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Conversation as a method of psychological research. Psychology

Conversation as a method of psychological research. Psychology

30.09.2019

RUSSIAN STATE SOCIAL UNIVERSITY

Branch in Serpukhov

Department of "Social Psychology, Pedagogy and Juvenile Law"

Abstract on the discipline "Methodological foundations of psychology"

Topic: "Conversation as a psychological method"

The work was completed by: 2nd year student Ekaterina Savchenko

Specialty: psychologist

Introduction

1. General concept of conversation. The concept of rapport and its meaning in a consultative conversation

2. rapport

3. Procedures and techniques for counseling

4. Encouragement and soothing

5. Reflection of Content: Paraphrasing and Summarizing

6. Pauses of silence

7. Interpretation

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Currently, the concept of psychological counseling is inextricably linked with the concept of psychological conversation. Psychological counseling as a profession is a relatively new area of psychological practice that emerged from psychotherapy. This profession arose in response to the needs of people who do not have clinical disorders, but seek psychological help. Most often, psychological counseling is carried out at prearranged hours, in a specially equipped room, usually isolated from strangers, and in a confidential environment.

Since psychological counseling is carried out mainly in the form of a conversation, “live” communication between the client who applied for psychological help and the psychologist-consultant, respectively, like any communication in general, the counseling conversation is subject to the rules and patterns of interpersonal relationships. One of the necessary conditions for effective communication is the establishment of trusting relationships between the participants in the conversation. In psychological counseling, such a trusting relationship is all the more important, since its ultimate goal is, as a rule, the issuance of evidence-based, reasoned recommendations on how best to practically solve the client's problem. The task of the consultant is to "talk" the client in order to reveal the maximum information related to the problem and to get the most objective picture of the client's life difficulties that have arisen.

Any object of knowledge (including a person) can be perceived and known as a thing. But the subject as such cannot be perceived and studied as a thing, for as a subject it cannot, while remaining a subject, become mute, hence its cognition can only be dialogic. So, to study a person as a subject, as a personality, one can only enter into a dialogue with him, into a conversation of equals, into a conversation of two personalities.

In order to conduct personal conversations, a counseling psychologist must be familiar with the main theories of personality that exist in psychological science. Also, to conduct an effective conversation, a psychologist must have the ability to influence people. Influence is inextricably linked with the concepts of rapport and empathy.

In my work, I will consider the concept of a psychological conversation, consider a particular case of using the method of conversation in psychological counseling, describe in detail the stage of establishing rapport, as one of the most important in a counseling conversation, and reveal some of the procedures and techniques for conducting it.

psychological conversation counseling rapport

1. The general concept of conversation. The concept of rapport and its meaning in a consultative conversation

The method of conversation is a psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically oriented dialogue between a psychologist and a respondent in order to obtain information from the latter.

Conversation is one of the most productive methods in personality psychology, which makes it possible to peer into the inner world of a person, in many respects to understand its complex, often contradictory content. A special place of conversation in the arsenal of personality research methods is also due to the fact that, although this method does not require the involvement of complex additional equipment and equipment, at the same time, like no other, it places high demands on the experimental psychologist, his skill, professional maturity.

The possibilities of conversation as a dialogue - a tool for meeting a person with a person - are associated, in particular, with the breadth of the choice of the type of conversation in the spectrum from "completely controlled" to "practically free". The main criteria for classifying a conversation as a certain type are the features of a previously prepared plan (program and strategy) and the nature of the standardization of the conversation, i.e. its tactics. Under the program and strategy, as a rule, they mean a set of semantic topics compiled by a psychologist in accordance with the goals and objectives of the conversation and the sequence of movement between them. The higher the degree of standardization of the conversation, the more strict, defined and invariable the set and form of the psychologist's questions in it, i.e., the more rigid and limited is his tactics. The standardization of the conversation also means that the initiative in it moves to the side of the psychologist who asks questions.

Thus, a fully controlled conversation involves a rigid program, strategy and tactics, and the opposite pole is an almost free conversation - the absence of a pre-formulated program and the presence of an initiative position in the conversation with the one with whom it is conducted.

A conversation of a free type is always focused on a particular given interlocutor. It allows you to receive a lot of data not only directly, but also indirectly, maintain contact with the interlocutor, has a strong psychotherapeutic content, and ensures high spontaneity in the manifestation of significant signs. As a rule, in counseling psychology, it is a conversation of a free type that is used.

2. Rapport

Rapport - building trust, harmony and cooperation in relationships. The equivalent of this English term is the Russian word trust. To enter into trust - to incline to one's side, to arrange, to enter into mercy (S.I. Ozhegov).

People allow themselves to be influenced by the people they trust. The influence of the personality of the consultant on the personality of the client is necessarily present in the consultative conversation. Rapport is a kind of "adjustment" of the consultant to the client, which allows him to be on the same "wave" with the client.

Each person has their own individual style of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, body posture, intonation in the voice, the main set of verbal expressions and, of course, the representative system. Each person has a certain system of worldview, perception of external reality and behavior. Knowing these features of the interlocutor, you can enter into his confidence while communicating with him, using the "tuning" method. The fact is that people converge with others, guided by the principle of "common". This may be a mutual interest or a similar worldview, one zodiac sign or profession, similar facial expressions or a way to express their emotions, etc. People love their own kind and reject “strangers”. We are not interested in the interlocutor in which we have nothing in common. The more you look like someone, the better you will understand that person's model of the world. This is the principle on which people base their relationships and social activities - it is deeply rooted in our psyche.

Some specialists in the field of theory and practice of counseling psychology do not use the term rapport in their work. However, they replace it with other terms that are also characteristics of the necessary state of the relationship between the consultant and the client: “consultant contact” (R. Kociunas), empathy and the creation of an emotionally positive attitude.

It should be noted that the state of mutual understanding between the consultant and the client reached at the stage of establishing rapport should be maintained by the consultant throughout the entire period of the consultative conversation.

Careless statements on the part of the psychologist, made, for example, in the form of orders, threats, moralizing, advice, accusations, value judgments regarding what the respondent said, reassurance and inappropriate jokes, can lead to the destruction of rapport with the respondent or to the provision of side suggestions to the respondent.

In 1975, S. Rogers (quoted in: Gelso, Fretz, 1992) asked the question: "Can it be argued that there are necessary and sufficient conditions that contribute to positive personality changes that could be clearly defined and measured?" He answered this question himself, naming six conditions:

.Two persons are in psychological contact.

.The first character, let's call him "client", is in a state of mental disorder, vulnerable and anxious.

.The second character, let's call him a "consultant", actively participates in communication.

.The consultant has unconditional respect for the client.

.The counselor experiences empathy by taking the client's point of view and making it clear to him.

Empathic understanding and unconditional respect of the consultant are transferred to the client even with minimal expression.

No other conditions are required. If these six conditions are met for a certain period of time, that is sufficient. Positive personality changes will occur.

So, the client must be in contact with the consultant and come into a state that makes him sensitive to outside help. Particularly important are the 3rd, 4th and 5th conditions, which provide sufficient consultative contact for help.

Confidential contact between the consultant and the client, based on unconditional respect, empathy, warmth and sincerity of the consultant in relation to the client, is an integral, and according to many professionals, an essential component of psychological counseling and psychotherapy.

Counseling contact, although outwardly it seems formal and very short in comparison with the entire life of the client, is nevertheless closer, more intense and deeper than any other interpersonal connection. In counseling, the client turns to a stranger and reveals to him the smallest details of his personal life, which, perhaps, no one else knows. What a client tells often does not present him in the best light. Sometimes, in the process of counseling, new aspects of the personality “emerge” that surprise, upset, and even shock the client himself. All this makes the consultative contact an intimate relationship between two people, and specifically intimate, unlike the usual friendship or love relationship.

As mentioned above, one of the conditions for establishing effective rapport is empathy. Rollo May in his work “The Art of Psychological Counseling” believes that “... empathy is the main tool in the work of a psychotherapist when he and his client merge into a single mental whole. Thus, the client "loads" his problem on a "fresh person" and he takes on half of its burden, while the client receives from the consultant tremendous support in the fight against his difficulties, charging from him psychological stability, courage and willpower.

However, it should be clearly understood that empathy does not at all mean the coincidence of the experience of the client and the consultant, when the latter remarks: "Yes, it was the same with me when I was so-and-so years old." With rare exceptions, in true therapy there is no place for the therapist's personal memories as such, for they only testify to his egocentrism, which is the exact opposite of empathy. The goal of the therapist is to understand his client according to his unique personality model. By projecting his own experience onto the client's condition, the therapist can harm him. Personal experience can greatly help the therapist understand the client, but this help is indirect. During the consultation itself, it is best for the therapist to forget that he has ever experienced such a thing himself. He must give himself completely to his client, be almost a tabula rasa for him, enter a state of empathy.

3. Procedures and techniques of a consultative conversation

Obtaining information about the client and encouraging him to introspection is impossible without skillful questioning.

As you know, questions are usually divided into closed and open questions. Closed questions are used to obtain specific information and usually require a one or two word answer, affirmative or negative ("yes", "no"). For example: "How old are you?", "Can we meet in a week at the same time?", "How many times have you had fits of anger?" and so on.

Open-ended questions are not so much about learning about the lives of clients as they are about discussing feelings. Benjamin (1987) notes:

"Open questions expand and deepen contact; closed questions limit it. The former open wide the doors to good relationships, the latter usually leave them closed."

Examples of open questions: "Where would you like to start today?", "How do you feel now?", "What made you sad?" and so on.

Open-ended questions provide an opportunity to share your concerns with the consultant. They give the client responsibility for the conversation and encourage him to explore his attitudes, feelings, thoughts, values, behavior, that is, his inner world. (1971) highlights the main points of counseling when open-ended questions are used:

.The beginning of the consultation meeting ("Where would you like to start today?", "What happened during the week that we did not see each other?").

.Encouraging the client to continue or complete what was said ("How did you feel when this happened?", "What else would you like to say about it?", "Can you add anything to what you said?").

.Encouraging the client to illustrate their problems with examples so that the counselor can better understand them ("Can you explain any particular situation?")

.Focusing the client's attention on feelings ("What do you feel when you tell me?", "What did you feel when all this happened to you?").

We should not forget that not all clients like open-ended questions; for some, they increase the sense of threat and increase anxiety. This does not mean that such questions should be avoided, but they should be carefully formulated and asked at the right time when there is a chance of getting an answer.

Although questioning is an important technique in counseling, however, paradoxically, I dare say that excessive questioning should be avoided in counseling. Any question must be justified - asking it, you need to know for what purpose it is asked. This is a very difficult problem for the novice consultant, who often worries too much about what else to ask the client, and forgets that, first of all, the client must be listened to. If the survey is turned into the main technique of counseling, then the psychological conversation will turn into an interrogation or investigation. In such a situation, the client will leave the consultant's office with the feeling that he was not so much understood and called to emotional participation in the counseling contact as interrogated.

Too much questioning in counseling creates many problems (George and Cristiani, 1990):

· turns the conversation into an exchange of questions and answers, and the client begins to constantly wait for the consultant to ask about something else;

· forces the consultant to take full responsibility for the course of counseling and the topics of the problems discussed;

· moves the conversation from emotionally colored topics to a discussion of the facts of life;

· "destroys" the mobile nature of the conversation.

.Questions "Who, what?" most often focused on facts, i.e. questions of this type increase the likelihood of factual answers.

.Questions "How?" more focused on a person, his behavior, inner world.

.Questions "Why?" often provoke defensive reactions of clients, so they should be avoided in counseling. Asking a question of this type, most often you can hear answers based on rationalization, intellectualization, since it is not always easy to explain the real reasons for one's behavior (and they are primarily directed by "why" questions), due to many rather contradictory factors.

.It is necessary to avoid posing several questions at the same time (sometimes other questions are included in one question). For example, "How do you understand your problem? Have you ever thought about your problems before?", "Why do you drink and fight with your wife?" In both cases, it may not be clear to the client which of the questions to answer, because the answers to each part of the double question may be completely different.

.The same question should not be asked in different formulations. It becomes unclear to the client which of the options to answer. Such behavior of the consultant when asking questions indicates his anxiety. The consultant should "voice" only the final versions of the question.

