Optical caustics produce mirages; "Mirages" produce sonic booms (pops); sonic booms produce percussive caustics, or super-impacts.
We are forced, for lack of space, to omit the applications of catastrophe theory to the study of shock wave formation, which is a pity, as their history explains the name of the Riemann-Hugoniot catastrophe for the Whitney assembly (Vol.); the shorter name fronce (assembly), like queue d'aronde (dovetail), comes from Bernard Morin. In addition, a rigorous theory (see Guckenheimer and Golubitsky) has been developed so far only for equations simpler than those encountered in real physics, although the presence of catastrophe geometry in real problems is clearly seen from Fig. 12.34. Nevertheless, we can demonstrate here the suitability of catastrophe theory for explaining the process of propagation of shock waves at a great distance from their source. We start with an extremely simplified description of the causes of sonic booms, and then move on to studying their geometry.
At each moment, the aircraft produces a lot of disturbances in the air environment (engine noise, air thrown to the sides, etc.), which propagate radially from the place of the disturbance. At low aircraft speeds, they propagate forward in the same way as backward (Fig. 12.35(a)), the aircraft does not keep up with them. On
Rice. 12.34. Envelope giving Mach cone in plane for a wing whose plan view is given by equation (Davis 187]).
at supersonic speeds, it overtakes them (Fig. 12.35(b)), and the resulting envelope forms a shock wave. Near the aircraft, everything is much more complicated than shown in the figure, there are separate shock waves from the nose and tail, etc., but at large distances such effects do not play a role.
We will not deal here with the consideration of the shock wave as an envelope, but instead we will treat it as a wave front and apply geometric acoustics to study this front. In most optical problems, the idea of a wave front is not very useful, being an approximation equivalent to geometrical optics and less informative near stable caustics. No flash of light is short enough to approximate a wavefront, but it is possible for a sonic boom. It has a complex fine structure, but its propagation in the atmosphere can be calculated - and usually is done - by analogy with geometric optics.
Figure 12.35(b) shows the shape of the shock wave in a homogeneous calm atmosphere; it is a perfect cone. But outside the walls of the laboratory, the air is not uniform; it is warmer near the ground, and therefore the speed of sound is higher there. This means that the bottom of the wavefront is moving faster than the top, and so it bends forward and possibly upward (like light speeding up in hot air near the ground, as in Figure 12.32). As a result, if the aircraft is at a sufficient height and moving at a speed not exceeding about Mach 1.3, then the sonic boom from it may not reach the ground at all. On fig. 12.36 depicts the related geometrical acoustics: the "shock rays emitted by the aircraft" at each moment (at right angles to the initial conical wavefront) bend upwards, as just described, and form a horizontal caustic of the fold. We have drawn in bolder the parts already passed rays, and the thickest line depicts the resulting shape of the shock wave at some particular point in time.
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to keep these caustics above the ground (when civil and military aviation pilots perform current tasks), and then the property of caustics, due to which they got their name, becomes especially important - high energy intensity.
As in optics, the intensity predicted from the ray approach is infinite, which is wrong. But it is much more difficult to make correct predictions in this case, since the principle of linear superposition
Photo 15. Sequential focusing stages for four different impact intensities; assembly (arete). On the left are the Mach numbers; evolution in time I is shown. (Sturtevant and Kalkarni [§§], fig. 17.)
solutions, from which the methods of rapidly oscillating integrals described above (which serves as a good approximation and is accepted as an axiom in wave optics and quantum mechanics) come from, turns out to be incorrect for shock waves. In optics, the Airy function for the correct intensities near the fold caustic has been known since 1838, while in the corresponding analysis for sonic impact caustics, infinities have been tormented since about 1972! To get a picture like in Fig. 12.37(b), which describes the "true local behavior", corrections are needed, behind which are the methods of Chapters 5 and 6. (In fact, the geometry of shock waves at some distance behind the assembly for "weak" shocks is approximately the same as (ray) theory, but for strong ones it is completely different; sonic booms at a sufficient distance from the aircraft are, however, usually "weak."
And the theory of rapidly oscillating integrals itself cannot be called trivial, and its generalization required here obviously goes beyond the scope of the quadrivium. We can only refer the more prepared reader to the relevant theoretical and experimental works, for example, to the articles by Obermeier and Sturtevant and Kalkarni. Photo 15, taken from the last article, shows
Rice. 12.37. Focusing of a weak impact: (a) according to geometric acoustics (linear theory); according to the (nonlinear) dynamics of shock waves. [Sturtevant and Kalkarni.)
the geometric richness of the assembly (there called arete); weak shock waves develop as predicted by the ray theory (Fig. 12.38), but with strong ones the situation is much more complicated.
Fold caustics can approach the ground in a variety of ways; in fig. 12.39 shows how this happens with one rare (but experimentally quite feasible) aircraft maneuver. Uniform rotation produces a similar effect (Fig. 12.40), even in a homogeneous atmosphere. The beginning of the turn gives rise to the caustic of the assembly (Fig. 12.41(a)), just like the dive (Fig. 12.41(b)).
Due to the fact that the caustics of the fold have codimension one by nature, it is easy to deal with them in the experiment; they meet the ground along lines, and a sufficiently dense chain of microphones will certainly catch her with one of them.
Rice. 12.39. The shape of the shock wave and its intersection with the earth's surface during a rectilinear uniformly accelerated motion of the aircraft. Flight altitude acceleration (Wanner, Valle, Vivier and Teri).
