§2. The problem of artistic psychologism: theoretical aspects

Psychologism in literature is a deep and detailed image of the inner world of the characters: their thoughts, desires, experiences, which is an essential feature of the aesthetic world of the work. Each kind of literature has its own possibilities for revealing the inner world of a person. In lyrics, psychologism is expressive; in it, as a rule, it is impossible to "look from the outside" at the spiritual life of a person. The lyrical hero either directly expresses his feelings and emotions, or goes deep into introspection. The subjectivity of the lyric makes it, on the one hand, expressive and deep, and on the other hand, limits its possibilities in understanding the inner world of a person. Some of these restrictions apply to psychology in drama, since the main way to reproduce the inner world in it is the monologues of the characters, in many respects similar to lyrical statements. Other ways of revealing the spiritual life of a person in drama began to be used in the 19th and especially in the 20th century: the gestural and mimic behavior of the characters, the features of the mise-en-scenes, the intonation pattern of the role, the creation of a certain psychological atmosphere with the help of scenery, sound and noise design. However, dramatic psychologism is limited by the conventionality inherent in this literary genre. The epic kind of literature has the greatest possibilities for depicting the inner world of a person.

The first narrative works that can be called psychological were Heliodor's novels The Ethiopians (3rd-4th centuries) and Long's Daphnis and Chloe (2nd-3rd centuries). Psychologism was still primitive in them, but he has already outlined the ideological and artistic significance of the inner life of man. The era of the Middle Ages in Europe clearly did not contribute to the development of psychologism, and in European literatures it appears only in the Renaissance, becoming since then an integral feature of fiction.

The main forms of psychological depiction, to which all concrete methods of reproducing the inner world ultimately come down, is “the depiction of characters“ from the inside ”, i.e. through artistic cognition of the inner world of the characters, expressed through inner speech, images of memory and imagination "and" psychological analysis "from the outside", expressed in the writer's psychological interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of external manifestation of the psyche. Methods of psychologism include psychological analysis and introspection. Psychological analysis is used in third-person narration, introspection - in both first and third-person narration, as well as in the form of improperly direct inner speech. An important and frequently encountered method of psychologism is the internal monologue - the direct fixation and reproduction of the hero's thoughts, which, to a greater or lesser extent, imitates the real psychological patterns of inner speech. N.G. Chernyshevsky in 1856 called L.N. Tolstoy’s psychological analysis “dialectic of the soul”.

The word psychology comes from Greek psyche - soul and logos, which means concept.

“I’m sad”, “he’s not in a good mood today”, “she was embarrassed and blushed” - any such phrase in a work of art somehow informs us about the feelings and experiences of a fictional person - a literary character or a lyrical hero. But this is not psychology. A special depiction of the inner world of a person by means of art proper, the depth and sharpness of the writer’s penetration into the spiritual world of the hero, the ability to describe in detail various psychological states and processes (feelings, thoughts, desires, etc.), to notice the nuances of experiences - these are the signs in general terms psychologism in literature.

Psychologism, thus, it represents a stylistic unity, a system of means and techniques aimed at a complete, deep and detailed disclosure of the inner world of the characters. In this sense, one speaks of the "psychological novel", "psychological drama", "psychological literature" and the "psychological writer".

Psychologism as the ability to penetrate into the inner world of a person is inherent in any art to one degree or another. However, it is literature that has unique opportunities to master mental states and processes due to the nature of its imagery. The primary element of literary figurativeness is the word, and a significant part of mental processes (in particular, the processes of thinking, experiencing, conscious feelings, and even largely volitional impulses and emotions) proceed in a verbal form, which is recorded in literature. Other arts are either not capable of recreating them at all, or they use indirect forms and methods of representation for this. Finally, the nature of literature as a temporary art also allows it to carry out psychological representation in an adequate form, since the inner life of a person is in most cases a process, a movement. The combination of these features gives literature truly unique opportunities in depicting the inner world. Literature is the most psychological of the arts, perhaps not counting the synthetic art of cinema, which, however, also uses a literary scenario.

Every genus Literature has its own possibilities for revealing the inner world of man. So, V lyrics psychologism is expressive; in it, as a rule, it is impossible to "look from the outside" at the spiritual life of a person. The lyrical hero either directly expresses his feelings and emotions, or engages in psychological introspection, reflection (for example, N.A. Nekrasov’s poem “I deeply despise myself for that ...”), or, finally, indulges in lyrical reflection-meditation (for example, in the poem by A. S. Pushkin "It's time, my friend, it's time! The heart asks for peace ..."). The subjectivity of lyrical psychologism makes it, on the one hand, very expressive and deep, and on the other hand, limits its possibilities in understanding the inner world of a person. Some of these restrictions apply to psychologism in dramaturgy, since the main way of reproducing the inner world in it are monologues actors, in many ways similar to lyric expressions.

The greatest opportunities for depicting the inner world of a person have epic type of literature, who developed in himself a very perfect structure of psychological forms and techniques, which we will see in the future.

However, these possibilities of literature in mastering and recreating the inner world are not realized automatically and by no means always. In order for psychologism to arise in literature, a sufficiently high level of development of the culture of society as a whole is necessary, but, most importantly, it is necessary that in this culture the unique human personality be recognized as a value. This is impossible in those conditions when the value of a person is completely determined by his public, social, professional position, and the personal point of view on the world is not taken into account, it is even assumed to be non-existent, because the ideological and moral life of society is completely controlled by a system of unconditional and infallible moral and philosophical norms. In other words, psychologism does not arise in cultures based on authoritarianism. In authoritarian societies (and even then not in all, mainly in the 19th-20th centuries), psychologism is possible mainly in the system of counterculture.

Literature has developed a system of means, forms and techniques of psychological depiction, in a certain sense individual for each writer, but at the same time common to all writers-psychologists. The analysis of this system is of paramount importance for understanding the uniqueness of psychologism in each specific work.

Exist three main forms psychological image , to which, in the final analysis, all concrete methods of reproducing the inner world are reduced. Let's call first form of psychological image straight , A second indirect , because it conveys the inner world of the hero not directly, but through external symptoms. We will talk about the first form ahead, but for now we will give an example of the second, indirect form of psychological representation, which was especially widely used in the literature in the early stages of development:

But the writer has a third possibility, another way to inform the reader about the thoughts and feelings of the character: by naming, the extremely brief designation of those processes that take place in the inner world. We will call this form total denoting . A.P. Skaftymov wrote about this method, comparing the features of the psychological image of Stendhal and L. Tolstoy: “Stendhal mainly follows the path of verbal designation of feelings. Feelings are named but not shown. Tolstoy, on the other hand, traces the process of the flow of feeling in time and thereby recreates it with greater liveliness and artistic power.

There are many methods of psychological depiction: this is a different organization of the narrative, and the use of artistic details, and ways of describing the inner world, etc. Only the main methods are considered here.

One of the methods of psychology is artistic detail. External details (portrait, landscape, world of things) have long been used for the psychological depiction of mental states in the system of an indirect form of psychologism. Thus, portrait details (such as “turned pale”, “blushed”, “hung his head wildly”, etc.) conveyed the psychological state “directly”; at the same time, of course, it was implied that one or another portrait detail was unambiguously correlated with one or another spiritual movement.