.You can’t ask a question ahead of the client’s answer. For example, the question "Is everything going well?" most often encourages the client to give an affirmative answer. In this case, it is better to ask an open question: "How are things at home?" In such situations, clients often take the opportunity to give a vague answer, such as: "Not bad." The consultant needs to clarify the answer with another question of this type: "What does "not bad" mean to you?" This is very important, since we often put quite different content into the same concepts.

4. Encouragement and soothing

These techniques are very important for creating and strengthening the consultative contact. You can cheer up the client with a short phrase indicating agreement and/or understanding. Such a phrase encourages the client to continue the story. For example: "Go on", "Yes, I understand", "Okay", "So", etc. A fairly common positive reaction is "Yeah," "Mmm." Translated into the language of speech, these particles would mean: "Go on, I am with you, I am listening to you attentively." Encouragement expresses support - the basis of a consultative contact. A supportive atmosphere in which the client feels free to explore the anxiety-provoking aspects of the self is especially recommended in client-centered counseling.

Another important component of client support is reassurance, which, along with encouragement, allows the client to believe in themselves and take risks by changing some aspect of the self by experiencing new ways of behaving. These are also short phrases of the consultant expressing agreement: "Very well", "Don't worry about it", "You did the right thing", "Everyone feels the same way from time to time", "You are right", "It will not be easy" , "I'm not sure, but I think you can try", "I know it will be hard, but you not only can, but you must do it", etc.

However, when talking about calming the client, we must not forget that, like any technique, this method can be used correctly and incorrectly. A common "soothing" mistake is that the consultant offers himself as a "prop" to a restless client. This limits the ability of the client to solve their problems on their own. Personal growth is always associated with a sense of uncertainty and a certain dose of tension and anxiety. Also, if sedation is used excessively and too frequently, i.e. begins to dominate in counseling, it creates a dependence of the client on the consultant. In this case, the client ceases to be independent, does not seek his own answers, but completely relies on the consultant's approval, i.e. does nothing without the consent of the consultant.

5. Reflection of content: paraphrasing and summarizing

To reflect the content of the client's confessions, it is necessary to paraphrase his statements or summarize several statements. The client is thus convinced that he is carefully listened to and understood. The reflection of the content also helps the client to better understand himself, to understand his thoughts, ideas, attitudes. According to Hill (1980), this is the most widely used counseling technique regardless of the counselor's theoretical orientation.

Paraphrasing is most appropriate at the beginning of counseling because it encourages the client to discuss their concerns more openly. However, on the other hand, it does not deepen the conversation enough, Ivey (1971) identifies three main purposes of paraphrasing:

· show the client that the consultant is very attentive and tries to understand him;

· crystallize the client's thought by repeating his words in a compressed form;

· check the correctness of understanding the client's thoughts.

There are three simple rules to remember when paraphrasing:

1.Paraphrasing the main idea of the client.

.You can not distort or replace the meaning of the client's statement, as well as add something from yourself.

."Parrot" must be avoided, i.e. verbatim repetition of the client's statement, it is desirable to express the client's thoughts in your own words.

A well-paraphrased thought of the client becomes shorter, clearer, more specific, and this helps the client to understand what he wanted to say.

A generalization expresses the main idea of several unrelated statements or a long and intricate statement. Summarizing helps the client to organize his thoughts, remember what was said, encourages consideration of significant topics and promotes adherence to the sequence of counseling. If the paraphrase covers the client's statements just made, then the whole stage of the conversation or even the entire conversation is subject to generalization, Ivey (1971) indicates situations in which generalization is most often used:

· when the counselor wants to structure the beginning of the conversation in order to integrate it with previous conversations;

· when the client speaks very long and confusingly;

· when one topic of conversation has already been exhausted and a transition to the next topic or to the next stage of the conversation is planned;

· in an effort to give some direction to the conversation;

· at the end of the meeting, in an effort to emphasize the essential points of the conversation and give a task for a period of time until the next meeting.

Pauses of silence

Most people feel embarrassed when the conversation ends and there is silence. It seems to be endless. In the same way, a novice consultant feels uncomfortable when there is a pause of silence in a conversation, because it seems to him that he constantly has to do something. However, the ability to remain silent and use silence for therapeutic purposes is one of the most important skills in counseling. Although silence in counseling sometimes means a breakdown in counseling contact, it can nevertheless be deeply meaningful. For a counselor who has learned to be sensitive to different meanings of silence, to silence in general, and who has learned to consciously create and use pauses in counseling, silence becomes especially therapeutically valuable, because it:

· increases the emotional understanding of the consultant and the client;

· provides the client with the opportunity to "immerse himself" in himself and study his feelings, attitudes, values, behavior;

· allows the client to understand that the responsibility for the conversation lies on his shoulders.

What are the essential implications of silence in counseling?

8. Interpretation

Almost everything leaves an imprint on the "image of personality." There is nothing meaningless and random even in the slightest movement of a person. The personality constantly expresses itself in words, tone of voice, gestures, posture, and it depends on the competence of the consultant whether he can "read" complex psychological writings. Each client is not an open book, but an unknown country where everything is new and difficult to understand at first. The technique of interpretation helps the consultant navigate in this unknown country - perhaps the most difficult method of counseling.

It is very important in counseling to bring out more than what is contained in the client's superficial narrative. The external content, of course, is also significant, but the disclosure of the latent content hidden behind the client's words is more significant. For this, narrative interpretation is used. Interpretive statements of the consultant give a certain meaning to the expectations, feelings, behavior of the client, because they help to establish causal relationships between behavior and experiences. The content of the client's story and experience is transformed in the context of the explanatory system used by the consultant. This transformation helps the client to see themselves and their life difficulties in a new perspective and in a new way. A. Adler said that a correct understanding of what is happening underlies adequate behavior. Well-known maxim of Socrates - "knowledge is action".

The essence of the proposed interpretation largely depends on the theoretical position of the consultant. In client-centered therapy, direct interpretations are avoided, not wanting to relieve the client of responsibility for the counseling process. Representatives of the psychoanalytic direction adhere to a completely opposite view of interpretation. Here, interpretive techniques are central, since in psychoanalysis almost everything is interpreted - transference, resistance, dreams, free association, silence, etc. Thus, psychoanalysts seek to more deeply reveal the psychodynamic meaning of the client's problems. In "gestalt therapy" the client himself is encouraged to interpret his behavior, i.e. remains solely responsible for the explanation. (1986) identifies five types of interpretation:

.Establishing links between supposedly separate statements, issues, or events. For example, to a client who talks about fear of public speaking, low self-esteem and difficulties in relationships with other people, the consultant points out the relationship of problems and the influence of inadequate expectations and claims of the client on their occurrence.

.Emphasizing any features of the behavior or feelings of the client. A client, for example, constantly refuses to work, although he expresses a desire to work. The counselor might say to him, "You seem to be excited about the opportunity, but when faced with the inevitable difficulties, you run away."

.Interpretation of methods of psychological defense, reactions of resistance and transference. In the above example, an interpretation is possible: "From our conversation, running away is a way for you to deal with the fear of failure." Thus, psychological protection (escape) from anxiety (fear of failure) is interpreted here. Transference interpretation is a basic technique in psychoanalytic treatment. They try to show the client that his past relationship (usually with his father or mother) interferes with the correct perception of the feelings and behavior of the consultant.

.Linking current events, thoughts and experiences with the past. In other words, the consultant helps the client to see the connection between current problems and conflicts and previous psychotraumas.

.Giving the client another opportunity to understand their feelings, behavior, or problems.

Practically in all listed types of interpretations the moment of explanation is obvious, i.e. The essence of interpretation is to make the incomprehensible understandable. Let us give as an example an explanation to the client of the concept of "agoraphobia" (Storr A., 1980):

“It follows from your story that the world has become dangerous for you since childhood, when your mother was afraid to let you go alone from home. Such a fear for a three-year-old child is not surprising, but over the years, self-confidence and risk appetite increase. The only abnormality of your fear is its duration."

This interpretation does not remove the neurotic symptom, but reduces anxiety by turning the symptom from an incomprehensible obstacle into a clearly established problem that can be solved.

Interpretation should take into account the stage of the consultative process. This technique is of little use at the beginning of counseling, when it is expected to achieve trust with clients, but later it is very useful for uncovering the psychodynamics of problems.

The effectiveness of interpretation largely depends on its depth and timing. A good interpretation, as a rule, is not too deep. It should link to what the client already knows. The effectiveness of the interpretation is also determined by the timeliness, the willingness of the client to accept it. No matter how wise and accurate the interpretation is, if it is presented at the wrong time, the effect will be zero, since the client will not be able to understand the consultant's explanations.

The effectiveness of interpretation also depends on the personality of the client. According to S. Spiegel and S. Hill (1989), clients with a high level of self-esteem and education are more sensitive to interpretations and take them into account even in case of disagreement.

The consultant must be able to understand the reactions of clients to the essence of interpretations. The emotional indifference of the client should make the consultant think about the conformity of the interpretation with reality. However, if the client reacted with hostility and immediately dismissed the interpretation as implausible, there is reason to believe that the interpretation has touched the root of the problem.

Conclusion

In a psychological conversation, there is direct interaction between the psychologist and the respondent in the form of an oral exchange of information. The method of conversation is widely used in psychotherapy. It is also used as an independent method in counseling psychology.

In the process of conversation, the psychologist, being a researcher, directs, covertly or explicitly, the conversation, during which he asks the person being interviewed questions.

There are two types of conversation: managed and unmanaged. In the course of a guided conversation, the psychologist actively controls the course of the conversation, maintains the course of the conversation, and establishes emotional contact. An uncontrolled conversation occurs with a greater return of initiative from the psychologist to the respondent, in comparison with the controlled one. In an unmanaged conversation, the focus is on giving the respondent the opportunity to speak out, while the psychologist does not interfere or almost does not interfere with the course of the respondent's self-expression.

In the case of both managed and unmanaged conversation, the psychologist is required to have the skill of verbal and non-verbal communication. Any conversation begins with the establishment of contact between the researcher and the respondent, while the researcher acts as an observer, analyzing the external manifestations of the respondent's mental activity. Based on the observation, the psychologist carries out express diagnostics and corrects the chosen strategy for conducting a conversation. At the initial stages of the conversation, the main task is to encourage the subject under study to actively participate in the dialogue.

The stage of establishing rapport is an important element of psychological counseling. Therefore, it is difficult to overestimate its importance for achieving the goals of psychological conversation in counseling. The success of all consulting work depends on how much the client will trust the personality of the consultant and subconsciously accept his recommendations for solving personal problems.

The main task of the stage of establishing rapport in the relationship between the consultant and the client is to set the client up for "confession" (the central part of the psychological conversation) and create conditions for the client's constructive work in solving his problems. In addition, influence and suggestion in the process of psychological conversation as a means of influencing a person can only work if rapport is successful.

The purpose of counseling, the main method of which is conversation, is to help clients understand what is happening in their living space and meaningfully achieve their goal through informed choice in resolving emotional and interpersonal problems. The truth about oneself, one's own "personal" truth, is born in a dialogue that helps to find a new oneself and become more than one was before. Such a dialogue is not a soul-saving conversation, in its process there is an increase in one's own spiritual forces.

Bibliography

1.Method of conversation in psychology: Textbook for university students / Editor-compiler A.M. Ailamazyan. - M.: Meaning, 1999. - 222 p.

2.Ilyin E.P. Psychology of trust. - M.: Piter, 2013.

3.May R. The Art of Psychological Counseling / Per. from English. T.K. Kruglovoy.- M.: Independent firm "Class", 2000 - 124p.

.Nemov R.S. Fundamentals of psychological counseling: Proc. for stud. pedagogical universities. - M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 1999. - 394 p.

.Kociunas R. Fundamentals of psychological counseling. - M.: Academic project, 1999. - 240 p.

.Malden, D. "Management and the art of NLP." - M., 1997

.Minikes L. The Art of Business Communication, article 2004

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Ministry of Science and Education

Voronezh Institute of Economics and Social Management

(Municipal institution of higher professional education)

Test

on the course: "General psychological workshop"

Features of psychological conversation

Performed:

3rd year student,

gr. 3.1. s / about the specialty "Psychology"

Voronezh 2006

Introduction

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

A conversation is a method of verbally obtaining information from a person of interest to the researcher by conducting a thematically directed conversation with him.

The conversation can be conducted not only orally, but also in writing. But as a method, the conversation is usually understood as a variant of oral communication. The conversation is widely used in social, medical, age (especially children's), legal and political psychology.