Assemblies, on the other hand, give curves in three-dimensional space, and at ground level - only individual points (like points C in Fig. 12.41 (c), which shows the three-dimensional result of the maneuver shown in Fig. 2.41 (b)). Since it is difficult to predict the corresponding position on the ground to better than a few kilometers due to changing winds, etc., the experiment turns out to be very difficult. (It is expensive to fill several square kilometers with sufficient density with microphones. But since large areas densely filled with people are a common thing, it is very important to study the high intensities of the "super-heavy" caustics of the assembly.) The French working group experimenting with the Mirage IV aircraft , managed to get the assemblage point remarkably close to the line of the microphones in a series of tests aptly named Jericho-Carton (the hallmark of the Jericho trumpet).
records collected along this line in one of the trials are presented; the shape of the dovetail is clearly visible, as is the finer structure, such as higher intensity at the caustic points of the fold (gathering on the wave front). It is interesting to note that where the two sheets intersect they add up more or less linearly, where they interfere on the caustic, a more complex pattern and higher intensity is obtained.
Everything that has just been described has been done without any theory of catastrophes; we have only interpreted it in her terms. Yet the role that catastrophe theory could play here is evident from such a quotation (typical of this field) from an article by Sturtevant and Kalkarni.)
Strictly speaking, we are not interested in the geometry of the caustics per se, but in how the wavefronts pass through them; This is a slightly more subtle task, since
Rice. 12.44. (see scan) The structure of eddies near the ground, shown using isotol: (Lumley and Panofsky 192]).
there are unstable paths for the passage of a stable caustic. Arnold classifies the typical, stable features associated with the rearrangements of the wave front during its propagation in dimensions less than six, and gives an application (within the framework of a rather simple physical model due to Zel'dovich) to the shapes of galaxies. Here we are talking about dimension 3, and in Fig. 12.43 we present typical pictures of the passage of wavefronts through the dovetail and elliptical and hyperbolic umbilics, as well as two stable ways of passing through the cusp line (return edge). (We have already seen the first of these in Fig. 12.41.) In optics, the intensities for the last two cases would be the same as for an ordinary assembly, but only careful study can show whether this is also true for sonic booms. In all five cases, no doubt, serious analysis is required. Note what the role of catastrophe theory is here: without giving a Complete Answer to any questions, it gives (since considerations of typicality are quite appropriate here) new information about which cases are important and require clarification of new details; moreover, we have, thanks to her, the certainty that these cases are finite in number.
By the way, not only global inhomogeneities in the atmosphere lead to the refraction of shock waves (Fig.
12.36), but also local, namely turbulence (Fig. 12.44). Geometrically, this seems to be closely related to the problem of refraction of light as it passes through random ripples on the surface of water, where there are such remarkable results as that hyperbolic and elliptical umbilics appear in the proportion 73.2 v 26.8% (Berry and Hannay).
sonic boom an acoustic phenomenon that occurs when shock waves propagate through the Earth's atmosphere, created by an aircraft flying at supersonic speed. The region of propagation of perturbations from an aircraft flying at supersonic speed in the atmosphere is usually limited by the bow wave surface from the nose of the fuselage, followed by shock waves of different intensity from other parts of the aircraft (from the wing, tail, engine nacelles, etc.). Since more intense shock waves propagate in the atmosphere at a higher speed, they catch up with less intense ones, merging with them as they move away from the aircraft, and in the far zone (or on the Earth's surface when flying at relatively high altitudes), only 2 shock waves remain in the atmosphere. waves: head and tail with a linear pressure drop profile between them, which is usually perceived as a double whammy. This is the so-called N-shaped pressure wave.
Z. at. depends on the shape of the aircraft, its dimensions, flight mode, atmospheric conditions, terrain, etc. This phenomenon cannot be fully simulated in the laboratory. Influence of separate factors on Z. at. is studied experimentally during flights of supersonic aircraft and in wind tunnels. Z.'s influence at. on the person and animals is studied on the special experimental installations imitating Z. at. Theoretical methods of research Z. at. are based mainly on geometric acoustics, but with non-linear effects taken into account. According to Z.'s theory at. perturbations emanating from the aircraft at any moment of time propagate along the sound (or characteristic) rays, forming in space a certain conical surface ( cm. Mach cone). Due to the inhomogeneity of the atmosphere, the rays are bent, so that some of them go into the upper layers of the atmosphere without reaching the surface of the Earth. Due to the reflection of the rays, the audibility zone Z. at. limited laterally with respect to the flight path. The width of this zone, depending on the state of the atmosphere and the flight mode of the aircraft, is 8-10 flight altitudes. The reflection of the rays also explains the absence of Z. at. on the surface of the Earth during the flight of an aircraft at a low supersonic speed. When accelerating, turning to other maneuvers of the aircraft, the formation of a caustic is possible, near which there is a local increase in excess pressure due to the superposition of pressure waves on each other.
Z.'s intensity at. ( cm. The sound intensity) is low and has the order of 0.1% of atmospheric pressure for a duration of several tenths of a second. However, the suddenness with which a person perceives Z. at. can cause him a negative reaction (fear).
sonic boom
sonic boom
an acoustic phenomenon that occurs when shock waves propagate through the Earth's atmosphere, created by an aircraft flying at supersonic speed. The region of propagation of perturbations from an aircraft flying at supersonic speed in the atmosphere is usually limited by the bow wave surface from the nose of the fuselage, followed by shock waves of different intensity from other parts of the aircraft (from the wing, tail, engine nacelles, etc.). Since more intense shock waves propagate in the atmosphere at a higher speed, they catch up with less intense ones, merging with them as they move away from the aircraft, and in the far zone (or on the Earth's surface when flying at relatively high altitudes), only 2 shock waves remain in the atmosphere. waves: head and tail with a linear pressure drop profile between them, which is usually perceived as a double whammy. This is the so-called N-shaped pressure wave.
