

3) metathesis/hyperthesis [j]

4) transition of full vowels to semivowels (seria, [i] → ox. [j])

Nasalization greatly increases the composition of vowel phonemes. In Gallo-Italian dialects (Piedmontese, Lombard) nasals are also common.

In Galician, nasality is lost, although it has developed in Portuguese-Galician, and for the most part is retained in Portuguese.

But the Galicians retain the nasality could be preserved before the palatal (port. unha - not preserved, preserved in Galician).

Labialization- French, Piedmontese, Franco-Provençal, Romansh.

u → y - Celtic zones, but not in the Iberian Peninsula. Seizes Gaul.

Contrasting by longitude/shortness- not a continuation of Latin, a neoplasm.

Some Romansh dialects, Friulian, Franco-Provençal (Alpine arc), Ladin, Istro-Romance. Also French of Belgium, Switzerland and Canada ( masc. ami- fem. amie longitude is felt).

In Asturian there is something called metaphony. Of the Romance languages, it is not in French, there it is only in the Breton dialect, it is not in Spanish and Catalan (because the Basques did not have it), it is not in italiano standard.

Innovation is usually at the center. These innovations may not reach the periphery. But in Spain the periphery becomes the center, in France the same thing. Dialects that contain a non-Indo-European substratum can become the norm. In Spain it is Castile with a Basque substratum, in Italy it is Tuscany with an Etruscan substratum. As a result, there is no metaphony in literary languages, but in reality there is a lot of it.

In France, il-de-France with a Celtic substratum, which was not particularly characteristic of metaphony. As a result, it is also not normal.

The north played a big role in the formation of the Portuguese language, which at that moment was not influenced by the Celts, so there is metaphony.

Italian

Climb	Row
Front	Average	Rear
Upper	i		u
Average	Closed	e		o
Open	ε		ɔ
Lower		ɑ

Portuguese

Climb	Row
Front	Average	Rear
Unnamed	Nasal.	Unnamed	Nasal.	Unnamed	Nasal.
Upper	i	ĩ			u	ũ
Average	Closed	e	ẽ			o	õ
Open	ε				ɔ
Lower	Closed			a	ã
Open			ɑ

5. Romanesque consonantism. The main historical processes that determined the composition of consonant phonemes in modern Romance languages. The composition of consonant phonemes in modern Romance languages, their features. Phonetic and phonological characteristics of the Portuguese/Italian consonant system.

Main processes:

1) Palatalization

2) Loss of aspiration

3) Weakening of intervocalic articulation, lenition

4) Frecativization

5) Vocalization

6) Formation [j]

7) Simplify geminat

All these processes took place in very different ways, at different speeds.

Italian language

by way of image.	local
y.-y.	g.-z.	h.	alv.	chambers.	led.
stop	ch.	p		t	ʃ		k
sound	b		d			g
freak.	ch.		f(ɱ)	s	ts
sound		v	z	dz
affr.	ch.					tʃ
sound					ʤ
dream.	nose.	m			n	ɲ	(ŋ)
side.				l	ʎ
trembling				r
semi-glob.	w				j

Processes:

1) Palatalization stops at the affricate stage
→ - cielo
→ - gelato

→ - giorno
→ [ʎ]-figlia

→ [ɲ] - vigna

→ - prezzo

→ - braccio

2) Assimilation, leads to the appearance of heminates. In other Romanesque, on the contrary, the simplification of all geminates, under the Celtic influence of lenition.
Romance texts written in Semitic alphabets reflect this weakening, which later turned into vocalization -
Where the Celtic substratum is in Italy, the geminata is also weaker.
→
laxare → lasciare - apparently northern, Celtic substratum
→ - lat. domina → it. donna, port. dona, Spanish dona, fr. lady

, , → , ,

3) Voicing took place in the north, where there was a Celtic substratum. Words from there may contain voicing (pagare, scudo).

Portuguese

by way of image.	local
y.-y.	g.-z.	h.	alv.	p.-n.	s.-n.	z.-n.	uvul.
noise.	bow	ch.	p		t				k
sound	b		d				g
gap	ch.		f	s		ʃ
sound		v	z		ʒ
dream.	nose.	m			n		ɲ
side.				l	ɭ	ʎ	ʟ
trembling				r (r:)				ʀ
semivowel	w					j

The north of Spain is the norm, the north of Portugal is the dialect. Accordingly, often the normative in Spanish turns out to be dialectal in Portuguese (betacism).

Portuguese does not tolerate gaping at all. Prosody is different from other Romance languages ​​+ colossal reduction, etc.

6. Parts of speech in Latin and Romance languages ​​(nomenclature, selection criteria, categories). Ways of expressing universal values.

Independent: verb, noun (noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral), adverb.

Non-independent: preposition, union, interjection, onomatopoeia.

Verb: person (3), number (2), time (everything changes), pledge (becomes analytical), mood (conditional is added).