As the method itself, conversation is especially intensively used in consultative, diagnostic and psycho-correctional work.

In the activities of a practical psychologist, conversation plays the role of not only a professional method of collecting data, but also a means of informing, persuading, and educating.

The inextricable link between conversation and observation is one of its characteristic features. This is a psychological conversation. Those. a conversation aimed at obtaining psychological information and having a psychological impact on a person can be attributed to the most specific methods for psychology.

1. Conversation as a means of communication

conversation communication psychological communicative

Conversation is a means of communication, verbal interaction. The purpose of the conversation is the result that the interlocutors want to get as a result of their communication. In a conversation, two types of goals are usually distinguished: direct, immediate, directly expressed by the speaker and indirect, more distant, long-term, often perceived as a target subtext. Both types of goals have many varieties.

The main varieties of direct, immediate goals of the conversation are:

Transfer-receive of information;

Clarification of the position;

Opinion support;

Discussion of the problem, search for truth;

Explanation, etc.

The most important structural component of the conversation is feedback. The listener's reaction to the speaker's statement, in fact, constitutes a cementing moment of communication, its absence leads to the destruction of communication: not receiving an answer to the question asked, the person feels hurt and usually either seeks an answer or stops the conversation. Moreover, the reaction from the listener in the form of a clearly expressed interest in the speaker constitutes the positive background against which oral communication takes place. In the absence of such interest, communication becomes painful and interrupted.

The success of speech interaction or its failure depends on many factors. The five most important factors are:

A culture of speech;

Relationship;

situations.

Language is the main tool of communication, and the effectiveness of speech communication largely depends on the degree of mastery of this tool, which is realized in the culture of speech. So, if the speech of at least one of the interlocutors is devoid of logic, little informative, inaccurate, then it is unlikely that it can adequately convey information.

The goal factor determines the willingness of the subjects of communication to conduct a conversation on a given topic at a given time, their mutual communicative interest. The absence of this interest reduces communicative activity.

The attitude factor motivates the choice of the form and style of communication depending on the degree of acquaintance, age or social differences of the participants in communication.

The role factor determines the speech manner of the speakers in connection with the capacity in which they act.

It is equally important to take into account the situation factor, since a change in the situation, with other factors unchanged, significantly affects the speech behavior of the subjects of communication. So, for example, communication can proceed in a completely different way in a situation of dialogue in private and in the presence of third parties.

In order for verbal communication to be effective, along with taking into account the above factors, it is necessary to create a positive communicative climate that helps to establish contact or relationship in the process of communication. To achieve this goal, the interlocutors must adhere to certain principles, the rules of conversation, which allow them to coordinate their actions and statements. These rules constitute the conventional (accepted as a result of the contract) basis of speech interaction.

The application of a number of psychological principles of communication helps to create a positive communication climate. Let's name the main ones:

The principle of equal security;

The principle of decentral orientation;

The principle of adequacy of what is perceived to what is said.

The principle of equal security, which presupposes the non-infliction of psychological damage to the partner in the information exchange, prohibits offensive attacks against the recipient, humiliation of the partner's self-esteem. Labels, rude words and expressions, offensive remarks, insults, a contemptuous and mocking tone can lead a person out of balance, cause moral injury and even physical damage to health, and therefore interfere with the perception and understanding of information.

Of course, each participant in the dialogue has the right to defend his point of view, disagree with the statements of the opponent, show and prove the fallacy of his position, but he must respect the personality of the interlocutor.

The principle of decentralization means non-damage to the cause for which the parties entered into interaction. The essence of this principle is that the forces of the participants in communication should not be spent on protecting ambitious, egocentric interests. They should be directed to finding the optimal solution to the problem. It is noted that this is a fairly often violated principle.

The principle of the adequacy of what is perceived to what is said presupposes that what is said is not harmed by intentionally distorting the meaning. Sometimes participants in communication deliberately distort the position of the opponent, distort the meaning of his words in order to achieve advantages in the conversation in this way. This leads to disagreements and mutual misunderstanding.

We also denote the main factors contributing to the establishment of a favorable climate for conversation:

Recognition not in words, but in deeds of pluralism of opinions, the presence of a variety of points of view on various problems of modern life;

Giving everyone the opportunity to exercise their right to express their own point of view;

Providing equal opportunities in obtaining the necessary information to substantiate one's position;

The realization that the need for a constructive dialogue is dictated not by the will of individuals, but by the actual situation, is associated with the solution of vital problems for both sides;

Determination of a common platform for further interaction and cooperation, the desire to find in the statements of a partner, his behavior that unites with him, and does not separate, the search for common ground.

When organizing verbal communication, two important laws of communication should be remembered.

The point is not what the sender says, but what the receiver understands.

If the recipient misinterprets the sender's message, then the sender is at fault; The responsibility for accurate communication lies with the sender.

2. Communicative competence as a criterion for the quality of communication

Given the complexity of communication, it is necessary to designate its structure. Structure can be approached in different ways. In this paper, it is proposed to characterize the structure of communication by highlighting three interrelated aspects in it: communicative, interactive and perceptual. All these three sides act as a disclosure of the subjective world of one person in relation to another. Thus, the communicative side of communication, or communication in the narrow sense of the word, consists in the exchange of information between communicating individuals. The interactive side consists in organizing interaction between communicating individuals, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge, but also actions. The perceptual side of communication means the process of perception and knowledge of each other by partners in communication and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

In the context of the characteristics of a psychological conversation, we will consider communicative competence as a criterion for the quality of communication.

What exactly does the communicative competence of the subjects of communication mean? First of all, it should be noted that the term "communicative competence" is very close in meaning to the term "communicative competence". These terms have a common root - they are derived from the Latin word "compete" (to know, to be able, to achieve, to comply). The term "competence" has traditionally been associated with law. Competence in law is understood as the powers, duties and rights granted by law, other regulatory acts to a state body or official. Competence in this approach is a form of dominion permitted by law. Competence, on the other hand, is a psychological characteristic of the subject, denoting the correspondence of the abilities and the ability of the subject to exercise competence.

Thus, competence is a psychological quality of the subject, which he can possess even without competence. The complication and specialization of social institutions and relations required an expanded concept of competence, an exit from the acceptance of this concept beyond the sphere of jurisprudence into other spheres of life. In modern reference literature, an expanded interpretation of these terms is given.

"Competence" is interpreted as:

The area of issues in which someone is knowledgeable;

Knowledge and experience in which the person has authority, knowledge, experience.

"Competence" means:

Possessing thorough knowledge in any area; knowing;

Informed, being a recognized expert in any matter;

Competent.

Communicative competence in this case can be represented as a system of competencies, including the following components:

Sociolinguistic competence - the ability to use and transform linguistic forms in accordance with the situation;

Discursive and strategic competence, which implies a coherent and logical presentation of one's position, readiness to conduct a dialogue and discussion, evoke a response from the interlocutor, involve him in the communication process;

Sociocultural competence - readiness and ability to conduct a dialogue of cultures, which implies knowledge of one's own culture and the culture of the country of the language being studied;

Social competence - willingness and desire to interact with others, self-confidence.

Thus, the results of communication can be fully understood only at the level of relationships (between or within individuals and groups). The primary parameters by which participants and observers evaluate competence are the levels of control and affiliation (communication as impact). A relationship is considered competent when the individuals who are involved are either sufficiently satisfied with the jointly agreed definition of control and affiliation to maintain the relationship or, if dissatisfied, are able and willing to work towards redefining those components or terminating the relationship.

3. Basic principles of verbal and non-verbal communication

The main means of verbal communication or conversation are language and speech.

The process of establishing and maintaining purposeful direct or indirect contact between people through language is called speech interaction. In the process of speech interaction of people, their thinking, will, emotions, knowledge, memory are involved.

Speech interaction involves the following components:

Addresser;

addressee;

The subject of interaction;

speech act;

Means of interaction.

Speech interaction from the point of view of a psychological conversation is a process of interaction between two subjects: a) the speaking addresser (sender of information) and b) the recipient of this information - the listener (addressee).

The speech act on the part of the addresser is speaking - sending acoustic signals in the form of linguistic signs. The speech act on the part of the addressee is listening - the perception of speech acoustic signals and their understanding.

It follows that speech interaction involves the encoding and decoding of information. Coding mechanisms operate when speaking, decoding mechanisms - when listening.

The means of speech interaction is the product of a speech act. The product of the addresser's speech act, a communicative speech unit that contains everything that comes from the speaker about what he says to his addressee using a language known to both of them, is a statement or text.

An utterance is a unit of speech communication that has meaning, integrity, design, a certain actual articulation as part of a speech act.

The most important role in speech communication is played by the speech situation, or the context of communication. The speech situation is the specific circumstances in which speech interaction takes place.

The speech situation is the starting point of any speech action in the sense that one or another set of circumstances induces a person to speech action.

The speech situation consists of the following main components:

Participants of communication;

Places and times of communication;

the subject of communication;

The goals of communication;

Feedback between the participants of the communication.

The transfer of information in the process of communication is carried out not only by verbal, but also by non-verbal means of communication. As the most important means of communication, V.A. Labunskaya identifies 4 sign systems:

optical-kinetic;

para- and extralinguistic;

organization of space and time of the communication process;

visual contact.

All this set of means is designed to perform the functions of supplementing speech and representing (transferring) the emotional states of partners in the communicative process.

A special role among the elements of a non-verbal nature is given to facial expressions. The face is the most important characteristic of the physical appearance of a person. Society can encourage the expression of some emotions and condemn others, it can create a "language" of facial expressions. In this regard, we can say about universal or specific mimic signs, about conventional or spontaneous facial expressions. Dual regulation, dynamism and integrity of facial expressions. As well as the variability of the expression structure and at the same time the presence of constant features, the ambiguity and at the same time the “capacious unambiguity” of facial expressions are its main characteristics as an element of non-verbal behavior and determine the success of its recognition in interpersonal communication.

The next element of non-verbal communication, which cannot be ignored in the context of psychological conversation, is posture. Posture is the position of the human body, typical for a given culture, an elementary unit of a person's spatial behavior.

In general, poses can perform two functions in communication: to divide the flow of speech into units and to regulate interpersonal relationships in a dyad. It is with the help of postures that one can create a mental barrier relative to the surrounding ones, determine the orientation of partners relative to each other. A change in posture, their synchronization indicates changes in the relationship between those who communicate.

An important role in the process of conducting a psychological conversation is played by gestures, eye movement, and the distance of communication.

The researcher usually tries to conduct a conversation in a free, relaxed manner, trying to open up the interlocutor, liberate him and win him over. The more sincere the interlocutor, the higher the adequacy of the data obtained in the conversation and surveys of the problem under study.

The beginning of the conversation is very important for the successful development of the conversation. His first phrases can arouse either interest and a desire to enter into a dialogue with the researcher, or a desire to evade him.

The researcher can express his active participation in the conversation, interest in it by facial expressions, postures, gestures, intonation, and additional questions.

Conclusion

The most common reasons for the insincerity of the researcher may be fear of showing themselves from a bad or funny side, unwillingness to mention other people and give them any characteristics, refusal to reveal those aspects of life that seem to him (correctly or erroneously) intimate, fear that from the conversation unfavorable conclusions can be drawn, unsympathetic conduct of the conversation, misunderstanding of the purpose of the conversation.

To maintain good contact with the interlocutor, the researcher must demonstrate his interest in his personality, in his problems, in his opinion. Open agreement or disagreement should be refrained from.

In this paper, the ways and methods of such a construction of a psychological conversation were considered, which is necessary not only for the researcher, but also for the researcher.

Literature

1. Dridze T.M. Language and social psychology / - M .: Education, 1997. - 256 p.

2. Klyuev E.V. Speech communication / - M .: Education, 1998. - 265 p.

3. Radugin A.A., Radugina O.A. Social Psychology. Textbook for higher educational institutions./ - M.: Biblionics, 2006. - 496 p.

4. Labunskaya V.A. Non-verbal behavior. / - Rostov-on-Don: Slovo, 1986 - 356 p.

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Conversation method

Obtaining information in the process of direct communication between the researcher and the respondent is typical for the method of conversation (interview). A conversation is a more "psychological" form of questioning, since it involves the interaction of subjects, subject to certain socio-psychological patterns. The most important condition for the success of the conversation is to establish contact between the researcher and the respondent, to create a trusting atmosphere of communication. The researcher must win over the interviewee, call him to frankness.