Details landscape also very often have a psychological meaning. For a long time, it has been noticed that certain states of nature in one way or another correlate with certain human feelings and experiences: the sun - with joy, rain - with sadness, etc. (cf. also metaphors like "spiritual storm"). Unlike portrait and landscape, details "thing" world began to be used for the purposes of psychological depiction much later - in Russian literature, in particular, only towards the end of the 19th century. Chekhov achieved a rare psychological expressiveness of this kind of detail in his work. He focuses on those impression, which his characters receive from their environment, from the everyday environment of their own and other people's lives, and portrays these impressions as symptoms of the changes that are taking place in the minds of the characters" 1 . A heightened perception of ordinary things is characteristic of the best heroes of Chekhov's stories, whose character is mainly revealed psychologically: “At home, he saw an umbrella on a chair, forgotten by Yulia Sergeevna, grabbed it and kissed it greedily. The umbrella was silk, no longer new, intercepted with an old rubber band; the pen was of simple white bone, cheap. Laptev opened it above him, and it seemed to him that around him he even smelled of happiness ”(“ Three Years ”).

Finally, another method of psychologism, somewhat paradoxical at first glance, is default acceptance. It consists in the fact that at some point the writer does not say anything at all about the inner world of the hero, forcing the reader to conduct a psychological analysis himself, hinting that the inner world of the hero, although it is not directly depicted, is nevertheless rich enough and Deserves attention. The general forms and techniques of psychologism that were discussed are used by each writer individually. Therefore, there is no single psychologism for all. Its different types master and reveal the inner world of a person from different angles, enriching the reader each time with a new psychological and aesthetic experience.

§5.Poetics of psychologism(features of psychological writingin the prose of the twentieth century)

Masters of the artistic word are often called psychologists, depicting the inner world of a person with accuracy and depth. In the literature, they find illustrations or anticipations of scientific and psychological discoveries, draw material for psychiatric typologies (that is, they equate literature and life, literature and psychology).

Psychologism has, first of all, artistic and aesthetic value, it is an indicator of the author's axiology and worldview. The inner world of a person in the focus of literature receives a specific interpretation and assessment. There is a recoding of non-material material (psyche) into a system of artistic signs (forms, methods, techniques of psychologism). Their "arsenal" is formed in the process of development of literature.

Poetics of psychologism

- derived from the philosophical and scientific ideas of the era about a person (this is the basis for the author's theoretical ideas about the human psyche and ways of knowing it);

- due to the concept of personality, artistic system, creative method,

Thus, the dynamics of psychologism in literature is the evolution of its forms and techniques from simple to more complex and mediated.

Literary scholars propose to distinguish two main forms of psychological analysis: "from within" (direct form) and "from outside" (indirect, external) form. In the formulation of L.Ya. Ginzburg: "Psychological analysis is carried out in the form of direct author's reflections or in the form of introspection of the characters, or indirectly - in the depiction of their gestures, actions, which should be analytically interpreted by the reader prepared by the author" . I.V. Strakhov divides the forms of psychological analysis into depicting characters "from the inside" ("by cognizing the inner world of the characters, expressed through inner speech, images of memory and imagination") and psychological analysis "from the outside" ("The writer's interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, mimic and other means of external manifestation of the psyche”).

In general, agreeing with the typology of I.V. Strakhova, A.B. Esin proposes to supplement it with a third form - "summatively denoting": "a way to inform the reader about the thoughts and feelings of a character - with the help of naming, an extremely brief designation of those processes that take place in the inner world" .

V. Gudonienė also speaks of three forms of psychological analysis:

Obviously, when delimiting psychological forms, the use of spatial designation (from inside to outside) gives rise to confusion associated with a confusion of narrative instances, subject-object relations. These mixtures are especially visible in the graphic version by V. Gudonene (see diagram).

V. Gudonene, along with other researchers (I.V. Strakhov, A.B. Esin), classifies the methods of psychological representation within the boundaries of the literature of the 19th century. The definition itself - "forms of psychological analysis" - is forced to refer to the analytics of psychologism in its realistic modification (character explanation). In general, the proposed classifications do not fully reflect the literary reality. It is no coincidence that O.N. Osmolovsky suggests talking about the "psychological method (manner)" and, given the originality of the literature of the twentieth century, about its lyrical, dramatic and epic versions.

Traditional methods of psychological writing are quite fully and illustratively covered in research literature (L.Ya. Ginzburg, A.N. Esin), manuals and materials for students on the psychological analysis of works of art. The techniques of psychological detailing, portraiture, narrative forms (internal and external speech of the character, dialogue, author's commentary) are especially developed.

In the twentieth century the techniques and methods of psychological depiction already mastered by the literature of the last century are used, but narrative-compositional ones (associated with the movements of the “point of view” and the subject of the narrative) begin to lead in their hierarchy.

In the system of objective psychologism, the author depicted the inner world of characters from the standpoint of omniscience (in prose, through a description of spiritual movements and feelings, through direct authorial analysis). This type of narration by realists of the second half of the 19th century. was comprehended as an artistic convention (G. Flaubert, L.N. Tolstoy). The dynamics of internal processes began to be represented, on the one hand, by an act, gesture, detail, and on the other, by narrative and compositional techniques associated with a “point of view”. A.V. Karelsky lists some of them (referring to European romance of the 1830s-1860s):

1) the narrator's sudden, demonstrative switching of attention from the inner world of the character to the external background (the technique of replacing the climactic states of the soul with a description of external actions and facts);

2) playing with details (where the analysis is focused on transitional states, on impulses that are half conscious);

3) special forms of speech characteristics:

- the speech of the character is not equal to his thoughts and feelings, since they are often not controlled by the mind;

- the structure of the dialogue reflects multidirectional motives and motives;

- a thought is formed in the process of utterance, with which the character checks himself and probes the interlocutor;

- in speech, meaningful interjections, exclamations, pauses, silences - subtext fixation of pulsating feelings.

In the literature of the twentieth century. "point of view" narrator, the ratio of the points of view of the subjects of the narrative (narrator, hero) are especially significant in psychological terms. . This is a continuation of the tradition of distrust of the authoritarian word and the position of omniscience. The category of "point of view" underlies the main types of psychologism - objective and subjective (corresponding in terms of composition, according to the concept of B.A. Uspensky, external and internal psychological point of view).

External point of view suggests that for the narrator (the author, one of the characters) the behavior and inner world of a person is an object of observation and analysis. Formally, this position is fixed in the narration from the third person.

Techniques that are built on the basis of this narrative definition: central consciousness" And " multiple reflection". Showing the hero through the perception of him by other characters is quite effective and widespread in the literature of the twentieth century. The method of "central consciousness" (used by I.S. Turgenev, G. James, L. von Sacher-Masoch) involves the narration and evaluation of the material by a character who is not the center of the novel's action, but endowed with intellectual and sensory abilities and the ability to analyze what he saw. The reception of "plurality of reflection", on the contrary, is associated with the presence of several points of view aimed at one object. As a result, the image gets versatility (stereoscopic effect) and objectivity.

Internal psychological point of view suggests that the subject and object of psychological observation are merged, which corresponds to the structure of the narration from the 1st person. Techniques inherent in this position: confession, diary entries, internal monologue (without traces of the presence of the narrator), "stream of consciousness".

Reception " stream of consciousness” is traditionally perceived as a form of internal monologue taken to its limit. Such an understanding is connected with the idea of ​​consciousness as a river with many currents (thoughts, associations, sensations, memory images), synchronously coexisting (in the interpretation of W. James). In literature, the "stream of consciousness" is associated with the development of this synchronicity into a linear series of narrative. "Stream of consciousness" - a consistent selection of different-quality quanta of the conscious-subconscious sphere (emotional-sensual, mental or figurative).