Z. at. depends on the shape of the aircraft, its dimensions, flight mode, atmospheric conditions, terrain, etc. This phenomenon cannot be fully simulated in the laboratory. Influence of separate factors on Z. at. is studied experimentally during flights of supersonic aircraft and in wind tunnels. Z.'s influence at. on the person and animals is studied on the special experimental installations imitating Z. at. Theoretical methods of research Z. at. are based mainly on geometric acoustics, but with non-linear effects taken into account. According to Z.'s theory at. perturbations emanating from the aircraft at any moment of time propagate along the sound (or characteristic) rays, forming in space a certain conical surface ( cm. Mach cone). Due to the inhomogeneity of the atmosphere, the rays are bent, so that some of them go into the upper layers of the atmosphere without reaching the surface of the Earth. Due to the reflection of the rays, the audibility zone Z. at. limited laterally with respect to the flight path. The width of this zone, depending on the state of the atmosphere and the flight mode of the aircraft, is 8-10 flight altitudes. The reflection of the rays also explains the absence of Z. at. on the surface of the Earth during the flight of an aircraft at a low supersonic speed. When accelerating, turning to other maneuvers of the aircraft, the formation of a caustic is possible, near which there is a local increase in excess pressure due to the superposition of pressure waves on each other.
Z.'s intensity at. ( cm. The sound intensity) is low and has the order of 0.1% of atmospheric pressure for a duration of several tenths of a second. However, the suddenness with which a person perceives Z. at. can cause him a negative reaction (fear).
Aviation: Encyclopedia. - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia. Chief editor G.P. Svishchev. 1994 .
See what "Sonic Blow" is in other dictionaries:
SHOCK WAVE, a sharp unpleasant sound created by the SHOCK WAVES of AIRCRAFT flying at SUPERSONIC SPEED. Shock waves are generated by the accumulation of sound waves in front of and behind the aircraft. These waves propagate, reaching the Earth already ... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary
sonic boom- Acoustic effect of impact on the environment of shock waves generated during supersonic movement of aircraft in the atmosphere. [GOST 23281 78] [GOST 26120 84] Topics Aviation acoustics External influencing factors Generalizing ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook
Shock waves occur during a shot, explosion, electric discharge, etc. The main feature of a shock wave is a sharp pressure jump at the wave front. At the moment of passage of the shock wave, the maximum pressure at a given point occurs almost instantaneously over a time of about 10 -10 With. In this case, the density and temperature of the medium change abruptly at the same time. Then the pressure slowly drops. The power of the shock wave depends on the strength of the explosion. The speed of propagation of shock waves can be greater than the speed of sound in a given medium. If, for example, the shock wave increases the pressure by 1.5 times, then the temperature rises by 35 0 C and the propagation velocity of the front of such a wave is approximately equal to 400 m/s. Walls of medium thickness that are encountered in the path of such a shock wave will be destroyed.
Powerful explosions will be accompanied by shock waves that create a pressure 10 times higher than atmospheric pressure in the maximum phase of the wave front. In this case, the density of the medium increases by 4 times, the temperature rises by 500 0 C, and the propagation velocity of such a wave is close to 1 km/s. The thickness of the shock wave front is of the order of the mean free path of molecules (10 -7 - 10 -8 m), therefore, in theoretical consideration, we can assume that the shock wave front is an explosion surface, when passing through which the gas parameters change abruptly.
Shock waves also occur when a solid body moves faster than the speed of sound. In front of an aircraft that flies at supersonic speeds, a shock wave is formed, which is the main factor determining the resistance to the movement of the aircraft. To weaken this resistance, supersonic aircraft are given a swept shape.
The rapid compression of air in front of an object moving at high speed leads to an increase in temperature, which increases with an increase in the speed of the object. When the speed of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, the air temperature reaches 60 0 C. When moving at twice the speed of sound, the temperature rises by 240 0 C, and at a speed close to triple the speed of sound - it becomes 800 0 C. Velocities close to 10 km/s lead to melting and transformation of the moving body into a gaseous state. The fall of meteorites at a speed of several tens of kilometers per second leads to the fact that already at an altitude of 150 - 200 kilometers, even in a rarefied atmosphere, meteorite bodies noticeably heat up and glow. Most of them completely disintegrate at altitudes of 100-60 kilometers.
Noises.
The superimposition of a large number of vibrations, randomly mixed with respect to each other and arbitrarily changing the intensity in time, leads to a complex form of vibrations. Such complex vibrations, consisting of a large number of simple sounds of different tonality, are called noises. Examples are the rustling of leaves in the forest, the roar of a waterfall, the noise on a city street. Noises can also include sounds expressed by consonants. Noises can differ in distribution in terms of sound strength, frequency and duration of sounding in time. For a long time there are noises created by the wind, falling water, sea surf. Relatively short-term peals of thunder, the rumble of waves are low-frequency noises. Mechanical noise can be caused by the vibration of solid bodies. The sounds that occur during the bursting of bubbles and cavities in the liquid, which accompany the cavitation processes, lead to cavitation noise.
In applied acoustics, the study of noise is carried out in connection with the problem of combating their harmfulness, to improve noise direction finders in hydroacoustics, and also to improve the accuracy of measurements in analog and digital information processing devices. Prolonged strong noises (of the order of 90 dB or more) have a harmful effect on the human nervous system, the noise of the surf or forest is calming.