Conversation is a method of studying human behavior that is specific to psychology, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of research is impossible. A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called the method of conversation. Psychologists of various schools and trends widely use it in their research.

The conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview. Researchers distinguish between a clinical conversation, an integral part of the "clinical method", and a purposeful face-to-face interview - an interview. The content of the conversations can be recorded completely or selectively, depending on the specific objectives of the study. When compiling full protocols of conversations, the psychologist can use a voice recorder.

Compliance with all the necessary conditions for conducting a conversation, including the collection of preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method a very effective means of psychological research. Therefore, it is desirable that the interview be conducted taking into account the data obtained using methods such as observation and questionnaires. In this case, its purpose may include verification of preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained using these methods of primary orientation in the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects.

In situations of oral speech communication, the communicants deal with their own speeches. The listener forms speech in accordance with how the speaker's articulatory apparatus excites processes in the air. The listener automatically selects, launches and executes the previously formed neuroprograms corresponding to them, which he subjectively perceives as the speaker's speech. The speaker has his own processes, which cannot be the property of the listener. The speaker may imagine that he is conveying his thoughts to the listener, informing him, conveying information. The listener can only have his own thought processes, the results of which may suit the speaker or not, but these results are also not given directly to the speaker. He can guess about them, having orientation models of the situation. The inadequacy of displaying situations of verbal communication is typical for most human beings. Psychologists are no exception. In Radishchev's time, "conversation" would have been interpreted as "reading." If we accept the appropriate conventions, then in M. Fasmer we find: "... Conversation" conversation, teaching "... (M. Fasmer, M., 1986, p. 160). Reflective listening can be understood not as an interruption of the speaker, but as a reflection, i.e. displaying oneself in a state of listening, paying attention to oneself, analyzing one’s own perception.Resolving the question: does your model of what the speaker wants from you correspond to what you put in line with this model, apparently, can be considered reflective listening.

Types of conversation

Conversations differ depending on the psychological task pursued. There are the following types:

v Therapeutic conversation

v Experimental conversation (to test experimental hypotheses)

v Autobiographical conversation

v Collection of subjective anamnesis (collection of information about the personality of the subject)

v Collecting an objective history (gathering information about acquaintances of the subject)

v Telephone conversation

Usually, a conversation between two people is like verbal ping-pong - the interlocutors take turns talking. However, things are different in counseling and psychotherapy, especially at the beginning of a conversation. Here, the verbal activity of the consultant should be minimal so that the client can focus on revealing his problems and difficulties. The consultant should not so much talk as listen. Listening means expressing genuine interest in another person.

There are two important aspects associated with this skill. First, each person feels the need to communicate with another person on matters important to him. Second, our tendency to support or agree with others depends on how much they listen to us. We can safely say that the quality of relationships between people to a large extent depends on the ability to listen and hear.

However, there are some circumstances that make it difficult to listen carefully. Often what the client says does not match the counselor's mindset and the client does not listen carefully. There is a widespread manner, often in counseling, when we do not so much listen to the interlocutor as we react to his messages, having formulated remarks, answers, questions, etc. in our thoughts in advance. It is only the appearance of hearing. One of the consequences of social learning is the avoidance of redundant information about the other person, which sometimes leads the counselor to resist telling the client about deeply personal matters, and the result of such resistance is, again, inattentive listening. Sometimes the events told by the client or the topics touched upon cause unpleasant feelings: anxiety, tension. The consultant, trying to avoid an unpleasant state, may not hear some important details in the narration. Listening difficulties are also caused by clients who constantly complain about their problems, especially somatic symptoms (for example, psychosomatic patients).

Listening is primarily feedback from the client's thoughts and feelings, prompting the client to talk further about his life, about its difficulties and problems. If the counselor is attentive, the client "replaces the dot at the end of the sentence with a comma, and what seemed to be the end of disclosure becomes a prelude to deeper revelation."

In any case, listening correctly is an active process. He, covers "all kinds of sensations plus intuition, reflection and empathy." This means great attention to detail, no matter how insignificant they may be. The listener needs to show interest and understanding, but not prevent the narrator from remaining in the flow of experiences; the consultant listening to the client must be liberated and observant so that the confessions heard generate an abundant associative flow. The resulting associations serve as certain "keys" to understanding the client's problems. But one should not cling to them, since some of the associations and ideas that have arisen are not confirmed later and are discarded. You do not need to share your associations with the client, because they can be completely wrong. Associations are rather a guide to further listening, asking questions, encouraging the client to "explore" new areas of the subjective world. Active listening of this kind helps to link separate fragments of the client's narrative, as a result of which the main task of counseling is realized - understanding the client.

Reflective and non-reflective listening

There are two styles of conversation, and in its course one can replace the other depending on the context.

Observation - the main empirical method of purposeful systematic study of man. The observed does not know that he is the object of observation.

Observation is implemented using a special technique, which contains a description of the entire observation procedure:

a) the choice of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed;

b) observation program: a list of those aspects, properties, features of the object that will be recorded;

c) a way of fixing the received information.

When observing, a number of requirements must be observed: the presence of an observation plan, a set of features, indicators that must be recorded and evaluated by the observer; preferably several expert observers, whose estimates can be compared, building a hypothesis that explains the observed phenomena, testing the hypothesis in subsequent observations.

Based on the observation, an expert assessment can be given. The results of observations are recorded in special protocols, certain indicators and signs are distinguished, which should be identified during observation in the behavior of the subjects according to the observation plan. Protocol data are subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing.

Observation has several options. External observation is a way of collecting data about the psychology and behavior of a person by directly observing him from the outside. Internal observation, or self-observation, is used when a research psychologist sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly represented in his mind.

Free observation does not have a predetermined framework, program, procedure for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature in the course of the Observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer.

There are the following types of observation: slice (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes for a number of years), selective and continuous and a special type - included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the study group).

Advantages of the method:

1. The wealth of information collected;

2. The naturalness of the conditions of activity is preserved;

3. It is acceptable to use a variety of technical means;

4. It is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subjects.

Flaws:

1. Subjectivity;

2. Inability to control the situation;

3. Significant time investment.

Method of self-observation (introspection). The subject carefully observes the dynamics of the states he experiences at each stage of the instruction execution. The subject, who has undergone special training, describes what he feels when he finds himself in a particular situation.

Introspection has two drawbacks:

1. Extreme subjectivity, since each subject describes his own impressions or experiences, which very rarely coincide with the impressions of another subject;

2. Feelings of the same subject change over time.

Psychodiagnostic conversation as a method of obtaining information based on verbal communication.

One type of survey is a conversation. Conversation as a psychological method provides for direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the student of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified. Types of interviews: history taking, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires.

Anamnesis ( lat. from memory) - information about the past of the student, obtained from him or - with an objective history - from persons who know him well. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to get the interviewee's answers to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions. In this case, when questions and answers are presented in writing, a survey takes place.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method of conversation.

The content and plan of the conversation. A conversation is an empirical method of obtaining information about a person in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions, which is widespread in psychology and in pedagogical practice. Answers are recorded either by tape recording or by stenography. The conversation is a subjective psychodiagnostic method, since the teacher or researcher subjectively evaluates the answers, the behavior of the student, while his behavior, facial expressions, gestures, questions affect the student, causing one or another degree of openness and trust-distrust of the subject.

Organization of the conversation. There are a number of requirements for conversation as a method. The first is ease. You can't turn a conversation into a question. The conversation brings the greatest result in the case of establishing personal contact between the researcher and the person being examined. It is important at the same time to carefully think over the conversation, to present it in the form of a specific plan, tasks, problems to be clarified. The method of conversation involves, along with the answers and the formulation of questions by the subjects. Such a two-way conversation provides more information on the problem under study than just the answers of the subjects to the questions posed.

Types of tests and types of tasks in tests. Test (from English - test, test, check) - a standardized method of psychological measurement and diagnosis of the severity of mental and behavioral properties and states of the individual. The test is a standardized, often limited in time, test designed to establish comparable quantitative and qualitative individual psychological differences.

Standardization means that these techniques should always and everywhere be applied in the same way, from the situation and instructions received by the subject, to the methods of calculating and interpreting the data. Comparability means that the scores obtained on the test can be compared with each other regardless of where, when, how and by whom they were obtained. Of course, if the test was applied correctly. In psychodiagnostics, there are various classifications of tests.

They can be subdivided:

According to the features of the test tasks used for verbal tests and non-verbal (practical) tests;

According to the forms of the examination procedure - for group and individual tests;

By focus: intelligence tests, personality tests, special ability tests, achievement tests, creativity tests;

Depending on the presence or absence of time constraints - speed tests and performance tests;

According to the method of implementation - blank, manipulative, instrumental, computer, situational-behavioral;

On psychometric grounds, tests are divided into those based on scales of individual differences, and criteria-oriented tests;

According to the purpose of application, school readiness tests, clinical tests, professional selection tests and others are distinguished. - by composition - monometric and complex (test batteries).

Criteria Based Tests (CORT) are designed to determine the level of individual achievements relative to some criterion based on a logical-functional analysis of the content of tasks. As a criterion (or an objective standard), specific knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the successful completion of a particular task are usually considered. The criterion is the presence or absence of knowledge. This is the main difference between CORT and traditional psychometric tests, in which the assessment is carried out on the basis of correlating individual results with group results (orientation to the statistical norm). An essential feature of KORT is that in them individual differences are minimized (individual differences affect the duration of assimilation, and not the final result).

Speed tests - the type of diagnostic methods in which the main indicator of the productivity of the subjects is the time to complete (volume) of test tasks. Typical speed tests usually include a large number of homogeneous tasks (items). The amount of material is chosen in such a way that in the allotted time (constant for all subjects), none of the subjects has time to cope with all the tasks. Then the indicator of productivity will be the number of correctly completed tasks. Example: proofreading test, intelligence tests. An indicator of the effectiveness of performing speed tests can also be a direct measurement of the task execution time (Schulte table).

Performance Tests focused on measuring or stating the result achieved by the test subject when performing a test task. The speed of work is not taken into account or has an auxiliary value. A time limit may apply, but serves the purpose of standardizing the study or to save time. These are the majority of personal methods, questionnaires, projective tests, questionnaires.

Verbal tests . In them, the material of test tasks is presented in verbal form. This implies that the main content of the subject's work is operations with concepts, mental actions in a verbal-logical form. Verbal tests are more often aimed at measuring the ability to understand verbal instructions, skills in operating with grammatical language forms, mastering writing and reading.

Tests reflecting the verbal factors of intelligence most closely correlate with the criteria of general culture, awareness, and academic performance. The results of verbal tests are very sensitive to differences in the language culture of the subjects, the level of education, and professional characteristics. Difficulties are presented by the adaptation of verbal tests to the conditions of examination of subjects of a different nationality.

Non-verbal tests (practical). In them, the material of test tasks is represented by non-verbal tasks. Non-verbal tests reduce the influence of language and cultural differences on the test result. Performing a task in a non-verbal form also distinguishes the procedure for examining subjects with speech and hearing impairments, as well as persons without education. Practical tasks proved to be convenient for conducting mass test studies.

Blank tests (they used to be called "pencil and paper tests"). The use of forms is common in almost all types of test methods. The subject is offered a special survey form, a brochure, a questionnaire, etc., which contain instructions and examples of solutions, work tasks and a form for registering answers.

Advantages: simplicity of examination technique, no need for special hardware. In subject tests, the material of test tasks is presented in the form of real objects: cubes, cards, details of geometric shapes, structures and nodes of technical devices, etc. The most famous are the Koos cubes, the test of complex figures from the Veksler set, the Vygotsky-Sakharov test. Subject tests are mostly conducted individually. Hardware tests require the use of special equipment to conduct research and record the data obtained.

They are used to assess psychophysiological properties, study reaction time, typological features of the nervous system, to study the characteristics of perception, memory, thinking. The advantages of hardware tests include higher accuracy and objectivity of the survey results, the possibility of automating the collection of primary data. The disadvantages are the high cost of the necessary equipment and the complexity of the technical support of the psychodiagnostic laboratory. In most cases, hardware tests are carried out individually.