In literature, "stream of consciousness" has been used as a separate realistic technique; as "a method of depicting life, claiming to be universal." It functions in the system of neopsychologism of the 20th century. (D. Joyce, W. Wolfe, N. Sarrot).

M. Proust, D. Joyce laid down the tradition of "hermeneutic" research into the inner life of a contemporary. In maximum proximity to the author-creator (M. Proust) or at a greater distance from their own personality (D. Joyce), they shift the artistic optics “inside” the consciousness of their hero. The result is a technique of associations, a “stream of consciousness”, “stylistically adequate to the subject of the image”. The ultimate subjectivization of such a narrative becomes a way of recreating the atmosphere of universal chaos. The only way to establish contact between the tangible "thingness" of reality and the microcosm is the associative links born through the bodily substance (through light, color, smell). In these experiments, psychologism of a subjective type is formed, the study of "consciousness without boundaries."

S.S. Khoruzhy notes that “in the understanding of this discourse (“stream of consciousness”), a naive view was held for a long time, according to which the purpose and essence of discourse is the most accurate registration of the work of human consciousness” . This artistic technique is not associated with “an attempt to remove the encephalogram of the human brain” and the author’s non-manifestation in the discourse: “In ... fragments of the texts of the“ stream of consciousness ”the author is hidden, his function is to anonymously give non-verbal images of consciousness, not mediated by the verbal form in the minds of the characters, verbal form." The purpose of the author's anonymous intrusion is the verbalization of (1) sensations from the outside world and (2) thought-images from the conscious-unconscious spheres.

“The barking of dogs approached, fell silent, carried away. The dog of my enemy. I stood motionless, silent, pale, hunted. Terribilia Meditas. Lemon camisole, a servant of fortune, chuckled at my fear. And it beckons you, the dog barking of their applause?..” (“Ulysses”).

Sound is recorded (in the dynamics of its strength and extent), color, associations (external plan: dog barking, internal: my enemy's dog is a servant of fortune - quotes from Shakespeare's tragedies). The “stream of consciousness” technique is a dotted line of omissions and fixations of elements of unformed (but purposefully verbalized into discourse) mental matter. Its essence is revealed when comparing (1) logical and (2) associative developments:

(1) "...Stephen, closing his eyes, listened to the crunch of small shells and algae under his feet...";

(2) “...One way or another, you go through it. I'm going step by step. For a small step of time through a small step of space. Five, six: Nacheinander! Quite right, and this is an irrevocable modality of the audible. Open your eyes. No. God! If I fall off the formidable cliff hanging over the sea, I will fall irrevocably through Nebeneinander! .. ".

Joyce individualizes the “stream of consciousness” of the central characters of “Ulysses”: Molly’s “female discourse” moves in an eternal river with an erotic flow, Stephen’s stream of thought-feelings is marked by poetic and intellectual associative links, Bloom’s “stream of consciousness” looks pragmatic in its attachment to the outside world. Each of them has its own stylistic, rhythmic and even visual design. The function of the "stream of consciousness" is connected not only with the subjective reflection of reality. I.V. Shablovskaya emphasizes that “this method of representing the world through the perception of a person turns out to be the most productive in order to represent this person himself. Because the human personality is not in actions, but in<…>the quality of the work of consciousness together with the subconscious, which flows inside us as a continuous process, as a result of which a stream of consciousness arises inside us. It is the essence of our individuality, there is our, human "I"".

The chaotic perception of life turns into attention to the instinctive, irrational side of human nature, and its artistic comprehension radically changes the architectonics and style of works. Condensation of experiences results in internal monologues, a “stream of consciousness” (M. Proust, D. Joyce), from which, without the voice of an omniscient author, the compositional blocks of the novel are formed (W. Faulkner, G. Belle).

With the tendency to distrust the authoritarianism of the author, his analytical method of psychological representation, the transition of literature to the 19th-20th centuries is connected. to subjectivization, to the mode of subtext structuring. Psychological overtones- a dialogue between the author and the reader, when the recipient himself must expand the analysis, based on the author's hints in the text. "The lyrical principle of typification" (the term of A.N. Andreev) determines the inclusion in the system of psychological writing means of emotional intonation. Rhythm, poetic figures (default, repetition, gradation, silence) and syntactic figures (repetitions of words, conjunctions, constructions) create the emotional background of the work. Importance is gaining "synesthesia"(fixation of color, sound, smell, taste, etc.).

Removing information into subtext in cases of special psychological stress was inherent in I.S. Turgenev, A.P. Chekhov, however, in the literature of the twentieth century. this technique receives great development and weight in the system of psychologism (E. Hemingway, V. Wolfe, V.V. Nabokov).

The psychological (and overall plot) subtext in the novel Mrs. Dalloway by W. Wolfe is “a statement of facts, compressed to a hint, in which the lack of information is compensated by the concentration of latent expressiveness ... enters as an element into the flow of inner speech of one or another character and has of great importance for understanding his worldview, feelings, actions and their psychological motivations. Associations (heard story, memory) reveal Clarissa's non-verbalized sensations and feelings. So, for example, in the mind of the heroine, returning to thoughts about the end of the war and the continuation of life, the words heard earlier suddenly pop up:

“The war is over, in general, for everyone; True, Mrs. Foxcroft was harassing yesterday at the embassy because that dear boy was killed and the country house was now going to her cousin; and Lady Bexborough opened the market, they say, with a telegram in her hand about the death of John, her favorite; but the war is over; It's over, thank God. June…" .

Feelings and sensations are brought into the subtext: “Clarissa painfully perceives the events of the war, the losses that she brought (although the war did not affect her personally); and although life is beautiful, and time heals, it is quite obvious that Clarissa is not able to forget and justify these losses. To reveal the essence of internal processes, W. Wolfe uses two registers of narration - external and internal, intellectual-emotional. They are embodied both in the rhythmic and in the compositional structure of the text: simultaneity and musical principles organize the change of voices and points of view (N. Povalyaeva identifies all known types of polyphony in Woolf's novels).

The psychological subtext can be associated with "secret psychologism", with a character whose character is realistically motivated (E. Hemingway), or fundamentally "out of character" (V.V. Nabokov).

The subtext of the first type can be observed in the prose of E. Hemingway. This is the so-called "iceberg secret", which suggests that the reader will get an idea of ​​the dynamics of the character's psychological states from the replicas, details, intonations, and the very tone of the narration. The text contains precise signals (repetitions, key phrases, leitmotifs). So, for example, in the story "The Cat in the Rain" the leitmotifs of house and rain, the key phrases "I'm tired" / "I like it the way it is now" and others turn a banal family scene with a female whim into a drama of despair ("homelessness", the meaninglessness of life ). Subtext signals create a clear dotted line of the heroine's emotional and psychological state. This clarity is associated with Hemingway's program - to bring into the subtext only obvious points that will be recognized by the reader.

Another case of poetic subtext - "out of character" - dictates the transformation of the narrator into a lyrical hero and, accordingly, the lyrical way of presenting the material (rhythmization, intonation of the phrase, sound writing, metaphorization) and the type of communication with the reader (V.V. Nabokov).

The subjectivization of the narrative led to the re-creation of metaphorical"an image of the state of the world, poetically generalized, emotionally saturated, expressively expressed" . Techniques associated with the introduction of double characters and dreams into the text go back to the principle of a metaphorical explanation of a person and the world.