SOUND PUNCH There was a time - we flew With this proud sound "Tu" ... In the late 50s, the first publications on research work in the field of creating heavy supersonic passenger aircraft (SPS) with a takeoff weight of up to 200 tons appeared on the pages of Western aviation magazines. for transcontinental flights. By this time, in the USSR, the construction of a heavy, supersonic strategic bomber M-50 was being completed (the flight over the aircraft took place in 1960), which was developed in the design bureau of V.M. Myasishchev. The M-50 aircraft was publicly demonstrated at the air parade in Tushino on August 18, 1961. On the work on supersonic passenger aircraft begun in the West, it was reported to the Secretary General of the CPSU N.S. Khrushchev. Under Khrushchev's famous slogan "catch up and overtake", the decision of the USSR Council of Ministers was not long in coming. In 1961, the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MGA) transferred to the Ministry of Aviation Industry (MAP) the technical conditions and requirements for the creation of a passenger supersonic liner based on the M-50. Employees of the design bureau under the leadership of Myasishchev made the necessary calculations for the airframe of the aircraft, the required speed, flight range and payload in a short time. The power plant was based on the TRD "16-17" created in OKB-16 by P.F. Zubtsa, which underwent ground tests. The takeoff thrust was 18000 kgf, the estimated specific fuel consumption was 1.15 kg / kgf hour. Unfortunately, the work on the engine was not completed. The Zubets Design Bureau was soon connected to the rocket theme. Calculations made by employees of the Myasishchev Design Bureau showed that engines with a fuel consumption of not more than 1.16 kg per 1 kgf hour of thrust are the most profitable for a supersonic passenger aircraft (SPS). Unexpectedly, in 1963, at the very height of the creative work of the employees of the Myasishchev Design Bureau, an instruction was received (Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR N798-271 of 07/16/1963) to transfer the order and the project started to the Tupolev Design Bureau. On this account, there are several versions about the struggle of A.N. Tupolev for an order, which it makes no sense to retell because. they are all hearsay. Perhaps the transfer of the order was due to the fact that the Tupolev Design Bureau had extensive experience in creating passenger vehicles from military aircraft. The main criterion for the creation of a passenger aircraft was considered to be the cost per ton-kilometer for the transportation of passengers and cargo. A civil aircraft becomes efficient if the flight speed and the value of the payload become greater, and the cost of operating the aircraft during one flight hour is less. Unlike a military bomber, the dimensions of the passenger compartment for the corresponding number of passengers determined the diameter and length of the aircraft fuselage, while the designers had to take into account the distance (step) between the rows of passenger seats (in different cabin classes). By 1965, the Soviet project was implemented into a visual model of the aircraft, which was exhibited in the Soviet pavilion at the XXVI air show in Le Bourget. That year, the main Soviet exhibits included the Vostok spacecraft, the Il-62 aircraft, the Mi-10 helicopter, who flew to Paris, carrying a LAZ bus on the ventral frame and finally An-22 Antey, about which the French press wrote "The Russians again surprised the world by creating an aircraft capable of lifting 720 people into the air" (I quote the newspaper Pravda). The accompaniment to the model, called the Tu-144 with the tail number USSR-6500, said that the aircraft (in two cabins of which 121 passengers can comfortably accommodate) would fly at a speed of 2500 km / h at an altitude of 20 thousand meters. With a takeoff weight of 130 tons, the takeoff run will be only 1900 meters. According to information received through various channels from abroad, the heads of various departments of the MAP, MGA and KB were well aware of the work on the ATP projects of American companies North American NAC-60 (take-off weight 217t, 187 passengers + payload 16t, speed 2820km / hour, range 7200 km), Boeing-733 (take-off weight 195 tons, 150 or 227 passengers + payload 18 tons, speed 2900 km / h at an altitude of 20 thousand meters,) later Boeing-2707, Lockheed CL-823 and English - French Concord (consent). The latest projects were considered the most advanced. Prior to the signing of the agreement, the French (Sud-Aviasion) and the British (Bristol) were working on the project independently of each other. After the signing of the intergovernmental agreement (1962), the English project ATP VAS-233 and the French "Super Caravel" were, as it were, "merged" together, with a clear distinction between "who is responsible for what" in further work on implementation. The financial side of the project assumed the costs of both parties at 170 million pounds st. The initial work schedule provided for the construction and flight of the first Concorde aircraft as early as 1967. Tupolev began developing the Tu-144 project. Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Alexei Andreevich Tupolev was appointed chief designer of the aircraft. Various research institutes, TsAGI, etc. were immediately involved in solving many emerging problems. There was nothing surprising in this. The project was supervised by the Central Committee of the CPSU D.F. Ustinov, and Minister of the MAP P.V. Dementiev. Studies conducted at TsAGI on a dozen different aerodynamic schemes of the aircraft made it possible to remove from the agenda issues related to overcoming the sound barrier (Mach cone) over densely populated areas, heating the aircraft structure and creating the tightness of the passenger compartment (common compartment) when flying at high altitudes and NW speed. The preliminary design of the aircraft according to the "tailless" scheme was quickly approved, with four NK-8 turbofan engines, which, according to the project, were installed in pairs in two gondolas under the center section. Of particular difficulty in the Tu-144 project was the wing of the so-called "animated" Form, which was first decided to be used for the SPS. The French and the British in this regard had sufficient experience in the construction of aircraft according to the "tailless" scheme in comparison with the domestic aircraft industry. A similar wing was taken as the basis in the SPS Concorde project (transversely curved, elongation 1.82, with a relative thickness profile of 3-2.15). In the Soviet Union, the construction of tailless aircraft was a rarity, not to mention the wing " animated" form. The development of the aerodynamic shape of the Tu-144 aircraft was carried out by the group of G.A.Cheremukhin. Work on aircraft control systems was headed by G.F. Naboishikov and L.M. Rodnyansky. 