Computer tests - automated type of testing in the form of a dialogue between the subject and the computer. Test tasks are presented on the display screen, and the subject enters the answers from the keyboard; the survey protocol is immediately created as a data set on a magnetic media. Standard statistical packages allow you to very quickly carry out mathematical and statistical processing of the results obtained in different directions.

If desired, you can get information in the form of graphs, tables, charts, profiles. With the help of a computer, you can get an analysis of such data that is almost impossible to obtain without it: the time to complete the test tasks, the time to get the right answers, the number of refusals to decide and seek help, the time spent by the subject thinking about the answer when refusing the decision; response input time /if it is complicated/, etc. These features of the subjects are used for in-depth psychological analysis in the testing process.

Individual tests - the interaction of the experimenter and the subject takes place one on one.

Advantages: the ability to observe the subject (facial expressions, involuntary reactions), hear and fix statements that are not provided for by the instructions, fix functional states.

They are used in work with children of infancy and preschool age, in clinical psychology - testing of persons with somatic or neuropsychiatric disorders, people with physical disabilities, etc. As a rule, it requires a lot of time and a high level of qualification of the experimenter. Group tests allow you to simultaneously examine a group of subjects (up to several hundred people). (This is not a socio-psychological diagnosis.)

Advantages:

mass character;

Speed of data collection;

The instruction and procedure are quite simple and the experimenter does not require high qualifications;

To a greater extent, the uniformity of the conditions for the experimenter is observed; - the processing of the results is usually more objective, often on a computer.

Flaws:

Limitation of the possibility of observation;

There is less opportunity to achieve mutual understanding with the subject, to interest him, to enlist cooperation - unidentified diseases, fatigue, anxiety, anxiety can affect the performance of the task.

Intelligence tests. They are general aptitude tests. Designed to measure the level of intellectual development (mental potential). Manifestations of intelligence are diverse, but they have something in common that allows them to be distinguished from other features of behavior. This common is the activation in any intellectual act of thinking, memory, imagination, all those mental functions that provide knowledge of the surrounding world. Accordingly, intelligence as an object of measurement is understood as those features of a person that are related to cognitive properties.

This is reflected in numerous tests for assessing various intellectual functions (tests of logical thinking, semantic and associative memory, arithmetic, spatial visualization, etc.). These tests are quite clearly separated from other methods for measuring individual psychological characteristics - personality tests aimed at measuring behavior in certain social situations, interests and emotions of a person.

In most intelligence tests, the subject on a special form is asked to establish the logical relations of classification, analogy, generalization, and others indicated by the instructions between the terms and concepts that make up the test tasks. He communicates his decisions either in writing or by marking one of several options available on the form. The success of the subject is determined by the number of correctly completed tasks, which is used to display the coefficient of intelligence.

The success of the subject is related to the fact (according to G. Eysenku ):

To what extent, in his previous experience, he has mastered the terms and concepts from which the test tasks are built;

To what extent they mastered precisely those mental actions that are necessary to solve the tasks of the test;

And can he arbitrarily update these actions;

To what extent the mental stereotypes that have developed in the subject in his past experience are suitable for solving the tasks of the test.

Thus, the test results rather reveal not the mental potential of the subject, but those features of his past experience, learning, which inevitably affect his work on the test. This circumstance served as the basis for calling the results obtained when applying intelligence tests "test" or "psychometric" intelligence.

Tests of special abilities, creativity, personality.

Achievement Tests - assessment of the achieved level of development of abilities, skills and knowledge. Unlike intelligence tests, which reflect the influence of accumulated experience and general abilities, achievement tests measure the impact of special training programs, professional and other training on the effectiveness of teaching a particular set of knowledge, the formation of various special skills. Thus, achievement tests are focused on assessing a person's achievements after completion of training. Achievement tests used in school psychodiagnostics have significant advantages over the existing assessment of student performance.

Their indicators are focused on measuring mastery of key concepts, themes and elements of the curriculum, and not a specific body of knowledge, as is the case with traditional school assessment. Achievement tests, thanks to a standardized form of assessment, make it possible to correlate the student's level of achievement in the subject as a whole and in its individual essential elements with similar indicators in the class or in any other sample of subjects. This assessment is more objective and requires less time (because they are most often group tests) than the traditional school assessment.

They cover a larger number of topics. Tests provide an opportunity for an unambiguous objective assessment of a student, while exams do not provide such an assessment. For example, in 1994 in Moscow, out of 50,000 graduates, 110 received gold medals, and in Novosibirsk, out of 8,000, 55 graduates. Ratio 1:4.

Creativity test - Methods designed to study and evaluate the creative abilities of the individual. Creativity is the ability to produce new ideas, find unconventional ways to solve problematic problems. Creativity factors - fluency, clarity, flexibility of thinking, sensitivity to problems, originality, ingenuity, constructiveness in solving them, etc. If the solution of creativity tests can be taken as one of the evidence of the presence of creative abilities in a person, then not solving them is not yet proof of the absence those.

The best known tests for measuring the cognitive aspect of creativity were developed by Joe Gilford et al (1959) and Paul Torrens (1962). In domestic research, based on the allocation of a unit of measurement of creative abilities, called "intellectual initiative", an original technique of "creative field" has been developed. D.B. Epiphany (1983).

Special Ability Tests - methods designed to measure the level of development of certain aspects of intelligence and psychomotor functions, mainly providing efficiency in specific, rather narrow areas of activity. Unlike intelligence tests that focus on broad areas of activity, special ability tests focus on specific areas of activity and often serve as a supplement to intelligence tests.

They arose for the purpose of professional selection and career guidance abroad. In foreign psychodiagnostics, the following groups of ability tests are distinguished: sensory, motor, technical (mechanical) and professional (counting, musical, reading speed and reading comprehension, etc.). Complex batteries of abilities are most widely used abroad.

Advantages and disadvantages of the test method.

Tests consist of a series of tasks with a choice of ready-made answers. When calculating the scores for the tests, the selected answers receive an unambiguous quantitative interpretation and are summed up. The total score is compared with quantitative test norms and after this comparison standard diagnostic conclusions are formulated.

The popularity of the test method is explained by the following main advantages of it (below, mainly traditional oral and written exams are taken as a comparison):

1. Standardization of conditions and results. Test methods are relatively independent of the qualifications of the user (performer), for the role of which even a laboratory assistant with a secondary education can be trained. This, however, does not mean that a qualified specialist with a full-fledged higher psychological education should not be involved in preparing a comprehensive conclusion on a battery of tests.

2. Efficiency and economy. A typical test consists of a series of short tasks, each of which, as a rule, takes no more than half a minute to complete, and the entire test, as a rule, takes no more than an hour (in school practice, this is one lesson); a group of subjects is simultaneously subjected to testing at once, thus, there is a significant saving of time (man-hours) for data collection.

3. Quantitative differentiated nature of the assessment. The fragmentation of the scale and the standardization of the test allows us to consider it as a "measuring tool" that gives a quantitative assessment of the measured properties (knowledge, skills in a given area). In addition, the quantitative nature of the test results makes it possible to apply a well-developed psychometric apparatus in the case of tests, which makes it possible to assess how well a given test works on a given sample of subjects under given conditions.

4. Optimum difficulty. A professionally designed test consists of items of optimal difficulty. At the same time, the average subject scores approximately 50 percent of the maximum possible number of points. This is achieved through preliminary tests - a psychometric experiment. If in the course of it it becomes known that about half of the examined contingent copes with the task, then such a task is recognized as successful and it is left in the test.

5. Reliability. This is perhaps the most important advantage of tests. The "lottery" nature of modern exams with the drawing of "happy" or "unlucky" tickets is known to everyone. Lottery for the examiner here turns into low reliability for the examiner - the answer to one fragment of the curriculum, as a rule, is not indicative of the level of assimilation of the entire material. In contrast, any well-designed test covers the main sections of the curriculum (tested area of knowledge or manifestations of some skill or ability). As a result, the opportunity for "tailers" to break into excellent students, and for an excellent student to suddenly "fail" are sharply reduced.

6. The most important social consequence of the advantages of the test method listed above is fairness. It should be understood as being protected from examiner bias. A good test puts all test subjects on an equal footing.

7. Possibility of computerization. In this case, this is not just an additional convenience that reduces the living labor of qualified performers during a mass examination. As a result of computerization, all testing parameters are increasing. There is an opportunity to ensure information security. It is possible to create a "bank of test items", which allows you to technically prevent abuse by unscrupulous examiners. The selection of tasks offered to a particular subject can be made from such a bank by the computer program itself during testing, and the presentation of a specific task to this subject in this case is as much a surprise for the examiner as it is for the subject.

8. Psychological adequacy. This is the most important psychological consequence of optimal complexity. The presence in the test (compared to traditional exam options) of a larger number of short tasks of medium difficulty gives many subjects (especially anxious, insecure) a chance to believe in themselves, to activate the psychologically optimal setting "to overcome". When such a subject remains face to face with one or two very complex and large tasks and does not see how to cope with them at all, then he loses heart and does not reveal all his possibilities.

And if there are many tasks and some of them clearly begin to “succumb” (the subject is sure that he can cope with them), the person in the process of testing is encouraged and begins to “fight” for the maximum result. The property of optimal complexity not only provides the measuring (distinguishing) power of the test, but also ensures the optimal psychological mood of the subjects. A test situation of optimal complexity is an optimal exciter - people experience a normal level of stress (tension) necessary in order to show the highest result. The lack of stress (in the case of an easy test), and even more so the excess (in the case of a difficult one), distort the measurement results.

Testing Disadvantages:

1. The danger of "blind", automatic errors. The blind faith of unskilled performers that the test should work correctly automatically sometimes gives rise to errors and incidents: the test subject did not understand the instructions and began to answer completely differently from the requirements of the instruction standards, the test subject for some reason applied distorting tactics, there was a “shift” in the application stencil-key to the answer sheet (for manual, non-computer scoring), etc.

2. Danger of profanity. The outward ease of conducting tests attracts people who do not want to seriously get acquainted with psychodiagnostics.

3. Loss of individual approach, "stressfulness". The test is for everyone. It is quite possible to miss the unique individuality of a non-standard person (especially a child). The subjects themselves feel this, and this makes them nervous - especially in the situation of certification testing. People with reduced stress resistance even have a certain violation of self-regulation - they begin to worry and make mistakes in elementary questions for themselves.

4. Loss of individual approach, "reproductivity". Knowledge tests are designed to identify ready-made, standard knowledge. Most of the tests are not aimed at creative, constructive activities.

5. Lack of trust. The testing procedure may give the subject the impression that the psychologist has little interest in him personally, in his problems and difficulties. Dialogue methods have an undeniable advantage in this regard.

6. Inadequate complexity. Sometimes unskilled "testologists" bring down tests on a child that are too difficult for him by age. He has not yet developed the necessary concepts and conceptual skills to adequately comprehend both the general instructions for the test and the meaning of individual questions.

Tests cannot be made the only comprehensive method of any diagnosis, they require the parallel use of other diagnostic methods. The best guarantee against laymen and profanity is a serious and qualified interest in what experimental and scientific work the developers of the test have done, how fully this work and its results are reflected in the accompanying documentation. These are, first of all, questions of reliability, validity and representativeness.

Questionnaires as a standardized self-report.

Questionnaires are a large group of methods, the tasks of which are presented in the form of questions or statements, and the task of the subject is to independently report some information about himself in the form of answers. The theoretical basis of this method can be considered introspectionism - the psychology of self-observation. The method of questionnaires was initially considered as a kind of self-observation. But with the given answer options, this self-observation, which is given a standardized character, is close to objective testing in many formal ways.

An exploratory tool that asks subjects to answer a variety of written questions. A group of psychodiagnostic methods in which tasks are presented in the form of questions and statements. Designed to obtain data from the words of the subject (standardized self-report).

Types of questionnaires.

A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into the psychology of a person than a written one, but it requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, a large investment of time to conduct research. The answers of the subjects received during an oral survey depend significantly on the personality of the person who conducts the survey, and on the individual characteristics of the one who answers the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the survey situation.

A written survey allows you to reach more people. The most common form is the questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that, using the questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account the reactions of the respondent to the content of its questions in advance and, based on this, change them. Free survey - a kind of oral or written survey, in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to certain limits. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change the tactics of research, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them.

personality questionnaires.