Name: case (disappears), number (2), gender (medium disappears), degree of comparison (for adj., becomes analytical), person (for possessive places).

Adverb: degree of comparison (becomes analytical). In the Romanesque, Fem is formed. Abl. + mentis.

Prepositions: saved, new ones appear.

Alliances: rebuild stronger.

Interjection, onomatopoeia: canoe is all.

Universal meanings: pronouns, verbs like fazer (?).

7. Grammatical categories of the name. Semantics, syntactic functions, grammatical categories of nouns, adjectives in Portuguese / Italian.

gender and number

In the Romance languages, the neuter gender disappears. He stopped being motivated.

Often a genus is formed where it was not - spagnolo / spagnola.

/// Until now, in the Ibero-Romance languages, the Latin division of trees into genera into fruitful and non-fruitful is felt.

The neuter gender sometimes passed into the feminine, being used in the plural.

lat. neut. folium - folia → it. la foglia, Spanish hoja, port. folha

Sometimes even more complex transformations took place with genders and numbers:

lat. leprum - lepra → fr. la lèvre - las lèvres (i.e. plural
"lips" became simply "lip", etc. il labbro - le labbra
(collectiveness here, in contrast to Spanish,
kept in the plural).

lat. murum - mura → it. il muro - i muri (specific) / le mura (collected)

lat. brachium - brachia → it. il braccio - le braccia (cf. port. braço - braços)

That is, the Italian language here retains its forms, but is wiser with the gender. Romanian also has similar processes. Other Romance languages ​​preserve the gender by adjusting the forms to fit it.

Italian and Romanian show the number in vowels, northwestern Italy and other Romance languages ​​give the ending -s: former full inflection -os and
-as splits into two, indicating gender and number.

An additional indicator of gender and number is often metaphony.

Words starting with -tas:

lat. civitas, civitatem → it. citta, port. cidade, Spanish ciudad, fr. cite.

All languages ​​remember that it is feminine.

Sometimes there were variations in the genus:

lat. lac, lactis → fr. le leit, port. o liete, it. il latte, but Spanish. la leche

lat. pons, pontis → fr. le pont, it. il ponte, but Spanish. la puente, port. a ponte

case

In Romance languages, where there are no cases, without tricks like il est qui ..., it is impossible to understand where the subject is and where the object is. Only word order helps here.

The French case system lasted the longest. The opposition of the direct and indirect cases persisted until the Middle French period: Nom.Sg. -s, Acc.Sg. -Æ; Nom.Pl. -Æ, Acc.Pl. -s.

In most languages, noun forms usually go back to Acc.Sg. (a good indicator is nonequisyllabic words like civis).

However, it happens that in some languages ​​those words that were read in Latin in the church are preserved in the nominative:

lat. Deus → it. Dio, fr. Dieu, but port. Deus, Spanish Dios

lat. Marcus → it. Marco, but port. Marcos

lat. Lucas → it. Luca, but port. Lucas

lat. pax → it. pace, port. paz, but fr. paix

lat. crux → it. croce, port. cruz, but fr. croix

The article goes back to pronouns, and personal pronouns, for example, are still inflected in other Romance languages.