21-11 "with a wing span of 11.5 m, similar to the Tu-144 wing. Test flights on the A-144 "Analogue" (pilots Kozlov, Elyan, etc.) made it possible to obtain real characteristics of the wing at various stages of flight (from takeoff to landings). In 1965, the training of pilots under the Tu-144 program began, for this a special stand was created. Pilots were trained, consisting of: E.V. Elyan and V.P. Borisov (from the plant), Yu.I. Yumashev and V.I. Kryzhanovsky (from LII), M.S. Kuznetsov, V.D. Popov, L.F. Klyuev, N.I. Yurskov (from the Research Institute of Civil Aviation). The well-known test pilot N.V. took part in the preparation. Adamovich. The construction of an experimental aircraft began in 1965, at the famous Moscow Aviation Plant Tupolev Design Bureau (MMZ "Experience") and was completed in the fall of 1967. -8, KB N.D. Kuznetsov) was transported (under conditions of secrecy) to the Zhukovsky airfield, to the assembly shop ZHLI-DB. Under the leadership of the deputy head of the ZhLI V.N. Everything was carefully checked, the detected errors were eliminated. There were no emergencies. During the next check of the hydraulic systems (two main, one backup), a turbopump unit ruptured, fragments of which injured several people, and the aircraft structure was damaged. Repairs were carried out on site. It is difficult to describe the design of the aircraft itself due to the large amount of information. In short, the design of the Tu-144 aircraft and its equipment embodied the latest achievements of science and technology of the USSR of that period. The volume of R&D during the creation of the Tu-144 was 10 times greater than during the creation of the Il-62. As the chief designer A.A. Tupolev later recalled, “Everything up to the chassis pneumatics, which, as a rule, are selected from catalogs of finished products, was created anew. ..". On January 1, 1969, in all the central newspapers of the Soviet Union, a New Year's greeting was published to the Soviet people from the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Presidium of the Supreme Council and the Council of Ministers of the USSR, and a little lower there was a TASS message with the headline "In the sky Tu-144, SUPERSONIC PASSENGER". sheet reported: “For the first time in the world, on December 31, 1968, the Tu-144 supersonic passenger aircraft flew in the Soviet Union. In flight, the aircraft’s systems were tested, including the automatic control system of units and engines. The aircraft was piloted by the commander of the ship, honored test pilot Eduard Vaganovich Elyan, test pilot Hero of the Soviet Union Mikhail Vasilyevich Kozlov, leading test engineer Vladimir Nikolaevich Benderov and flight engineer Yuri Trofimovich Seliverstov "(newspaper" Izvestia "N1, 1969 ). Many years later, participants in the events of the first flight of the Tu-144 will recall the rush and speeding up of preparations for departure at the end of the calendar year, non-flying weather (on December 31, a special board was called in to disperse dense clouds with chemical means), a somewhat anxious waiting for the plane to land for 37 minutes and delighted with the successful first flight of the Tu-144. The Soviet Union was again "ahead of the rest of the planet." The British and French were three months behind. Concorde 01 will make its first flight on March 2, 1969. The program for testing an experimental Tu-144 quickly gained momentum. The second flight of the aircraft took place on January 8, 1969, and on June 5, 1969, in flight at an altitude of 11 thousand meters, the Tu-144 aircraft for the first time “stepped over” supersonic (M = 1.08). In the course of further tests, design flaws began to appear. First of all, the inefficiency of the power plant was noted (the resource of the NK-8 was 50 hours), high fuel consumption, problems with hydraulics, failures in the operation of the equipment, etc. The analysis carried out by the specialists of the technical department of the MGA was reported to the management of the MAP. The solution to the problem resulted in another order of the MAP N290 "to oblige the Chief Designer A.A. Tupolev to bring the Tu-144 aircraft for launch into mass production. Serious improvements were urgently made to the design of the second copy of the Tu-144 (the start of construction in 1968, the MMZ plant) which actually led to the creation of a completely new aircraft compared to the prototype.At the same time, the design of the aircraft underwent fundamental changes: the dimensions (diameter and length) of the fuselage were increased, the design of the nose cone was changed.The wing design, its mechanization, engine layout and design were revised The first flight of the pre-production aircraft (USSR tail number 77101) took place on 06/01/1971. It is appropriate to quote Yu.N. Nevertheless, the liner successfully passed the tests and was found fit for flights with passengers. Then the attacks from the Ministry of Civil Aviation began: they say that the car is complex, expensive, it consumes three times more fuel than the IL-62, why do we need this ?! "But, attacks from the MGA will occur a little later, in 1977, after the death of P. V. Dementiev, then the decisive vote in the Tu-144 case will be the voice of the Minister of Civil Aviation B. P. Bugaev, the former personal pilot of L. I. Brezhnev.Tests of the experimental Tu-144 will continue until 1973. in Prague, in Le Bourget, Hannover, Budapest. The last flight of the prototype aircraft will take place on April 27, 1973, then it will be scrapped. The total flight time of the aircraft will be 180 hours, of which 50 hours at supersonic speed. In the early 70s, according to the accepted By decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Tu-144 aircraft was put into series at the Voronezh aircraft plant.Looking ahead, it can be noted that the Tu-144S became the first Soviet aircraft to receive an international airworthiness certificate (at that time, even the most massive MGA Tu-154 aircraft did not have such a certificate (850 units). In total, the Voronezh Plant built 14 Tu-144 aircraft. Two copies were built at the Moscow Aircraft Plant (prototype and pre-production) for flight tests, and two full-size aircraft airframes for carrying out strength tests at SibNIA (at the end of which the airframe life aircraft was rated A. A. Tupolev at 30 thousand hours). June 3, 1973, at the next XXX air show in Le Bourget, the serial version of the Tu-144S aircraft (USSR tail number 77102) was presented. began to fall apart in the air. The crew of test pilots M.V. Kozlov, V.M. Molchanov, flight engineer A.I. Dralin, navigator G.N. Bazhenov and who were on board the deputy chief designer V.N. Benderov and engineer B.A. Pervukhin died. The wreckage of the aircraft fell in the area of the village of Goussenville. The Soviet-French commission, created to investigate the crash of the Tu-144, came to the conclusion that in the process of vigorous piloting during the withdrawal from a dive, the overload was exceeded by a heavy machine, after which the aircraft began to deform and collapse. The French side immediately rejected the initial version associated with the alleged main culprit of the tragedy, the French Mirage-3 fighter. The commission