Standardized questionnaires that unambiguously and quantitatively assess the degree of expression of the personality traits of the subjects or other personality traits. As a rule, there are no “right” and “wrong” answers in personality questionnaires. They only reflect the degree of agreement or disagreement of the subject with a particular statement. According to the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into questionnaires with prescribed answers (closed questionnaires) and with free answers (open questionnaires).

In closed questionnaires, options for answers to the question posed are provided in advance. The subject must choose one of them. The most common is a two- or three-alternative choice of answer (for example: “yes, no”; “yes, no, I find it difficult to answer”). The advantage of closed questions is the simplicity of the procedure for registering and processing data, a clear formalization of the assessment, which is important in a mass survey. At the same time, this form of answer "roughens" the information. Often, subjects have difficulties when it is necessary to make a categorical decision.

Open questionnaires provide free answers without any special restrictions. Subjects give answers of their own choice. Standardization of processing is achieved by assigning arbitrary responses to standard categories. Advantages: obtaining detailed information about the subject; conducting a qualitative analysis of the responses. Disadvantages: the complexity of formalizing the answers and their assessments; difficulties in interpreting the results; cumbersome procedure and time consuming.

Personality Trait Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality traits. Directly observed personality traits act as the starting material for constructing questionnaires. In contrast to the construction of typological questionnaires, this approach requires a grouping of personality traits, not those that are not examined. In questionnaires of personality traits, the diagnosis is carried out by the degree of severity of traits. Example: (16 personality factors) - Cattell questionnaire, USK.

Typological questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality types as integral formations that are not reducible to a set of traits (or factors). This approach requires grouping the subjects themselves, and not their personal characteristics. In typological questionnaires, diagnosis is carried out on the basis of comparison with the corresponding /average/ personality type. Example: G. Eysenck, MMPI.

Questionnaires of motives - a group of personal questionnaires designed to diagnose the motivational-need sphere of a person, which allows you to establish what a person's activity is aimed at (motives as the reasons that determine the choice of behavior direction) and how the regulation of behavior dynamics is carried out.

Interest Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure interests and choose a professional activity Questionnaires of interests, depending on the saturation of personal indicators, can be attributed to both personal questionnaires and questionnaires.

Value Questionnaires - a group of personal questionnaires designed to measure the values and value orientations of the individual. Values are formed in the process of assimilation of social experience and are found in the interests, attitudes and other manifestations of the personality.

Attitude Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure the relative orientation of a person in a one-dimensional continuum of attitudes.

Questionnaires biographical - a group of questionnaires for obtaining data on the history of a person's life. Most often, questions relate to age, health status, marital status, level and nature of education, special skills, career advancement, and other relatively objective indicators. They help to collect the information necessary for a reliable interpretation of test scores.

Question forms: open and closed (dichotomous and alternative). Forms of presentation of results. Ways to improve the reliability of questionnaires (multiple duplication of questions, the introduction of a "lie scale", the rejection of direct questions, etc.).

The specifics of the questionnaire. Questioning is an empirical method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that make up the questionnaire. Preparation of the questionnaire requires professionalism. Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

Questionnaires-questionnaires serve to obtain any information about a person that is not directly related to his psychological and personal characteristics. They imply a rigidly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the form of answers. Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of questions (open, closed, semi-open). Respondent - a person who answers the questions of a questionnaire or interview.

Features of the interview. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to get the interviewee's answers to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions.

COURSE WORK

FEATURES OF CONVERSATION AS A METHOD OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING

Introduction

The relevance of researchThis topic is of great importance, since the counseling conversation is the main means of psychological counseling.

For effective psychological impact, the spatial and temporal organization of the conversation is essential, although, of course, much of what can be said about this has already become common truths (Bodalev A.A., Stolin V.V., 1989; Aleshina Yu. E., Petrovskaya L.A., 1989).

The degree of development of the topic: The issues of conversation techniques were considered by many psychologists, such as: Abramova G.S., Ivy A.E., Aleshina Yu.E., George R., Zabrodin Yu.M., Kochyunas R., Lysenko E.M., Sytnik S.A. and many others.

As Problems researchthere is a contradiction between the need to study the features of the conversation as a method of psychological counseling, and the lack of research and systematization of data on this issue.

Purpose of the study: to identify the features of the conversation as the main method of psychological counseling.

Object of study: psychological counseling.

Subject of study: conversation as a method of psychological counseling

Hypothesis:conversation is the main method of psychological counseling and is characterized by its own characteristics: stages, methods, techniques and techniques.

Research objectives:

determine the place of conversation in psychological counseling;

to determine the features of the conversation as a method of psychological counseling;

to determine the methods and techniques and techniques of conducting a conversation in psychological counseling;

to systematize the methods of technique and methods of conducting a conversation as the main method of psychological counseling;

Research methodsto test the hypothesis and solve the tasks set, a complex research method was used, including various aspects: theoretical analysis of psychological literature on the problems under study - interpretation of scientific data, comparative analysis, systematization, generalization; methods of observation and conversation.

Scientific novelty of the research: systematized data on the conversation as the main method of psychological counseling.

Work structure: introduction, two chapters, conclusions for each chapter, bibliography.

1. Theoretical foundations of conversation as a method of psychological counseling

1.1 Conversation in psychology and psychological counseling

In a psychological conversation, there is direct interaction between the psychologist and the respondent in the form of an oral exchange of information. The conversation method is widely used in psychotherapy as a specific methodological technique. It is also used as an independent method in consultative, political, legal and labor psychology.

In the process of conversation, the psychologist, being a researcher, directs, covertly or explicitly, the conversation, during which he asks the person being interviewed questions. There are two types of conversation: managed and unmanaged (weakly managed conversation)

In the course of a guided conversation, the psychologist actively controls the course of the conversation, maintains the course of the conversation, and establishes emotional contact. An uncontrolled conversation occurs with a greater return of initiative from the psychologist to the respondent in comparison with the controlled one. In an unmanaged conversation, the focus is on giving the respondent the opportunity to speak out, while the psychologist does not interfere or almost does not interfere with the course of the respondent's self-expression.

The most important skill of a psychologist in a conversation situation is the ability to establish and maintain rapport, while maintaining the purity of the study, avoiding irrelevant (interfering with obtaining a reliable result) verbal and non-verbal influences on the subject, which can contribute to an active change in his reactions. Careless statements on the part of the psychologist, made, for example, in the form of orders, threats, moralizing, advice, accusations, value judgments regarding what the respondent said, reassurance and inappropriate jokes, can lead to the destruction of rapport with the respondent or to the provision of side suggestions to the respondent.

Conversations differ depending on the psychological task pursued. There are the following types of conversation:

Therapeutic conversation;

Experimental conversation (in order to test experimental hypotheses);

Autobiographical conversation;

Collection of subjective anamnesis (collection of information about the personality of the subject);

Collection of an objective anamnesis (collection of information about acquaintances of the subject);

telephone conversation;

The interview is referred to as the method of conversation, and the method of questioning.

There are two styles of conversation, and in its course one can replace the other depending on the context.

Reflective listening is a style of conversation that involves active verbal interaction between the psychologist and the respondent.

Reflective listening is used to accurately control the correctness of the perception of the information received. The use of this style of conversation may be associated with the personal characteristics of the respondent (for example, a low level of development of communication skills), the need to establish the meaning of the word that the speaker had in mind, cultural traditions (communication etiquette in the cultural environment to which the respondent and the psychologist belong ).

Non-reflexive listening is a style of conversation that uses only the minimum necessary, from the point of view of expediency, words and non-verbal communication techniques on the part of the psychologist.

Non-reflexive listening is used in cases where there is a need to let the subject speak out. It is especially useful in situations where the interlocutor shows a desire to express his point of view, discuss topics of concern to him, and where he has difficulty expressing problems, is easily confused by the intervention of a psychologist, and behaves enslaved due to the difference in social position between the psychologist and the respondent.

Consultative conversation is one of the main methods of providing psychological assistance. Ascending to the sociological survey technique called "in-depth interview", a consultative conversation is a personality-oriented communication in which orientation is carried out in the personal characteristics and problems of the client, a partnership style of relationship is established and maintained (on an equal footing), the required psychological assistance is provided in accordance with needs, issues and nature of advisory work.

Aleshina defines psychological counseling as direct work with people aimed at solving various kinds of psychological problems associated with difficulties in interpersonal relationships, where the main means of influence is a conversation constructed in a certain way.

The direction of the locus of complaint and the readiness of a person determine the form of work with him. The main task of a counseling psychologist is to help the client look at their problems and life difficulties from the outside, to demonstrate and discuss those aspects of relationships that, being sources of difficulties, are usually not recognized and not controlled. The basis of this form of influence is, first of all, a change in the client's attitudes both to other people and to various forms of interaction with them. In the course of a consultative conversation, the client gets the opportunity to take a broader look at the situation, to assess his role in it differently and, in accordance with this new vision, change his attitude to what is happening and his behavior.

Thus, a conversation in psychology is defined as a psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically oriented dialogue between a psychologist and a respondent in order to obtain information from the latter.

In psychological counseling, conversation is one of the main methods of providing psychological assistance. Ascending to the sociological survey technique called "in-depth interview", a consultative conversation is a personality-oriented communication in which orientation is carried out in the personal characteristics and problems of the client, a partnership style of relationship is established and maintained (on an equal footing), the required psychological assistance is provided in accordance with needs, issues and nature of advisory work.

1.2 Stages of conversation in psychological counseling

conversation psychological counseling question

An advisory conversation can be compared to a literary work, which has its own prologue, plot development, plot, denouement, climax and epilogue. In other words, the conversation between a consultant and a client is far from being a random process; it is organized according to certain rules, following which makes it effective and purposeful. What are the basic rules for conducting a conversation in psychological counseling?

The first thing the consultant needs to do during the appointment is to meet and seat the client. The success of the conversation largely depends on how, from the very first minutes, the psychologist will be able to prove himself to be a friendly and interested interlocutor. The situation of the beginning of a conversation for a person who came to a psychologist for the first time is full of discomfort, he needs to be given time to look around, to come to his senses.

A very important point at the beginning of the conversation is getting to know the client by name, the client may refuse to name himself, but forget or not invite him to introduce himself - this means that in many respects doom the consultation to failure. It will be correct to introduce yourself in the same way as the client - by name, patronymic, just by name, etc. (There may be exceptions to this recommendation related to the age of the interlocutor, the specific conditions in which the consultation takes place, and, if necessary, adhere to the norms of communication of a certain ethnic culture.

It happens that at the beginning of the conversation, the consultant is faced with a situation where the client needs to explain what psychological counseling is, what he can count on when seeking help, and also to assure the anonymity of everything that happens behind the doors of the psychological office.

The next step to take is to go directly to the counseling process. It is natural to assume that it is first necessary for the client to talk about himself and his problems. This move is so logical that often clients themselves begin the story about themselves.

If the client is silent, waiting for what the consultant will say, he can be helped to start talking about himself with remarks like: “I listen to you carefully” or “Tell me what brought you here.” From the very beginning of the conversation, one should not forget that the advisory impact is, first of all, the impact through the word: one inaccurate wording or remark - and the client can be unsettled for a long time, take offense at the consultant, withdraw, feel insecure and lonely. And then the psychologist will have to spend a lot of time correcting the situation and restoring contact.

To establish good contact with the client, to organize the conversation correctly from the very beginning - this means, in many respects, to ensure the effectiveness of counseling. Unsuccessful contact with a person or issues not resolved at the beginning of the conversation can become an obstacle in the development of the conversation just when it is especially undesirable. Most often, it is they that serve as fertile ground for the formation of the client's resistance to psychological influence, which can manifest itself as unwillingness to continue the conversation, claims against the consultant, a sense of the meaninglessness of what is happening, etc.

Resistance to counseling is a common phenomenon at the beginning of a conversation, when the client, already in the psychologist's office, is still asking himself the question of whether he should have come here or not. It happens that a person who has asked for help starts a conversation with general topics and questions that have nothing to do with him personally - why there are so many divorces now, how the peculiarities of the current situation in the country affect relations between people, etc. Of course, you should not completely ignore the client's questions, but interest in the "fates of being" is almost never the basis for seeking advice.

The second step is asking the client.

After the problems of the beginning of the conversation were resolved, the client began a story about himself, thus moving the conversation to the next stage, where the main task of the consultant is to understand his problems as best as possible, to understand what the main conflicts and anxieties are connected with.