Reception doubles in its psychological quality was discovered by romantic literature. One of the types of dual worlds of romantics was its psychological model: a reality associated with the “main “I”” of the character – a reality in which the “double” / “shadow” lives. Dream, hallucination, mirror, water have become markers of the border between these worlds. Functionally, it was a dream that was more acceptable for depicting a double, since it had a double motivation (real and psychological). The double was perceived as a product of the subjective world of the character, as the embodiment of his tragic, psychological or psychopathological split.

Twins, according to Z. Freud, are “personalities who, due to the sameness of their manifestation (external - O.Z.), are perceived as identical”, duality acts as “an act of identifying oneself with another person, accompanied by doubt in one’s own “I” or substitution someone else's "I" in place of one's own, doubling the "I", division of the "I", substitution of the "I"". Thus, the appearance of the double is associated with the process of self-identification (and with the fear that accompanies it). We find an analogue to this in literature, when the double is separated from the character, is perceived as "alien", is endowed with harmful features; the relationship between the hero and the double is organized as enmity (1) Other realizations of the relationship:

(2) “the hero and his double can be combined, for example, in a mirror. In this case, the double contributes to the assertion of himself in the image of the hero;

(3) the double can be deeply hidden in the "I" of the hero and be almost merged with him. The restoration of the original separation becomes possible only at critical moments. Thus, the double is endowed with positive traits, and relations with him are organized as reconciliation.

The reception of duality has a special psychological content. A double is a visual (materialized) image of the character's "I". Vision, as the central category of experience, is a variant of knowing one's personality without language (it is no coincidence that J. Lacan speaks of the third evolutionary phase in human awareness of oneself as a “mirror stage”). Mirror, the water surface in this context is important for its ability to reflect. For example, in the novels of G. Hesse, they mark the climax of the psychological change of the character (Klein ("Klein and Wagner"), Harry Haller ("Steppenwolf"), etc.). So, Siddhartha (“Siddhartha”), peering into the surface of the river, hears voices and distinguishes images of his doubles in the water surface, and then a string of different human faces, until they merge into “wholeness, unity” - enlightenment comes (in the text - “ completion", "perfection"). In the finale, the face of the dead Siddhartha becomes a “magic mirror”, in which his double Govinda already sees “nirvana and samsara as a whole”:

“The face of his friend Siddhartha disappeared; instead, he saw other faces, hundreds, thousands, a great many faces, merging into a mighty stream ... each of them retained the features of Siddhartha. He saw the head of a dying fish... he saw the face of a baby barely born... he saw naked male and female bodies... he saw stiff corpses... they saw the gods, saw Krishna, saw Agni, he saw all these faces and images in the totality of relationships, by which they were connected to each other, he saw them helping ... loving and hating each other, destroying and re-birthing each other ... and above all this he saw ... the smiling face of Siddhartha ... ".

Consider the principle of duality in the novel "Demian" by G. Hesse. Around the central character - Sinclair - all other images "revolve", clarify his essence, "catalyze" the process of his formation. Therefore, characterology is reduced to a minimum of informativeness. Starting from this level, the author gradually builds up the symbolic shells of images.

Sinclair experiences disintegration and seeks to get rid of it, looking for a reflection in another person. In the first phase of the "journey in" he enters into a painful bond with Franz Kromer (Sinclair's nemesis, "Shadow"). In the image of Kromer, the outline of the figure, the manner of speaking and moving, the dominant character, the feelings that he evokes in Sinclair are noted. However, after such characterological details, it is the turn of their “spraying”: comparisons with Satan, a demon, metonymic-hyperbolic transformations are introduced into the narrative (Kromer is not seen in his entirety, but only his eyes, hand, mouth), and, finally, as a result of erasing the line between external and internal reality, a new Kromer appears in the protagonist's visions: "... he became bigger and uglier, and his evil eye sparkled demonically" [p. 102]. The tormentor, despite his full tangibility (various manifestations of power), begins to be perceived by Sinclair as a force within him, part of his soul. From that moment on, the image of Kromer (a symbol of the dark world, lies, filth, fear) disappears from view.

The image of Demian (double-friend) also undergoes a similar growth into a symbol. Its appearance is associated with the second stage of Sinclair's development. This image consists of several layers: Demian is a high school student, a dream image, part of Sinclair's soul ("a voice that could only come from myself"). Ambivalence is set first by appearance, then by the feelings that he evokes in Sinclair. New dimensions of the image arise in the meditation scene, fragments of memories of his "strange" face, male and female at the same time, young and mature and at the same time "timeless", belonging to the "ether" between life and death. The flickering image of the doppelganger convinces Sinclair of the failure of the previous project of his "I". Further symbolic expansion becomes possible due to the narrator's going beyond the limits of real space, transposing the latter into "magic", semi-mystical coordinates. The second stage of the "way inside" is crowned with integration - in the reviving portrait, the features of Demian and Sinclair merge.

Thus, the idea of ​​the human soul as a "chaos of forms and states" is recreated by G. Hesse not by fixing psychological impulses, thoughts and associations, as in Joyce. G. Hesse's system of neopsychologism is associated with the special status of twin characters (and, more broadly, with the psychological nature of duality):

1. Hesse "embodies" the complex, dynamic structure of the personality, presents it in visual images - symbolic and mythological figures - the psychological counterparts of the character;

2. Their appearance is associated with the "turning points" of the plot - the stages of the internal evolution of the central character. As in a confession, a religious (pietistic) biography, the “turning points” in the novel by G. Hesse are “moments of enlightenment leading to the final conversion of the hero”;

3. Doubles are parts of the hero's soul, they must be identified and symbolically accepted into oneself (integrated).

Neo-psychological duality is an innovative version of the archaic character model - epic duality. Dual images, according to R. Lachmann, came out of the "anthropological myth of man as a dual being." Thus, mythologism and neopsychologism (and an out-of-character character) reveal their close connection in the literature of the 20th century.

Indicative for the literature of the twentieth century. the techniques and methods of psychological representation are more complex than those that preceded them historically, and determine their analysis within the framework of non-traditional methodologies.

Questions and tasks

1. Consider the table “Means of revealing the inner world of characters” by Vida Gudonienė. Explain and evaluate the degree of consistency, completeness of its classification. Suggest your own version of the classification of psychological writing techniques.
2. Consider the methods and means of psychological analysis in the works of L.Ya. Ginzburg, A.B. Esina, I.V. Strakhov, reference and encyclopedic publications. Incorporate key concepts into your vocabulary.
3. Select illustrative material for each of the techniques and methods of psychological representation that are included in the dictionary.
4. Independently study the literature on the topic “Peculiarities of psychologism in lyrics and drama” (L.Ya. Ginzburg, I.V. Kozlik, V.E. Khalizev).

Strakhov, I.V. Psychological analysis in literary creativity: a manual. for stud. / At 5 p.m. / I.V.Strakhov. - Saratov: Ed. Sarat. un-ta, 1973–1976.

Ginzburg, L.Ya. About psychological prose / L.Ya.Ginzburg. – M.: INTRADA, 1999. – 415 p.

Gudonene, V. The Art of Psychological Narrative (from Turgenev to Bunin) / V. Gudonene. - Vilnius: Ed. Vilnius state un-ta, 1998. - S. 8-119.

Esin, A.B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature: Book. for the teacher / A.B. Esin. – M.: Enlightenment, 1988. – S. 51–64.

Khalizev, V.E. Drama as a kind of literature (poetics, genesis, functioning) / V.E. Khalizev. – M.: Ed. Moscow un-ta, 1986. - S. 83-100.