noted that there were no failures and technical malfunctions on board the aircraft, but there were, as it were, “outsiders” with a movie camera in the cockpit, which may have prevented the pilots from coping with piloting the aircraft. After a year of investigations - viewing film and photo documents from various sources, filming TV and interviewing witnesses of the disaster, the Soviet-French commission came to the conclusion "... The intervention of the human factor is, therefore, the greatest probability ...". Until now the crash of the Tu-144 and the materials on its investigation (have been classified for a long time) causes different rumors in aviation circles. There are many versions, but the decoding of the MSRP-12 record by G.A.Cheremukhin and visual modeling of the designer of aircraft control systems V.M.Razumikhin completely exclude the version of the jamming of the aircraft steering wheel by a movie camera, which allegedly fell out of the hands of General Benderov. The reason why the Tu-144 aircraft spontaneously went into a dive remained a mystery ... The disaster at Le Bourget did not affect the serial construction of the Tu-144, however, in the depths of the offices of officials of the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MGA), dissatisfaction was brewing with the upcoming work related with the operation of ATP. In 1974, the Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU D.F. Ustinov received a letter from the Collegium of the MGA with sharp criticism of the completely unsatisfactory situation with the construction, testing of mass-produced machines and their further operation on GA lines. From the memoirs of Yu.N. Popov "...Here the MGA had problems. Maintenance of aircraft on the ground was taken over by the Design Bureau. The crews were mixed one pilot of the MGA, one of ours. It was the same with the flight engineers. than for ordinary cars). In general, the Tu-144 had to be taken seriously, but Aeroflot clearly did not want this ... ". As a result, on December 23, 1974, Ustinov gives a written instruction to the Minister of the Ministry of Aviation Industry P.V. Dementyev "in connection with questions raised at the board of the MGA to develop and approve at the board of the ministry the necessary measures to rectify the situation and report to the Central Committee of the CPSU ... ". After long meetings of the board of the MAP and meetings at the level of the Voronezh regional committee of the CPSU, the "lightning rod" was nevertheless found. In the spring of 1975, the MAP issued an order to dismiss the director of the Voronezh aircraft plant, Hero of Socialist Labor B.D. Danilov. the fourth serial machine (onboard N USSR 77105) is not ready for flight (the first flight will take place on 11/30/1974) they forgot to say. In 1975, the Voronezh Aviation Plant quarterly delivered three more Tu-144S aircraft (airborne NN 77106-77108), then one each in 1976-77 (airborne NN77109-77110). The operation of Tu-144C aircraft was entrusted to the Domodedovo Production Association. Trained pilots of the MGA B.F. were appointed commanders of the aircraft crews. Kuznetsov, V.P. Voronin, M.S. Kuznetsov and N.I. Yurskov, a little later A.A. Larin. Ground technical operation was headed by A.V. Bondar. The first official passenger flight on the Moscow-Alma-Ata line took place on November 1, 1977. The passenger cabin of the aircraft for 150 seats (divided into 1st and tourist class) was made taking into account the design and using modern finishing materials. The pitch of the seats in the first salon was 1.2 m, in the second it was 0.87 m. The comfort in the salons and the service were at the height of world standards. Passengers were offered an extensive menu in disposable utensils and various soft and alcoholic drinks. Aeroflot services approved the schedule of direct (N499) and return (N500) flights Moscow-Alma-Ata, the ticket price was 68 rubles (20 rubles more expensive than on Il- 18). The day of departure was appointed - weekly, on Thursdays. And although the passenger flow did not exceed 80-100 people, two aircraft were prepared for the flight at once - one main, the other reserve. In case of adverse weather conditions (SMU), Tashkent was the reserve airfield. Frunze Airport could also receive the Tu-144; in extreme cases, the aircraft had a braking parachute. The Moscow-Alma-Ata route, 3260 km long, was not chosen by chance. The longer routes Moscow-Krasnoyarsk and Moscow-Khabarovsk turned out to be unbearable for the Tu-144C. DTRDF NK-144 engines "ate up" fuel very quickly, hope remained only for economical afterburning engines of P.A. Kolesov Design Bureau, work on which had been carried out in Rybinsk since 1967. July 26, 1974, the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR N533-186 "On the construction of an improved version of the Tu-144 aircraft with RD engines and the supply of such aircraft to the MGA" was issued. The Government's decision was urgently implemented. The serial Tu-144S aircraft (onboard N77105) was returned to the plant, where they began to remake the engine nacelles, air intakes, fuel supply systems, etc., and then to install the RD-36-51A engines. The plant and design bureau team successfully coped with the task and on November 30, 1974, the factory crew of A.I. Voblikov flew around the aircraft, to which the Tu-144D (long-range) index was added. The RD-36 engines turned out to be "raw" and after several flights, further tests of the aircraft were stopped. Employees of the Kolesov Design Bureau, despite the decision of the Council of Ministers, the orders of the Ministry of Antimonopoly Policy and the tight work schedule, will need three years to successfully complete the work. An improved version of the RD-36 engines will be prepared for installation on the Tu-144D aircraft (serial number 06-02) by the beginning of 1978. On April 18, 1978, the MGA-MAP mixed crew will perform the first flight on the new Tu-144D (onboard 77111). After successful five test flights, on May 23, 1978, according to the approved program, the crew should have completed the NW site (M = 2), and then, having extinguished the speed and descended, check the launch of the auxiliary power unit (APU) in the air. When trying to start the APU, a fire broke out on board the aircraft: first in the 3rd, then in the 4th engine. The engines were immediately turned off and the fire extinguishing system activated. At the same time, the pilots turned the plane towards the airfield, which they could not fly to. another engine failed. Aircraft commander V.D. Popov (NII GA) and right pilot E.V. Elyan (Tu company) decided to land the burning plane in the field. The forced landing on the "belly" (almost 200-ton aircraft, 64 meters long) was masterfully performed. Unfortunately, two of the 8 crew members could not escape. Flight engineers O.A. Nikolaev and V.L. Venidiktov died in the fire, squeezed by a deformed structure. Deputy Minister of Civil Aviation Yu.G. Mamsurov (colonel-general of the Air Force, was transferred from the Moscow Region to the MGA in the spring of 1973), without