At this phase of the conversation, it often turns out that the way the client interprets his situation, what and how he sees the causes of his problems, is far from reality, contradictory, negatively characterizes other people, exposing the narrator in a positive light. But working with this material, disagreeing with the client, pointing out his mistakes, is not worth it at this stage. Usually, a psychologist does not yet have sufficient information, based on which one could correct a person’s point of view, and objections, expressions of disagreement only activate resistance, destroying the positive contact that is only being formed. At this stage, the principle of "accepting the concept of the client" should be followed. You should not be afraid that due to the fact that the psychologist at first did not express disagreement with what the client says about himself and the people around him, subsequently expressing the opposite opinion at the stage of corrective influence will be perceived by the interlocutor more negatively. On the contrary, often already in the course of the story, the client's point of view changes, he is preparing to accept a new view of himself and others, a different concept of what is happening.

The history of the problem is important (when and in connection with what it appeared); the relationship of the client with all the persons acting in his story, their attitude to the problem; an idea of what exactly caused the problem from the point of view of the person himself and the people around him; the deterioration and improvement of the situation that has ever occurred and what they could be connected with; what exactly caused the appeal to the consultation, why it happens right now, and not earlier or later. All the points mentioned above should be specifically asked for. The questions that can be formulated based on these points should be broad enough, and they usually stimulate the client well to tell.

Structuring the conversation is necessary for both the consultant and the client. The client should have a logical idea of what and why is being said and discussed at the moment. This, on the one hand, helps to avoid recurrences of resistance, since the client begins to feel that not only the consultant, but also himself is responsible for everything that happens during the appointment. In addition, understanding what is happening contributes to concentration, increasing emotional and intellectual activity during a conversation. Structuring the conversation is also useful for the consultant, because it allows you to use the consultation time more efficiently: if the client can easily trace where and how certain topics arise in the conversation, what exactly the newly emerging ideas are connected with, then, therefore, there is no need for something additional repeat or explain.

Each hypothesis is the counselor's attempt to understand the client's situation. At the same time, polls about what is actually happening, the real difficulties of the client's relationship with others, are absolutely meaningless. Objectivity in human relations is a very relative thing. Each participant looks at what is happening from his own point of view, based on his life experience, his own needs, interests, etc. And the notorious third party, who is usually assigned the role of a judge, is also not impartial: everyone has his own views on life and principles, and even those who, for the sake of truth, try to free themselves from them for a while, cannot go far from themselves.

But if the consultant is not a judge and is not engaged in an objective analysis of the situation, what is the psychological impact based on?

Hypotheses in psychological counseling are, in fact, options for more constructive positions in a situation, probable ways of reorienting the client in his attitude to his problems.

The counselor's hypotheses are based on what the client says about himself and his problems. But this is only the basis for their construction. An inexperienced or unprofessional consultant builds his hypotheses anew at each appointment, having nothing in reserve. But for a professional who is well acquainted with various theoretical and practical developments in the field of counseling and psychotherapy, the client's story is a set of behavioral patterns interpreted from the point of view of one or another developed concept.

A conceptual vision of what the client is talking about greatly facilitates the work, allows you to better interpret the material, quickly find what can help in the current situation, operate with a large number of ideas in understanding what is happening. And the more ideas in the hypothesis that the consultant has about certain statements of the client, the more he is professionally equipped, the easier it is for him to work. But a professional should be able not only to comprehend what the client says, but also to convey, formulate his vision of the situation in such a way that the person who asked for help could understand and accept it. The hypothesis verbally expressed by the counselor is an interpretation. Interpretation is the cornerstone of psychotherapy, the turning point of the counseling process. Z. Freud, who first began to write about this, could hardly imagine how many books and magazines would be devoted to the influence of interpretation on the client in the future. One of the important differences between psychological and medical reception is that in medicine the diagnosis is made by one person - the doctor and communicates it to another - the patient, while the consultant chooses a more constructive position together with the client. The described process can be explained by the following metaphor: the hypotheses and interpretations of the consultant and the view of the problem, which is ultimately accepted by the client, differ as a semi-finished dress of a standard size and a dress made of the same fabric and the same style, but specially tailored for this person. The hypothesis accepted by the client is overgrown with many significant and characteristic facts and experiences only for him, that is, it is maximally individualized.

Before giving an interpretation, trying to change the client's idea of what is happening, the consultant must first formulate unambiguously for himself what is happening in the client's life, that is, checking the hypotheses that have arisen in him, he must stop at one that is most suitable for this person in a particular situations.

What means does the consultant have to test the hypotheses that have arisen? If in the first phase of the questioning the consultant asked broad questions provoking the client into a monologue, then in the second phase the nature of the questions changes fundamentally. The wording becomes more subtle, aimed at clarifying the consultant's ideas. The counselor should strive to ensure that the client's answers correspond to the nature of the questions being asked, that is, they are accurate and specific. Wording like: "often" or "for a long time" is not suitable here. For some, often - it's once a week, for someone - every day. The more accurate the client's answer, the more objective it is, the more it can be considered not only from the point of view of how the client used to perceive his situation, but also from the point of view of the hypotheses and interpretations that arose from the consultant.

The main and, perhaps, the most reliable approach for the consultant to work at the second stage of the questioning is the analysis of specific situations from the client's life, clearly demonstrating his relationships with people, behavior in problem situations, and features of the chosen patterns of interaction. Working with specific situations is one of the most reliable ways for a consultant to test his hypotheses. It is widely known that the more a person talks about something, the more specific details in the story, the less the imprint of subjectivity and one-sidedness, and the more opportunities for the consultant to understand those aspects of reality that are not perceived or noticed by the narrator. Small details of the situation are more difficult to invent or distort, and they become a kind of filters through which information that is unconscious or underestimated by the client passes. But what is it - a complete, detailed story about a specific situation, what are the main requirements for it?

A detailed story should reflect when exactly and in connection with what the described situation arose, where exactly it happened, who took part in it, what exactly the client and other actors said and did, what he thought and felt at the time when events unfolded, what, from the point of view of the client, other participants in the situation thought and felt at that time, how this situation ended, what consequences it had and what it had an impact on.

Let's imagine that a speech at a psychologist's appointment turned to a family conflict, and the wife talks about it. In order for her story to be considered as a specific situation, the client must report what each of the spouses did before the start of the quarrel, how the quarrel went, when exactly the client felt that she was wound up and in connection with what, because of which, with her point of view, this feeling arose, what she herself said and what her husband answered her, what caused the quarrel from his point of view (according to the client’s assumption), how and in connection with what the quarrel was stopped, how events unfolded further, how long the relationship was tense, what are the consequences of this quarrel for their relationship.

Only after hearing such a full story, the consultant can confirm or refute the hypothesis, for example, that the wife herself first provokes conflicts in order to use them later as a means of pressure on her husband, posing as a victim. Clients' self-report is never so complete as to immediately satisfy the psychologist, and a detailed questioning usually follows the description of the situation.

The client does not always easily answer the questions asked by the psychologist. Often you have to spend quite a lot of effort to ensure that the answers are detailed and describe real feelings and experiences, and would not be reasoning on the topic. If at the first stage of the questioning the position of the psychologist can be described as passive, then here it becomes, if possible, active, the consultant offers alternatives, asks detailed questions, stimulating, if possible, the client's memory. It happens that the client believes that he completely forgot some points. In such a situation, the psychologist should encourage him: “Remember at least something”, “It doesn’t matter if this somewhat does not correspond to what actually happened, but you can, knowing your life, imagine as fully as possible how it could be ".

Another often encountered difficulty for the client in such a story is the description of his own experiences and the feelings of other people. It is feelings and experiences that should primarily interest the consultant, since they usually reflect reality more deeply, speak more about the unconscious (according to Freud's theory), often hidden for the client himself, desires and conflicts that underlie his problems. Most people listen to themselves a little, do not know how to analyze their experiences. What the consultant can do to better analyze the feelings and experiences of the client will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter, but here I would like to emphasize that the psychologist should be persistent, helping the client in every possible way. For example, offer various alternatives, encourage: “So you got angry or scared when you heard this?”, “Try to describe your feelings. After all, even if you did not pay special attention to it, you simply could not feel anything at that moment. In a person's life there are always not only thoughts, but also feelings.

Especially often one hears from clients: “I find it difficult to answer” when it comes to the experiences and condition of others. In this situation, the client can be assured that the consultant has enough guesswork. And this is true, since the psychologist needs the features of the experiences and behavior of other people, first of all, in order to understand how the client perceives and evaluates them.

In order for the consultant's hypothesis to be confirmed or refuted, it is not enough to discuss one specific situation; at least two or three such examples are needed. And only if the same pattern of behavior and experience is traced in all the situations discussed, the consultant's hypothesis can be considered confirmed or refuted.

Are there any guidelines for selecting situations to ask the client about? After all, each story requires time and hard work, therefore, its choice should certainly not be random.

The selected situations should be closely related to the content of the main complaints of the client, with those moments of interpersonal relationships that are difficult, problematic.

The situations discussed should be typical, frequently encountered in the life of the client, so that they can be used to judge the features of the relationship as a whole.

It is desirable that these situations be sufficiently detailed, describing integral patterns of interaction, that is, negative, positive and neutral characteristics of relations.

Thus, a mother's complaints that her daughter does not take care of the order in the apartment and usually scatters her things everywhere cannot serve as an example of a specific situation. As such, a mother-daughter conversation can be chosen here, which begins from the moment when the mother, having come home, finds books and clothes scattered, begins to get angry with her daughter, feels offended and, going up to her, says: “Again, everything is different. old." A skilled professional can easily expand this situation further, finding out why exactly she was offended by her daughter, what she answered and thought, etc.

Most often it happens that after two or three such specific situations have been discussed, the consultant can say with confidence which of the hypotheses turned out to be the most suitable, what kind of behavior of the client leads to the fact that problems arise in his life, how he can be helped to relate to what is happening differently and behave accordingly. This means that you can move on to the next phase of the consultative conversation - to provide a psycho-corrective impact, to interpret what is happening.

What exactly is the psycho-correctional impact, what is its effectiveness, can be described for a very long time. Different schools of psychotherapy and their authors emphasize the importance of various factors in the provision of psychocorrectional influence; the leading role in this is given to catharsis, and changes in personal structures, and the acquisition of meaning, etc.

What are the possibilities of providing psycho-correctional impact [tab. 1], are there any techniques that can be used in dialogue to help solve this problem? Perhaps the easiest way to exert influence, which is effective when the conversation is well organized and logically built by the consultant and fully uses the possibilities of case analysis, is to emphasize the contradictions in the client's story, reformulate and restructure the reality surrounding him. Since not only the consultant is actively working during the reception, but also the client, rethinking his life in a new way, even such a slight push can be enough for the client to see what is happening differently. By such a statement, without trying to discover any new "depths of truth", the consultant, nevertheless, offers a different vision of his life situation, unusual for the client. Even if the client's response does indicate a new vision of the situation, this does not mean at all that the work of the psychologist is over. The task of the consultant at this stage is to once again carefully analyze the characteristics of the client's behavior that underlie the problems, without losing sight of the fundamental question: what exactly does the client seek to achieve with his behavior, what needs is he trying to satisfy. Any inadequate neurotic behavior is always beneficial to the client on some level, since in one way or another it satisfies those unconscious needs that, for whatever reason, cannot be satisfied in any other way. The tasks of psycho-correctional influence can be considered realized only when a peculiar chain of events is built not only in the mind of the consultant, but also in the mind of the client.

Completion of the conversation - it would seem that after the psycho-correctional influence is carried out, the conversation can end. Formally, this is undoubtedly true, but just as there is an epilogue in a novel, so in a conversation one more stage is needed, during which the psychologist must carry out a number of activities, without the implementation of which the effectiveness of even the most successful impact can be significantly reduced. These include the following: 1) summarizing the conversation (a brief summary of everything that happened during the reception); 2) discussion of issues related to further relations of the client with a consultant or other necessary specialists; 3) parting of the consultant with the client.

In the book "Fundamentals of Psychological Counseling" R. Kociunas gives an eclectic model of the structure of the consultative process, proposed by V.E. Gilland et al.: "This systemic model, covering six closely related stages, reflects the universal features of psychological counseling of any orientation." Let's list these stages.

Researching problems - establishing contact with the client and achieving mutual trust.