Kozlik, I.V. In the poetic world of F.I. Tyutchev / Resp. ed. Corresponding Member of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine N.E. Krutikova / I.V. Kozlik. - Ivano-Frankivsk: Play; Kolomyia: VіK, 1997. - 156 p.

Strakhov, I.V. Psychological analysis in literary creativity: a manual. for stud. / At 5 p.m. / I.V.Strakhov. - Saratov: Ed. Sarat. un-ta, 1973. - Part 1. – P. 4.

Esin, A.B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature: Book. for the teacher / A.B. Esin. - M .: Education, 1988. - P. 13.

Gudonene, V. The Art of Psychological Narrative (from Turgenev to Bunin) / V. Gudonene. - Vilnius: Ed. Vilnius state un-ta, 1998. - S. 12.

Psychological analysis in a literary work: Method. materials for students: At 2 o'clock - Minsk: Minsk. state ped. in-t im. A.M. Gorky, 1991; Strakhov, I.V. Psychological analysis in literary creativity: a manual. for stud. / At 5 p.m. / I.V.Strakhov. - Saratov: Ed. Sarat. un-ta, 1973–1976;

Karelsky, A.V. From hero to man: two centuries of Western European literature / A.V. Karelsky. – M.: Sov. writer, 1990. - S. 165-180.

The distinction between the point of view and the narrative instances (point of view plan) considered in narratology (J. Jennet, B.A. Uspensky, V. Schmid) makes it possible to identify discrepancies in prose texts, including psychological, perceptual, positions of the author and character.

Genieva, E.Yu. James Joyce / E.Yu.Genieva // Dubliners. Portrait of the artist in his youth / D. Joyce. – M.: Progress, 1982. – P. 36.

§ 2. The problem of art

psychologism: theoretical aspects

“Psychology is a fairly complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings, thoughts and experiences of a fictional person (literary character) using specific means of literature,” notes A.B. Esin. “The study of mental life in its contradictions and depths,” defines psychologism L.Ya. Ginzburg, under the mental life of a character means "the dynamic coexistence of different levels, different planes of conditioning", the behavior of the hero. V.V. Kompaneets sees psychologism not as a technique, but as a property of fiction, including a reflection of the author's psychology. The above judgments do not exhaust the variety of interpretations, however, they serve as proof of the ambiguity of approaches to the problem of psychologism in Soviet literary criticism in the 1970s and 1980s. and having at least the broad and narrow meanings of the term.

For example, the concept of psychologism A. Jesuitov reduces to three main meanings:

"1)<…> generic sign of the art of the word, its organic property, evidence of artistry ...;

2) <…> the result of artistic creativity< …> expression and reflection of the psychology of the author himself, his characters and, more broadly, social psychology (class, estate, social group, era, etc.), which in turn is revealed through the personality of the artist and the images of heroes created by him<…>;

3) <…>conscious and determining aesthetic principle<…>organic unity of psychologism as a subject and psychologism as a result of art<… >acts as a special, primary and immediate goal and task of artistic creativity. The main and direct object of reflection and reproduction is precisely human psychology, which acts as a kind of intrinsic value, and psychologism is a special and purposeful development of methods and forms of its embodiment and disclosure (psychological analysis) ... ".

The researchers proposed to distinguish between the psychology of the author, the reader and the hero, most often understanding "by psychologism ... the study of the mental life of heroes in its deep contradictions" .

The complexity of the categorical definition turned out to be associated with the formal and meaningful qualities of psychologism. And if the vast majority of literary critics (including A.I. Pavlovsky, F.M. Khatipov, A.B. Esin) saw in it a way of artistic depiction of the inner world of heroes, then difficulties arose when trying to determine its place in the modern system of theoretical literary concepts and in the multilevel system of the work. Since the scope of consideration included components of subject representation (portraits, psychologized landscapes and details) and “what has neither objectivity nor visual representation is the reproduction of the psychology of the characters”, insofar as this layer of the work was referred to as style (A.B. Esin ), figurative content (I.I. Vinogradov), content-formal qualities (S.I. Kormilov, A.N. Andreev).

Thus, the difficulties in creating a unified concept of literary psychologism were due to (1) a confusion of the concepts of "psychologism", "psychological analysis", "psychological image"; (2) a categorical definition of psychologism as an element, level or quality of a work of art; (3) vague correlation of psychologism with the "rhetorical triangle" (author - hero - reader).

A comparison of works on the problem of psychologism in the literature showed:

• Lack of unity in theoretical approaches;
• · Greater elaboration of questions of individual-author's psychologism;
• · the greatest research of literary psychologism of the 19th century (the unity of approaches, interpretations of its author's variants);
• · the lack of works of a historical and typological nature, devoted to the psychologism of the XX century. and the dynamics of psychologism in world literature.

The new image of artistic psychologism can be comprehended by studying its variants in the works of individual writers and then by comparing them (in this case, special attention should be paid to the phenomenon of artistic psychologism in the literature of the twentieth century). It seems that the development of this problem should (1) take into account those patterns and qualitative leaps in artistic development that marked the 20th century, and (2) develop new research algorithms for analyzing the psychological content of the text.

We offer a working definition: artistic psychologism – artistic-figurative, pictorial-expressive reconstruction and actualization of the inner life of a person, due to the value orientation of the author, his ideas about the personality and communicative strategy. Under psychological image we will understand artistic study of the physiological sphere (feelings, experiences, states) of the character and his personal experience, which goes into the field of mental and spiritual.

N.V. Zababurova, a researcher of the French psychological novel, proposed an integrated approach to the study of psychologism, which implies a level-by-level analysis of the work:

1) the type of psychological problems. It reflects the influence of non-literary (socio-historical, philosophical, scientific) and literary (literary traditions, the aesthetic concept of a certain literary movement to which the writer belongs, etc.) factors that determine the worldview and features of the author's artistic thinking. This issue largely determines the genre design of the work, which is essential for the nature of psychologism;

2) the concept of personality inherent in a given era and social environment (realized in the artistic content and forms of embodiment of inner life);

3) artistic system and creative method (the historical typology of forms of artistic psychologism correlates with the evolution of creative methods);

4) the level of poetics.

One can dispute the algorithmic expediency of N.V. Zababurova, but it is quite obvious that the productivity of the analysis of the psychologism of a work is directly related to the research setting on integrity(A.P. Skaftymov, Yu.M. Lotman, M.M. Girshman, A.N. Andreev) literary text and its consideration. Systemic nature psychologism opposes the principles of its fragmentary study. Therefore, as an alternative, the so-called. philological analysis, which "involves the consideration of a literary text in the aggregate of all its aspects, components and levels" . The tasks of such an analysis were formulated by V.A. Maslova as follows: 1) identify the specifics of the individual elements of the work and their integrity; 2) combine the linguistic and literary approaches to the text; 3) correlate it "both with the author who created this text and with the reader of this text, for whom the text was created" .

Based on the idea of ​​a qualitative modification of psychologism (disintegration of character, chronotopic, symbolic, mythological ways of revealing the psychology of a hero) in the artistic prose of the New Age, one can choose a research path that allows one to identify psychological specificity at various levels of the work and in their correlation (system).

Following R. Ingarden, who proposed considering the aesthetic object and emotional-contemplative experience in a "qualitative complex", we believe it natural to analyze the psychological content of the text from the point of view of functional significance plans of representation, expression and emotional impact on the recipient, in the system "author - text - reader ». In this case, the perceiver is focused not on “direct empathy arising from coexistence with the depicted objects”, but on a deep intellectual and emotional aesthetic experience (Einfühlung, “feeling”), based on the pairing of many artistic qualities into one whole. This approach is also due to the new scientific paradigm of the 20th century, which can be applied not only to psychologism not only in the 20th century, but also to the 18th–19th centuries.