Distribution of Romance languages ​​in the world: French Spanish Portuguese Italian Romanian is a group of languages ​​and dialects that are members of the Indo-European language family and genetically ascend to a common ancestor - Latin. The science that studies the Romance languages, their origin, development, classification, etc. is called romance and is one of the subdivisions of linguistics (linguistics).
The term "Romance" comes from lat. romanus ("inherent in Rome", later "Roman Empire"). This Latin word in the early Middle Ages meant folk broadcasting, different from both classical Latin and from Germanic and other dialects.
There are about 600 million broadcasters in the world. Romance languages ​​are accepted as state or official languages ​​by 66 countries (including French - 30 countries, Spanish - 23 countries, Portuguese - 7, Italian - 4, Romanian - 2 countries). French and Spanish are also the official and working languages ​​of the UN General Assembly. A few more Romance languages ​​have the status of a partial ("partial") language in their respective countries: Galician, Catalan and Occitan in the form Aranese in Spain, Romansh in Switzerland. The rest of the Romance languages ​​are languages ​​of domestic consumption without special social status: Occitan in France, Sard(ov)skaia in Italy, Aromunian outside of Romania in the Balkans.
The core of the formation of Romance languages ​​is the former lands of the Roman Empire around the Mediterranean Sea, where Romance speech has been preserved - this is the so-called. "Old Romania". Due to colonial expansion in the 16-19 centuries. Romance languages ​​have undergone worldwide distribution ("New Romany" or Latin America and many African countries).
The Romance languages ​​are linked by gradual transitions, making it difficult to classify them. The languages ​​of "continuous Romania" (from Portuguese to Italian) are singled out, which more fully continue the Spielno-Roman language type (A. Alonso, V. von Wartburg). They are opposed, on the one hand, by the "internal" language - Sardinian with numerous archaic features, and on the other hand - by the "external" languages ​​- French, Romansh, Balkan-Romance with significant innovations and great influences of the substrate, adstratum, superstratum (V. Gak) .
Common features of the sound system are 7 vowels that are fully preserved in Italian (in some languages ​​there are also nasal vowels, front rounded and middle ones); groups of Latin consonants suffered simplifications and transformations in them. The Romance languages ​​are inflectional with a strong tendency towards analyticism. Morphological expression is irregular. The noun has 2 numbers, 2 genders, in Balk.-Romance 2 cases; There are various forms of articles. Pronouns retain elements of the case system. The adjective generally agrees with the noun. The verb has a system of developed forms (about 50 simple and complex); there are 4 ways and 16 hours, 2 states, peculiar non-special forms, with which periphrases with a standard meaning are formed. The word order in the sentence is predominantly SPO. The adjective-definition usually comes after the signifier. The dictionary inherited mainly the folk lexical fund, there are many borrowings from the Celtic, Germanic, in modern times from classical Latin and ancient Greek (through Latin) in the Balkan-Romance - from the Slavic languages. A letter on a Latin basis, written monuments - from 10 tbsp.
Borrowings to the Ukrainian language
As a result of the spread of Latin in Ukraine in the Middle Ages as the language of schooling, many Latin words penetrated into the national vocabulary: fasting, peahen, vinegar, sage, leaf, letter, room, carol, wall, construct, cannon, torture, poplar, cherry, g " Fifth, lily of the valley, parsnip, dumpling, bastard, glass, bursa, student, professor, rector, cheat sheet, hack, learned back in the Proto-Slavic period: swamp, pig, wine, mill; in the Enlightenment, new massive borrowings from Latin came: zero, lecture, nation, appeal, calendar, operation, exam, holidays, incident, code, charter, sentence, proportion and numerous others.In total, up to a quarter of the vocabulary of the modern Ukrainian language comes from Latin and its descendants - the Romance languages ​​(about the same in many other European languages).
Due to historical contacts in the 14-15 centuries. with the Genoese ports in the Crimea, the following penetrated into the Ukrainian vocabulary: a box, a hrych, a pantry, a fireplace, a barrel, a bottle, oil, a kersetka, a ribbon, a blanket, a bag, a zhupan, a cap, inventory, a stable, a mirror, a saber, veils, ruins, marble, funds, banquet, cemetery, the rest, poof!, chalk. Much more Italianism came later: pediment, pasta, fresco, malaria, roll, balcony, salon, cash desk, bank, bandit, color, goal, fortune, spy, bankrupt, hat, palace, fortress, glasses, newspaper, career, soprano, maestro ...
In the coastal dialects, a considerable layer of Italianism from the Genoese times has been preserved. This is such a professional vocabulary of sailors and fishermen as: bunatia "calm", zabunatsalo, tromontan "pivn.viter", levant "east. wind", punent" app. wind ", volts" turns ", payolas, skalada, rashketka, cavila, foundations, ortsa, bastunnya, faith, property, etc.
French borrowings came through other languages: facade, study, office, apartment, hotel, armchair, restaurant, beach, pearl, shower, screen, landscape, plein air, boulevard, coat, bouquet, pump room, role, gesture, deck chair, costume, cologne , portrait, patriot, perfume, hairdresser, piano, beret, chauvinist, tourist, baggage, blackmail, make-up, album, serious, solid, mineral, natural and hundreds of others.
The Romanesque neighbor of the Ukrainian language - the Romanian language (and its Moldavian version) became the source of such Ukrainian words as: Codra, sphere, bean, besagi, goat, chew, cheese (some of these words are used only in Ukrainian dialects around the Carpathians).
In turn, such Ukrainian words as came to the Romanian language: dranita “dranitsa”, hrisca “buckwheat”, ceriada “herd”, hrib “mushroom”, cojoc “casing”, stiuca “pike”, crupi “cereals”, iasle “crèche ”, tata“ dad ”, etc. (According to I. Kniezsa, S. Semchinsky and others).
Classification of Romance languages
Below is a classification of all Romance languages ​​and their dialects.
Romance languages ​​on the map of Europe

Catalan Spanish Portuguese Gallego 13 13 - Asturian-Leonese 14 14 - Corsican 15 15 - Sassar 16 16 - Istra-Romanian Aragonese Occitan 9 French Walloon Romanian Aromunian Romansh 1 2 4 3 5 6 7 8 1 - Piedmontese 2 - Ligurian skaya 3 - Western Lombard 4 - East Lombard 5 - Emiliano-Romagnolska 6 - Venetian 7 - Ladinska 8 - Friuli 9 - Franco-Provencal Italian 10 10 - Neapolitan 11 11 - Sicilian Sardinian 12 12 - Istrian