waiting for the results of the commission to investigate the accident and enlisting the support of Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Aviation A. V. Bolbot actually achieved a "temporary" ban on flights of all Tu-144s. From the memoirs of Mamsurov "... I was waiting for specific information, but Tupolev was silent. I had to call the Deputy Minister of Aviation Industry Bolbot on Wednesday morning - they agreed that Tupolev would immediately bring me the materials of the investigation accidents and recommendations. He appeared at about 5 p.m. without them, and could not give oral recommendations. I informed Bolbot about this in his presence. Tupolev was summoned to the Minister of the Aviation Industry, and to keep me informed, lead engineer Yu.V. went with him .Mahonin...". It should be noted that after the "temporary" flight ban, no more passengers boarded the Tu-144. Through the efforts of MGA officials, the accident very soon turned into a disaster, and the Tu-144 itself into the most unreliable, emergency aircraft. From the memoirs of Yu.N. Popov "... The decision to continue operation was signed by the General Designer. In the evening, A.A. Tupolev and I went to the Deputy Minister Yu. that Yu.G. we managed to convince Mamsurov. Leaving the office, we congratulated each other and at about 10 pm on May 29 we went home ... ". Further, Yu.N. Popov recalled what his surprise was when the next day, he learns from Tupolev that the operation of the Tu-144 has been terminated and the resumption of passenger traffic will not follow. In 1979, the Voronezh Aviation Plant, following the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers N553-186 and the decision of the military-industrial complex N312 of 11/28/1976, will build two more Tu-144s (tail numbers 77112 and 77113), then another one in 1981 (onboard N77114) and finally the last one in 1984 (tail number 77115). Factory tests of the aircraft will continue, without any interest in them from the MGA. The entire program associated with the development, construction and operation of the Tu-144 was a classic example of unprofitability, and this was a considerable merit of the officials of the MGA and Aeroflot. Later, in the early 90s, Mamsurov would write: "Poor reliability did not allow the use of the Tu-144 international, but also on domestic routes. The requirements for runways, ground facilities, grades of fuel and oils turned out to be excessive ... There were also just insulting flaws. For example, the engines were placed close to the fuselage, so water and water got into them during taxiing dirt, during a forced landing on the fuselage, there was a danger to passengers. .. "After these words, I just want to ask the question, how was the Anglo-French Concord operated and flown, for a long time, the ticket price of which in the last years of operation reached a fantastic amount? It also required long GDP (3410m .), better grades of fuel and oils, an even more advanced ground repair base than the Soviet Tu-144. Yes, and the engines at Concorde were by no means located at a height and it could not do without accidents. There was a surge and destruction of engines and "swallowing "metal structures of air intakes, etc. Maybe the Colonel General of the Air Force forgot something? For example, indicate that before the operation was stopped, the Tu-144 aircraft made 55 flights along the route in a short time (11.11.1977-25.05.1978) Moscow-Alma-Ata-Moscow, 3284 passengers were transported at supersonic speed, and with appropriate comfort, and at the same time there was not a single failure in the operation of equipment. The same age as our Tu, the Anglo-French Concorde in May 1971 made the first international flight along the Paris-Dakar route , having on board an honorary member, French President J. Pompidou, and in September a flight took place along the route Toulon-Rio de Geneiro-Sao Paulo-Buenos Aires, though without passengers. In October 1972, a major accident will occur (with the destruction of the engine). Automation will not allow a fire to break out on board and the Concorde will land safely. This will complete the flight career of the experimental aircraft 001. The aircraft will be transferred to the museum. The pre-production Concorde 002 made its first flight in January 1973, and in March 002 made a “jump” to the flight range, covering a distance of 6500 km without landing. At the end of 1973, the serial production of the Concorde was launched. Between 1973 and 1977, 14 aircraft were built. Air France acquired four and British Airways five aircraft, the rest of the built aircraft were left in reserve. From January 1976, both airlines began commercial flights to the Middle East and across the Atlantic, mainly to Latin America. The United States, in connection with the start of Concorde flights, behaved like an "offended child." After spending a huge amount of money on the ATP project and not achieving practical results, the leading US airlines got the Federal Aviation Service to pass a law that prohibited ATP flights over the territory of the United States. A scandal broke out, the French, in turn, tried to impose a ban on the landing of American aircraft on their territory. In the spring of 1976, Reason (most likely business) won, the way for Concord in the USA was opened. But for a long time, the US public (including the mayor of New York) filed lawsuits demanding a ban on ATP flights. Not everything went smoothly with the financial side of the Concord program. Calculations showed that the project and construction of Concord (1966-1976) blocked previously planned 170 million pounds Art. and amounted to a huge amount of 1200 million pounds st. ) increased to 60 million dollars, taking into account equipment, spare parts, materials. The aircraft was built with a passenger compartment of three modifications: 108-seat (1st class), 128-seat (standard) and 144-seat (tourist class). Glider the aircraft was designed for 45 thousand hours. The maximum speed of all Concords was limited to M=2.2. The further continuation of the Soviet ATP Tu-144 program was repeatedly considered by the government commission at the beginning of 1980. In the end, it was decided to continue operating the aircraft. Priority was given to the Tu-144D, its further improvement and the continuation of test flights. In the summer of 1980, the Tu-144D aircraft (airborne N 77113), due to the destruction of the engine at supersonic speed, makes an emergency landing at the Engels military airfield. The established emergency commission decides to suspend further Tu-144D flights until the reasons for the destruction of the RD-36-51A engine compressor and increase its reliability are clarified. By this time, the total flight time of five aircraft amounted to 764 hours. The Tu-144D passed State tests, with one comment on improving the efficiency of engines, the fuel consumption of which was overestimated by 3.4% of the required rate. A new economical engine will be created at the Kolesov Design Bureau in 1983, but by this time all work on the Tu-144D will be