Thus, in the study of the psychologism of a work of art, it seems necessary: ​​1) to take into account the complexity (systematic nature) of the nature of psychologism; 2) correlate the author's, character and reader's plans; 3) comply with the requirement of isomorphism of the text and methods of its research, allowing the integration of literary, philosophical, psychological methods.

Questions and tasks

1 slice. My attitude to the read (general).

• What did I feel?
• What associations did it evoke?
• Whose side are my sympathies? Etc.

2 slice. Analysis of the personality of the hero in the following steps:

• Feelings and how does the author convey them?
• · Thoughts and how the author brings them to the reader?
• Experiences and inner doubts of the hero?
• · Gestures?
• Physiognomy? Etc.

3 cut. With the help of what means of fiction does the author achieve a holistic perception of the personality of the hero? What is this person like?

4 cut. The symbolism of the work.

5 slice. The main conflicts of the work.

6 cut. Psychological atmosphere (tension, tightness, hidden aggressiveness)

7 cut. General laws of psychology (for example, the dialogism of the consciousness of young people in the 40s and 60s of the 19th century in I. Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons").

In some specific cases, the opposite way of conducting a psychological analysis of a work of art is possible.

6. Start compiling a vocabulary of the concepts covered in the course. Choose those concepts that, in your opinion, could be actively used in the practical analysis of texts.

Iezuitov, A. Problems of Psychology in Literature / A. Iezuitov // Problems of Psychology in Soviet Literature. – L.: Len. Department; Nauka, 1970, pp. 38–44.

Esin, A.B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature: A book for the teacher / A.B. Esin. – M.: Enlightenment, 1988. – 174 p.

Kompaneets, V.V. Artistic psychologism in Soviet literature (1920s) / V.V. Kompaneets. - L .: Nauka, Leningrad. department, 1980. - 113 p.

Ginzburg, L.Ya. About psychological prose / L.Ya.Ginzburg. – M.: INTRADA, 1999. – 415 p.

Esin, A.B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature: A book for the teacher / A.B. Esin. - M .: Education, 1988. - P. 18.

Ginzburg, L.Ya. About psychological prose / L.Ya.Ginzburg. – M.: Sov. writer, 1971. - S. 286; 379.

Kompaneets, V.V. Artistic psychologism in Soviet literature (1920s) / V.V. Kompaneets. - L .: Nauka, Leningrad. Department, 1980. - S. 12.

Iezuitov, A. Problems of Psychology in Literature / A. Iezuitov // Problems of Psychology in Soviet Literature. – L.: Len. Department; Nauka, 1970, pp. 39–40.

Andreev, A.N. Holistic analysis of a literary work: textbook. allowance for students. universities / A.N. Andreev. - Minsk: NMTsentr, 1995. - P. 81.

Kormilov, S.I. Theoretical system of G.N.Pospelov and the problem of the modern system of theoretical and literary concepts / S.I.Kormilov // Vest. Moscow university Ser. 9. Philology. - 1995. - No. 3. - P. 8.

“I’m sad”, “she was embarrassed and blushed” - these phrases inform us about the feelings and experiences of the hero, but this is not yet psychologism. A special expression of the inner world of a person by means of art proper, the depth and sharpness of the writer's penetration into the spiritual world of the hero, the ability to describe in detail various feelings - these are, in general terms, examples of psychologism. Psychologism is a stylistic unity, a system of means and techniques aimed at a complete, deep and detailed disclosure of the inner world of the characters. In this sense, one speaks of a "psychological novel", a "psychological drama". The word as a carrier of imagery in literature can most fully express mental states, more fully than any means of expression in any other form of art. In addition, the temporal principle of textual composition in literature also allows it to carry out a psychological image in an adequate form, since the inner life of a person is in most cases a process, a movement. Therefore, literature is the most psychological of the arts (not counting, perhaps, cinema).

Each kind of literature has its own possibilities for revealing the inner world of a person. In lyrics, psychologism is expressive. The lyrical hero directly expresses his feelings, engages in reflection, or indulges in reflection-meditation. Lyrical psychology is subjective.

The limitation of psychologism in drama is due to the fact that it is expressed there through monologues (on stage - also through facial expressions and gestures). Dramatic psychologism is limited by conventionality.

The epic kind of literature, which has developed a perfect structure of psychological forms and techniques, has the greatest opportunities for depicting the inner world of a person.

In order for psychologism to arise in literature, a high level of development of the culture of society as a whole is necessary, and - most importantly - that in this culture the unique human personality is recognized as a value.

The era of antiquity was favorable for the development of psychologism. In the Middle Ages, it fades away and reappears only in the Renaissance.

3 main forms of psychological image:

1. Direct. Strakhov: “The depiction of characters “from the inside”, i.e. through artistic knowledge of the inner world of the characters, expressed through inner speech, images of memory and imagination"

2. Indirect (because it conveys the inner world of the hero not directly, but through external symptoms). Strakhov: “Psychological analysis “from the outside”, expressed in the writers' psychological interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of external manifestation of the psyche.

3. Totally denoting. Skaftymov: "Feelings are named, but not shown." Feelings are transmitted by naming, an extremely brief designation of the processes that take place in the inner world.

The leading role in the system of psychologism is played by a direct form - a direct recreation of the processes of a person's inner life.

The narration about the inner life of a person can be conducted both from the first and from the third person, and the first form is historically earlier. It creates a greater illusion of believability. It is often used when there is only one protagonist in the work. When narrating in the third person, the author can comment on the course of psychological processes and their meaning, as if from the outside. In addition, such a narrative makes it possible to depict the inner world of not one, but several characters, which is much more difficult with another method.

A special narrative form is improperly direct inner speech . This is a speech formally owned by the author, but bearing the imprint of the stylistic and psychological features of the hero's speech.

Psychological imaging techniques include psychological analysis And introspection . Their essence is that complex mental states are decomposed into elements and thereby explained, become clear to the reader. Psychological analysis is used in third-person narration, and introspection - from the first, third and with improperly direct speech.

An important and frequently encountered method of psychologism is internal monologue - direct fixation and reproduction of the hero's thoughts, imitating the real psychological patterns of inner speech. The author, as it were, "eavesdrops" on the thoughts of the hero in all their naturalness, unintentionality and rawness.

The internal monologue, brought to its logical limit, already gives a slightly different method of psychologism - mindflow . This is the ultimate degree, the extreme form of internal monologue. This technique creates the illusion of an absolutely chaotic, disordered movement of thoughts and experiences. Tolstoy used this technique to describe half-asleep, half-delirious, and especially exalted.

Another example of psychology dialectics of the soul (Chernyshevsky: “Count Tolstoy’s attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts develop from others, it is interesting for him to observe how a feeling that directly arises from a given position or impression, obeying the attention of memories and the power of combinations represented by the imagination, passes into others. feelings, again returns to the previous starting point and again and again wanders, changing, along the entire chain of memories; as a thought born of the first sensation leads to other thoughts, is carried away further and further, merges dreams with real sensations, dreams of the future with reflection about the present).

One of the methods of psychology is artistic detail . External details (portrait, landscape, world of things) are used to depict mental states - an indirect form of psychologism. The author draws attention to the impressions that his characters receive from the environment.

Default Acceptance . It consists in the fact that the writer at some point says nothing at all about the inner world of the hero, forcing the reader to conduct a psychological analysis himself.