Two-dimensional definition of problems - the desire of the consultant to accurately characterize the client's problems, establishing both their cognitive and emotional aspects, clarifying the problems, achieving the same understanding of them by the client and the consultant.

Identification of alternatives - clarification and open discussion of possible alternatives for solving problems.

Planning is the critical evaluation of decision alternatives.

Activities - consistent implementation of the problem-solving plan.

Assessment and feedback - joint assessment of the level of achievement of the goal and generalization of the results achieved [table 2].

2. Theoretical foundations of conversation as a method of psychological counseling

.1 Conversation in psychological counseling

A conversation can be used in counseling for several purposes:

To identify charged areas for follow-up work.

To narrow down an area and then apply a more specific technique to it.

As a standalone process to clarify the area for the client.

The first use of the conversation is usually at the beginning of the session, when nothing seems to disturb the client. The goal of the psychologist is not at first to clarify something, but simply to find what needs to be clarified.

The second use of conversation is to enter into another technique. There is a common charged region, but you need to figure out exactly what is happening in order to know what to do with it. As soon as the consultant receives enough information, he switches to a more powerful technique.

The third use of conversation is as an independent process. We start with a charged region. We bring it to completion with just one conversation.

The purpose of the conversation process is for both the counselor and the client to understand the topic to such an extent that it either becomes clear to the client or he knows what to do with it. The goal is to reach a mutual understanding of what it is and for the client to take responsibility for it. In the process of achieving this, the theme may dissolve, and this will be the completion of the process.

When conducting a conversation, like any other process, a counseling psychologist does not try to find out exactly what the client's problem is. There is no one thing that he would be looking for. Together, the psychologist and the client try to bring new material to light, provide more points of view, loosen things up, and so on. What exactly this means depends on the client.

The point of having a conversation is not just to encourage the client to talk. There is a two-way dialogue. The counselor helps the client to clarify the topic by asking appropriate questions. He encourages the client to keep looking at and describing what is there until they reach a result.

To help the client, the counselor can ask a variety of questions on the topic: possible causes, ideas, thoughts, opinions, information, solutions to the problem, attempts at solutions, failed solutions, sensations, feelings, means to correct the situation, improvement, attempts to get rid, help, time, place. , state and event, who, what, where, when and how, what can be done about it, is it possible to take responsibility for it, how things would be without it.

And any other questions that help clarify what we're talking about. Both the consultant and the client should be interested in finding out everything about the topic. The counselor doesn't just choose what else to say to keep the client talking, he tries to encourage the client to discover something new.

The main thing not to do in a conversation is not to be indecisive about what we are working on. The consultant tries to clarify the initial topic, no matter what else the client says along the way. The psychologist always returns to the main theme.

Any question is intended to help the client consider the topic, not to push the consultant's ideas. The consultant can find out what the client said, help him sum it up, but he does not add his own assessments to it.

If it turns out that the issue under discussion is not suitable for a single conversation, the consultant switches to the appropriate technique:

Fixed ideas correspond to unfixed steps;

Traumatic incidents correspond to a re-experiencing procedure; separation into opposites corresponds to the union of opposites, and so on.

But this is only if the main topic of the conversation turned out to be not as expected. Any pop-up information about other charged regions is simply noted for later use.

Also, if the conversation does not lead to anything, you can switch to something stronger or more accurate. Or you can use the offload or unlock keys to cover the area more systematically.

Conversation is the main processing. This is one of the most important techniques to master. But for a consultant accustomed to mechanical procedures, the conversation can be difficult. It has no mechanical procedures.

But with understanding of the definition of processing, with exercises and practice, it becomes very simple.

.2 Conversation Techniques: Special Questions and Clarifying Techniques

To a person far from psychological counseling, it may seem that there is nothing special in the way the consultant talks with his client: one of the interlocutors simply tells the other what worries him. No matter how paradoxical at first glance it may be the statement that the less a person who seeks psychological help perceives the role of a consultant as a leader, the better, it is undoubtedly true. In such a situation, the client is more active, easier to accept and discuss the comments and interpretations offered to him, more constructively approaches the problem of the need to change his behavior and attitudes.

You can professionally master the skill of conducting a consultative dialogue only in practice, working together with a trainer or supervisor who would comment on inaccuracies, point out and correct errors in work. It is for this reason that in the process of preparing consultants, modern audio and video recording tools are widely used, which make it possible to more carefully record each step in the development of a consultative conversation. Nevertheless, below we will formulate some basic principles for organizing a dialogue with a client, comment on the possibilities of using some work techniques in counseling, the knowledge and understanding of which can greatly help novice consultants.

Use of paradoxical questions. As an example, take the following dialogue between a consultant and a client:

Client: But I myself never swear, I don’t argue with my mother-in-law, she tells me all this, but I am silent.

Consultant: Shut up… why?

Client: And what, in fact, can I tell her? That she is a fool and everything she says is absolute nonsense?

Consultant: And why don't you really say all this, since you think so?

Client: Well, that's rude, and most importantly, she still won't understand anything.

Consultant: What would you like her to understand?

Let's dwell on this point in the dialogue, and then return to it in a few pages. Let's try to carefully analyze the various forms of the consultant's remarks. The second line is an example of a paradoxical question, the purpose of which is to question what the client takes as absolutely obvious or self-evident. Generally accepted truths such as “it's not good to be rude”, “parents always know better what a child needs” are attitudes and usually serve as a reliable cover for the client's true feelings and experiences. The easiest way to deal with such statements is to question them, to make the client think about what is hidden behind such maxims for him personally. The wording of such a question is usually quite simple: “Why not…?” Many people need only a little push to start thinking about a previously unquestioned topic.

Paradoxical questions are not uncommon in consultative dialogue. Often in a conversation there is a moment when (as in the example above) the client has an answer that is obvious from his point of view, which does not at all contribute to rethinking or constructively solving the situation. The task of the consultant is to challenge this inherently dead-end answer by asking a paradoxical question. Of course, this question is paradoxical only at first glance, it is not difficult to find an answer to it, it is enough to start doubting what seems obvious from the standpoint of ordinary common sense.

Statement of questions. Obtaining information about the client and encouraging him to introspection is impossible without skillful questioning.

As you know, questions are usually divided into closed and open questions. Closed questions are used to obtain specific information and usually require a one or two word answer, confirmation or denial (“yes”, “no”). For example: “How old are you?”, “Can we meet in a week at the same time?”, “How many times have you had fits of anger?” and so on.

Open-ended questions are not so much about learning about the lives of clients as they are about discussing feelings. Benjamin (1987) notes:

“Open questions broaden and deepen contact; closed questions limit it. The former open the doors wide to good relationships, the latter usually leave them closed.”

Examples of open questions: “Where would you like to start today?”, “How do you feel now?”, “What made you sad?” and so on.

Open-ended questions provide an opportunity to share your concerns with the consultant. They give the client responsibility for the conversation and encourage him to explore his attitudes, feelings, thoughts, values, behavior, i.e. his inner world. (1971) highlights the main points of counseling when open-ended questions are used:

The beginning of the consultation meeting (“Where would you like to start today?”, “What happened during the week that we did not see each other?”).

Encouraging the client to continue or complete what was said (“How did you feel when this happened?”, “What else would you like to say about this?”, “Can you add anything to what you said?”).

Encouraging the client to illustrate their problems with examples so that the counselor can better understand them (“Can you talk about any particular situation?”),

Focusing the client's attention on feelings ("What do you feel when you tell me?", "What did you feel when all this happened to you?").

Counseling uses both closed and open questions, but the importance of surveys should not be overestimated in general. Benjamin (1987) points out:

“I am very skeptical about the use of questions in a conversation and feel like I am asking too many questions, often meaningless ones. We ask questions that upset the client, interrupt him, and questions that he may not be able to answer. Sometimes we even ask questions, knowingly not wanting to receive answers, and as a result we do not listen to answers.

Although questioning is an important technique in counseling, however, paradoxically, I dare say that excessive questioning should be avoided in counseling. Any question must be justified - asking it, you need to know for what purpose it is asked. This is a very difficult problem for a novice consultant, who often worries too much about what else to ask the client, and forgets that, first of all, the client must be listened to. If interrogation is turned into the main technique of counseling, then counseling will turn into interrogation or investigation. In such a situation, the client will leave the counselor's office with the feeling that he was not so much understood and called to emotional participation in the counseling contact as interrogated.

Too much questioning during counseling creates many problems (George, Cristiani, 1990):

turns the conversation into an exchange of questions and answers, and the client begins to constantly wait for the consultant to ask about something else;

forces the consultant to take full responsibility for the course of counseling and the topics of the problems discussed;

moves the conversation from emotionally colored topics to a discussion of the facts of life;

"destroys" the mobile nature of the conversation.

For these reasons, budding consultants are generally discouraged from asking clients questions, except at the very beginning of counseling.

There are a few other rules to keep in mind when asking questions to clients:

Questions "Who, what?" most often focused on facts, i.e. questions of this type increase the likelihood of factual answers.

Questions "How?" more focused on a person, his behavior, inner world.

Questions "Why?" often provoke defensive reactions of clients, so they should be avoided in counseling. Asking a question of this type, most often you can hear answers based on rationalization, intellectualization, since it is not always easy to explain the real reasons for one’s behavior (and “why” questions are primarily directed at them, due to many rather contradictory factors.

It is necessary to avoid posing several questions at the same time (sometimes other questions are included in one question). For example, “How do you understand your problem? Have you ever thought about your problems before?”, “Why do you drink and fight with your wife?” In both cases, it may not be clear to the client which of the questions to answer, because the answers to each part of the double question may be completely different.

The same question should not be asked in different formulations. It becomes unclear to the client which of the options to answer. Such behavior of the consultant when asking questions indicates his anxiety. The consultant should "voice" only the final versions of the question.

You can’t ask a question ahead of the client’s answer. For example, the question “Is everything going well?” most often encourages the client to give an affirmative answer. In this case, it is better to ask an open question: “How are things at home?” In such situations, clients often take the opportunity to give a vague answer, such as: "Not bad." The consultant needs to clarify the answer with another question of this type: “What does “not bad” mean to you?” This is very important, since we often put quite different content into the same concepts.

Clarifying and deepening formulations. Let's see how the above dialogue develops further. Recall that the last remark belonged to the client and sounded like this:

Client: That I am also a person, that I am not so bad ...

Consultant: That is, you would like your mother-in-law to understand how good you are, so that she finally appreciates you.

Client: Well, yes, but it's hardly possible.

Let's analyze the consultant's remark. Such formulations, in which what the client said is deepened and clarified, are often found in the dialogue. This group of statements includes both clarifying questions like “How did you feel your confusion?”, And reformulation of what was said: “You felt confused, that is, you got the feeling that you did not understand what was happening?”, And remarks that deepen what was expressed by the client feelings: "You have lost the feeling that someone needs you, that someone is really interested in your presence." The use of such formulations allows you to gradually transfer the client's story from the level of more superficial to deeper experiences. It is important that the careful, step-by-step use of such comments allows, without entering into a confrontation with the client and without provoking resistance, to more accurately characterize his state and experiences, expand the area of realized and understood by him and, thus, prepare the ground for the implementation of corrective influence.

Clarifying and reformulating, the psychologist should in no case go beyond the obvious for the client, each step should logically follow from the previous one, as, for example, in the dialogue we are discussing, the phrases “how good you are” and “appreciated” are directly related to each other. another, but the second of them is undoubtedly stronger and more emotionally charged than the first. The purpose of clarifications usually consists in a fuller, more multifaceted coverage of what is happening with a person and linking the facts received with his relationship with others. So, if the mother-in-law is completely absent in the wording “how good you are”, then “appreciated” already clearly refers to her, indicates a certain nature of the client’s relationship, without unambiguously naming what these relationships are, and due to this, without causing the latter premature resistance to the consultant's remarks. Thus, in a certain sense, the psychologist, as it were, "lures" the interlocutor into the "depth of his own experiences", helps to look into the still unknown corners of his own emotions, preparing him to accept the interpretation.

Thus, the conversation about the technology of conducting a consultative conversation can be continued for a very long time. In addition, each experienced professional has his own tricks and "tricks" that help in working with a variety of clients. But to conclude this section, I would like to repeat once again: in order to master all these techniques at a really high level, you need long hours of work under the supervision of an experienced professional supervisor. Only in this case, you can see yourself from the outside, understand and reflect on a lot that would otherwise go unnoticed.

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