curtailed. In 1979, General Designer A.A. Tupolev, after coordinating the issues with the ministers of the MAP V.A. Kazakov, decides to organize factory test flights of the Tu-144D with a cargo of 7 tons on board, along the route Moscow-Ashgabat-Frunze-Moscow, the next stage was flights along the route Moscow-Novosibirsk and Moscow-Khabarovsk. On June 9, 1981, the Tu-144D aircraft receives the Certificate of Airworthiness N11V-144D i.e. was recognized as an aircraft for passenger transportation, but it was no longer possible to change the opinion of MGA officials about the aircraft - various rumors spread about an unreliable aircraft, which soon "leaked" to the press. Quote from the monograph by Yu. G. Mamsurova: "The futility of airliners was obvious back in 1964. I note that in terms of the level of engineering and scientific training, MGA specialists by no means surpassed the developers, theoreticians and production workers of the MAP. However, our views were unofficially shared by some aircraft designers, including the Tupolev Design Bureau. And A. Tupolev relied on young, energetic engineers who did not accumulate enough experience.Knowledgeable specialists, such as S.M. Eger, D.S. Markov, L.L. Smelyakov, remained in a kind of isolation, A.N. Tupolev, due to health and age, could no longer provide effective assistance to his son.In the initial period of design, construction and testing of the Tu-144, the research institutes headed by world-famous scientists did not establish the necessary control over the activities of the design bureau and therefore did not reveal the mistakes made there , and after the launch of the airliner in a series, they tried, together with the Tupolev team, to save their reputation. In the early 80s, the USSR began to experience acute economic difficulties, which were directly related to world politics. Launched programs for the construction of new rocket and space ("Energiya-Buran"), aviation (Tu-160) and other equipment required huge financial investments. Silaev N24 / 464 "On the termination of serial production of the Tu-144D aircraft." The last Tu-144D aircraft, which was flown on October 4, 1984, had the USSR tail number 77115 (factory 09-1). The stocks on which the Tu-144 was assembled were dismantled. The production facilities of the Voronezh Aviation Plant were given over to the implementation and construction of the Il-86 large-body passenger aircraft. On June 1, 1983, a resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR N491-169 "On the termination of work on the Tu-144 aircraft and the use of manufactured aircraft as flying laboratories" was issued. After this resolution, everything that was connected with the Tu-144 program quickly came to decline. Aircraft with tail numbers starting from the prototype 68001,77101,77103,77104,77111, 77113 were decommissioned and disposed of at different times. Aircraft tail number 77102 crashed in a crash at Le Bourget. Aircraft with tail numbers 77105 to 77110 were transferred as exhibits to museums and institutes. The aircraft with tail number 77112 was sold in 2000 for a symbolic sum to an aviation museum in Germany. Two sides 77114 and 77115 were in LII, as flying laboratories. In 1996, the Boeing company proposed to the leadership of the Tupolev ASTC to allocate the Tu-144LL aircraft for research under the American HSR program, in which, in addition to Boeing, leading US aviation companies took part. As for the financial side of the contract, history is silent (everything was surrounded by trade secrets), but as you know, "the earth is full of rumors." To carry out scientific work, the Americans were given the Tu-144 aircraft (onboard N77114), manufactured in 1981, with a minimum flight time of 83 hours for a very small amount of money. At the same time, the RD-36-51A engines were urgently replaced by NK-32 engines -1 from the Tu-160 bomber. The aircraft was equipped with emergency crew rescue systems, the fuselage and wings of the aircraft were "stuck" with sensors for various purposes, and on March 17, 1996, solemnly, in the presence of foreign firms and honored guests, they announced the start of a program for research on the ATP of the future. By the way, according to overseas analysts and specialists, the SPS of the future could generate a profit of 600 billion dollars, with the construction of 200 aircraft. Of course, this is perceived with difficulty, but as they say, "what the hell is not joking." In June 1999, the American research program ended. 18 flights were performed at altitudes over 17,000 m and speeds M>2. Tupolev and LII. True Several times the control of the aircraft passed into the hands of American NASA pilots. On July 25, 2000, a Concorde (serial number 203) of the French airline Air France crashed, which was supposed to make a Paris-New York flight. The 100 passengers and 9 crew members on board the plane were killed. On July 26, all French SPS flights were stopped. The airworthiness certificates were revoked, testing of all aircraft began, with the simultaneous start of the work of the BEA emergency commission to investigate the crash. The English airline continued to operate SPS flights across the Atlantic for some time, but already on July 29 it was forced to stop them due to a situation with damage to the fuel line system on one of its Concords (it is quite possible that there were no passengers, because the terrible catastrophe of the French SPS is a lot once broadcast on all TV channels). On August 15, 2000, British Airways officially stopped the flights of its ATP. Following the disaster, a criminal case was initiated against Air France, for the payment of monetary compensation. The downtime of the fleet of operating aircraft and the preservation of the Reserve SPS led the company into an extremely difficult financial situation. The company could no longer continue to operate the Concorde, even after it was proved that the design of the aircraft and engines were not involved in the disaster. The hopes of the leadership of the Anglo-French airlines for the continued operation of the Concorde in the spring-autumn of 2001 did not materialize. The further fate of the 14 Anglo-French SPS "Concord" built is similar to the fate of the Soviet Tu-144, the aircraft dispersed to aviation museums of the world, taking the place of worthy exhibits. Over the entire period of operation, Concordes were able to help 3 million people cross the Atlantic in just 2 hours 56 minutes of flight time! Literature used: 1. E. Tsekhosh "Supersonic aircraft", pp. 362-369 From "Mir", M. 1983. 2. D.A. Sobolev "Aircraft of special schemes". From the "Engineering" M.1989. 3. "Ahead of time - 9 questions to the chief designer of the Tu-144", magazine "TM" N 4, 1969. 4. A. Agranovsky "Frontier of reliability", newspaper "Izvestiya" N1 (16006), 01.01.1969. 5. "Silent death of a noisy aircraft". 6. A number of authors: Bliznyuk, Vasiliev, Vul and others "The Truth about Supersonic Aircraft". 7. Yu. Mamsurov "With lowered noses to take up less space", magazine "TM" N2, 1994. 8. "High-Speed agreement", Interavia N1 magazine, 1999