Psychologism is often found in Chekhov, Tolstoy.

QUESTION 43. LYRICS AS A KIND OF LITERATURE. TYPES OF LYRICS. FEATURES OF THE COMPOSITION OF A LYRICAL WORK.

In the lyrics, in the foreground, individual states of human consciousness: emotionally colored reflections, volitional impulses, impressions, non-rational sensations and aspirations. If in a lyrical work any event series is indicated (which is far from always the case), then it is very sparingly, without any careful detailing (for example, in Pushkin's "I remember a wonderful moment ...").

In the lyrics, the system of artistic means is entirely subordinate to the disclosure of the integral movement of the human soul. Lyrical emotion is a kind of clot, the quintessence of a person's spiritual experience.

But the lyrics are by no means confined to the sphere of the inner life of people, their psychology as such. She is invariably attracted to mental states that signify a person's focus on external reality. Therefore, lyrical poetry turns out to be an artistic development of states not only of consciousness (which, as G.N. Pospelov persistently said, is primary, main, dominant in it), but also of being. Such are philosophical, landscape and civil poems. Lyrical poetry is capable of capturing spatio-temporal ideas easily and widely, connecting expressed feelings with the facts of everyday life and nature, history and modernity, with planetary life, the universe, the universe. At the same time, lyrical creativity, one of the sources of which in European fiction is the biblical "Psalms", can acquire a religious character in its most striking manifestations (Lermontov's poem "Prayer", Derzhavin's ode to "God", "Prophet" by A.S. Pushkin) . Religious motifs are very persistent in the lyrics of our century: in V.F. Khodasevich, N.S. Gumilyov, A.A. Akhmatova, B.L. Pasternak, among modern poets - in O.A.

The lyrics gravitate mainly to the small form. Although there is a genre of lyrical poem that recreates experiences in their symphonic diversity (“About this” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “Poem of the mountain” and “Poem of the end” by M.I. Tsvetaeva, “Poem without a hero” by A.A. Akhmatova) , in the lyrics of course, small poems predominate. The principle of the lyrical kind of literature is "as short as possible and as full as possible."

Almost in any lyrical work there is a meditative beginning. Meditation is called excited and psychologically intense thinking about something.

The lyrics are incompatible with the neutrality and impartiality of the tone that is widespread in the epic narrative. The speech of the lyrical work is full of expression, which here becomes the organizing and dominant principle. Lyrical expression makes itself felt in the choice of words, and in syntactic constructions, and in allegory, and, most importantly, in the phonetic-rhythmic construction of the text.

The bearer of an experience expressed in lyrics is often called a lyrical hero. This term, introduced by Yu.N. Tynyanov in the 1921 article “Blok”, is rooted in literary criticism and criticism, although the lyrical hero is one of the types of the lyrical subject. The latter term has a more universal meaning. They talk about the lyrical hero, meaning not only individual poems, but also their cycles, as well as the work of the poet as a whole. The lyrical hero is not only bound by close ties with the author, with his attitude to the world, spiritual and biographical experience, spiritual mood, manner of speech behavior, but turns out (almost in most cases) to be indistinguishable from him. The lyrics in its main "array" are autopsychological.

At the same time, the lyrical experience is not identical to what the poet experienced as a biographical personality. The lyric does not simply reproduce the feelings of the poet, it transforms them, enriches them, creates anew, elevates and ennobles them.

Lyrically expressed experiences can belong both to the poet himself and to other persons unlike him. Lyrics in which the experiences of a person who is noticeably different from the author are expressed are called role-playing (as opposed to autopsychological).

Aristotle's definition of lyric (“the imitator remains himself without changing his face”) is thus inaccurate: the lyric poet may well change his face and reproduce an experience that belongs to someone else.

The relationship between the lyrical hero and the subject (poet) is understood by literary critics in different ways. The opinions of scientists of the 20th century, in particular M.M. Bakhtin, who saw in the lyrics a complex system of relations between the author and the hero, “I” and “other”, and also spoke about the constant presence of the choral principle in it. This idea was developed by S. M. Broitman. He argues that lyric poetry (especially the eras close to us) is characterized not by “monosubjectivity”, but by “intersubjectivity”, i.e. imprint of interacting consciousnesses.

Lyrical creativity has a maximum inspiring, contagious power (suggestivity).

The poet's feelings become at the same time our feelings. The author and his reader form a single, inseparable "we". And this is the special charm of the lyrics.

Features of the composition of a lyrical work.

The basis of a lyrical work is not a system of events occurring in the lives of heroes, not an arrangement (grouping) of characters, but a sequence of presentation of thoughts and moods, expression of emotions and impressions, the order of transition from one image-impression to another. You can fully understand the composition of a lyrical work only by finding out the main thought-feeling expressed in it.

One of the simplest and most frequently used composition techniques in lyrics is repetition. It allows you to give a lyrical work a compositional harmony. Especially interesting is the ring composition, when a connection is established between the beginning and the end of the work, such a composition carries a certain artistic meaning, which must be reflected in the analysis of the lyrical work. For example, in a poem by A.A. Block "Night, street, lantern, pharmacy ..." uses a circular composition. The ring composition here expresses the main idea of ​​the poem - the isolation of life, a return to what has already been physically passed, the frailty of human existence.

Repetition as a compositional technique can not only organize a lyrical work as a whole, but also its individual fragments.

The most common compositional device of a lyrical work is a sound repetition at the end of poetic lines - a rhyme. For example, in a poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Prophet" rhyme organizes the text into a single artistic whole.

Another characteristic compositional technique of a lyrical work is opposition (antithesis), based on the antithesis of contrasting images. For example, in a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's "The Death of a Poet" epithets form a compositionally significant opposition:

And you won't wash away with all your black blood

The poet's righteous blood.

In a lyrical work, artistic images can also be opposed to each other. For example, in a poem by S.A. Yesenin “I am the last poet of the village ...” the opposition of the city and the village, the dead and the living is important in a semantic sense. The living principle is embodied in Yesenin in the images of nature: wood, straw, and the dead - in the images of iron, stone, cast iron - that is, something heavy, unnatural, opposing the natural, natural flow of life.

Often a lyrical work is built on a single image. In this case, the image is revealed gradually, and the composition of the work of art is reduced to revealing the full and true meaning of the image. For example, in a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's "Clouds", already in the first stanza, an image is given, which is subsequently likened to a person, his fate. In the second stanza, nature becomes more and more like a man. And the third stanza, on the contrary, is ideologically opposed to the first and second stanzas:

Alien to you are passions and alien to suffering;

Forever cold, forever free

You have no homeland, you have no exile.

In nature, there are no those passions, concepts that exist in human life. So Lermontov, using various compositional techniques, creates the effect of a deceived expectation.

The composition of any lyrical work is built in such a way that the reader's tension intensifies with each line. For this, there are so-called reference points of the composition, which are key to understanding the author's idea, but can be located in different parts of the text.

Of particular interest is such a compositional feature of a literary work as lyrical digressions, which reflect the writer's thoughts about life, his moral position, his ideals. In digressions, the artist turns to topical social and literary issues, often they contain characteristics of the characters, their actions and behavior, and assessments of the plot situations of the work. Lyrical digressions allow us to understand the image of the author himself, his spiritual world, dreams, his memories of the past and hopes for the future.

At the same time, they are closely connected with the entire content of the work, expanding the scope of the depicted reality.

Digressions, which make up the unique ideological and artistic originality of the work and reveal the features of the writer's creative method, are diverse in form: from a brief incidental remark to a detailed discussion. By their nature, these are theoretical generalizations, socio-philosophical reflections, assessments of heroes, lyrical appeals, polemics with critics, fellow writers, appeals to their characters, to the reader, etc.

QUESTION 44. LYRICAL SUBJECT, ITS TYPOLOGY. CONCEPTS "LYRICAL HERO", "ROLE LYRICS", "LYRIC CHARACTER".

In the center is the question of the relationship between the biographical author and the image in the lyrics. In lyrics, the relationship between the author and the hero is subjective-subjective, in epic and drama - object-subjective.

Science has ceased to confuse the biographical or empirical author with the image of the cat. appears in lyrics only in the 20th century.

In the history of lyricism, there was no single, always equal lyrical subject, but there were three qualitatively different types: syncretic (at the mythopoetic stage of the development of poetry), genre (at the stage of traditionalist artistic consciousness: 5th century BC - 18th century AD e.) and personally creative (in the literature of the 18th-20th centuries).

1) Ancient (“mythopoetic”) lyrics are distinguished by the direct syncretism of the author and the hero. Archaic knows initially only the choral author. As M.M. Bakhtin noted, “in lyric poetry, I am still all in the choir and I speak from the choir.” Even in Greek choral lyrics, the one whom we will later begin to call the author is “not one, there are many of them. In the verses that this multiple author sings and dances, he calls himself a single one and speaks of himself not “we”, but “I”; but what he tells does not refer to him, but to God. But the subject of younger solo lyrics, although his face is already single, still “sings not about himself. Elegik inspires the army, argues, gives advice - and turns on his own behalf to someone else, not to himself. "Myself" - Greek lyrics do not know such a character.

2) This subject is not individual in the strict sense of the word. If the syncretic author was oriented (externally and internally) to the choir, then this author is oriented towards a certain genre and a certain hero, namely a genre hero, different in ode, elegy or epistle. Naturally, such an author is less connected with the empirical author than in modern personal poetry, but is more closely connected with the genre hero, which is why the paradoxical from the current point of view becomes possible, when, for example, A. Sumarokov, the author of odes, is more like M. Lomonosov, who works in the same genre, than for himself as the author of elegies.

3) Only from the middle of the 18th century does the modern, individually creative type of the lyrical subject begin to take shape, incomprehensible without the syncretic and genre subject that preceded it, but qualitatively unique. This subject is oriented externally and internally not to the chorus and not to the genre hero, but to the personal hero, which creates new forms of rapprochement between the author and the hero, sometimes taken for identity.

The fundamental fact of the presence of a hero in the lyrics allows us to raise the question of his originality.

B.O. Korman distinguishes between the author-narrator, the author himself, the lyrical hero and the hero of role-playing lyrics. The terms author-narrator and author proper are not entirely successful. Instead of them, we will use the terms respectively - non-subjective forms of expression of the author's consciousness and the lyrical "I". If we imagine the subjective structure of the lyrics as a kind of integrity, the two poles of which are the author's and the hero's plans, then the non-subjective forms of expression of the author's consciousness will be closer to the author's, closer to the hero (almost coinciding with it) - the hero of role-playing lyrics; an intermediate position will be occupied by the lyrical "I" and the lyrical hero.

The most obvious is the nature of the hero of role-playing lyrics, or a lyrical character (for example, N. Nekrasov’s poems “Kalistrat” or “Green Noise”): the subject to whom the statement belongs here openly acts as an “other”, hero, close, as is commonly believed to the dramatic.

It can be a historical or legendary character, a female image, on behalf of which a statement is given in a poem belonging to the poet, or vice versa - a male “I” in the poems of a poetess.

In poems with impersonal forms of expression of the author's consciousness, the statement belongs to a third person, and the subject of speech is not grammatically identified. It is in poems in which the face of the speaker is not directly revealed, in which he is only a voice, that the illusion of the absence of a bifurcation of the speaker into author and hero is most fully created, and the author himself dissolves in his creation (“Anchar” by Pushkin).

Unlike such an author, the lyrical self has a grammatically expressed face and is present in the text as “I” or “we”, to which the speech belongs. In the foreground is not the hero himself, but some event, circumstance, situation, phenomenon. At the same time, the lyrical "I" can become a subject-in-itself, in an independent way, which was not obvious with non-subjective forms of expression of the author's consciousness.

This image must be fundamentally different from a biographical (empirical) author (although the degree of his autobiographical nature can be different, including a very high one). The lyrical "I" of the poet goes beyond the boundaries of his subjectivity - it is "the living "I" in the eternal return, finding its abode in the poet." The lyrical "I", according to Annensky, is "not personal and not collective, but first of all our I, only realized and expressed by the poet."

The next subjective form, even closer to the heroic plane, is the lyrical hero. He is not only a subject-in-itself, but also a subject-for-itself, i.e. he becomes his own theme, and therefore more clearly than the lyrical "I", is separated from the primary author, but at the same time seems as close as possible to the biographical author.

A lyrical hero does not appear in every poet. Of the Russian lyricists, he is most characteristic of M. Lermontov, A. Blok, M. Tsvetaeva, V. Mayakovsky, S. Yesenin. With sufficient completeness and certainty, it is revealed in the context of the poet's work, in a book or cycle. It is possible to speak about the lyrical hero proper only when the image of a person that arises in poetry and has stable features is "not only the subject, but also the object of the work."

Now it becomes clear that the lyrical hero, not coinciding directly with the biographical author, nevertheless is an image that deliberately refers to the poet's non-literary personality, which sometimes leads to a naive-realistic identification of them. An adequate perception of the lyrical hero requires taking into account his aesthetic "playfulness" - his inseparability from the author and inconsistency, mismatch with him.

Although in lyric poetry the distance between the author and the hero is thinner and more difficult to grasp than in other kinds of literature, this boundary is a historically changing value. It is the smallest with the syncretic type of literary subject, the largest with the genre type, and in individual creative poetry this very boundary (and its seeming absence) becomes aesthetically consciously played out.

This is manifested in the fact that in the lyrics of the 19th and 20th centuries, the role of such forms of utterance, in which the speaker sees himself both from the inside and from the outside, is becoming more and more - both quantitatively and qualitatively - as a fully objectified "other" (i.e. not as a character, but as a person) - "you", "he", an indefinite person or state separated from its carrier:

And boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand / ... /

And life, as you look around with cold attention /… /

(Lermontov "And boring and sad ...")

But the lyrics at this time include not only such an “I” that knows how to see itself from the outside, but also a real other, a complex play of points of view of voices and value intentions (“Two Voices” by Tyutchev) arises. Finally, a neosyncretic subject is born, in which the “I” and “the other” are no longer mixed (as it was in archaic lyrics), but played out precisely in their inseparability and inseparability.

A peculiar form of such a neosyncretic subject is found in the fourth poem of Blok's Carmen cycle:

Snowy spring is raging.

I take my eyes off the book...

Oh terrible hour when she

Reading Zunigi's hand

In the eyes of Jose threw a look!

Eyes lit up with laughter

A row of pearls gleamed.

And I forgot all the days, all the nights

And my heart bled

You will pay me for love!

The same pronoun "I" denotes two subjects here. The first (“I take my eyes off the book”) is the lyrical hero of the poem, who reads the scene in which the heroes of the myth of Carmen participate. The second time “I” (“And I forgot all the days, all the nights”) is Jose himself, or rather, the inseparable inseparability of the lyrical hero and Jose.