Aesthetic pattern, "golden age". In 17th century France it was called the time of Minerva and Mars.
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Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome manifested itself in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Baptiste Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens" (1511).
The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquities landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic plots with oriental flavor ("Turkish baths"); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like Karl Bryullov, for example) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academism. Numerous art academies served as its "hotbeds". In the middle of the 19th century, a young generation gravitating towards realism rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.
Sculpture
The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. Sculptors such as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated in France on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated toward the aesthetics of classicism.
Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were at first depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borgese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of contemporary figures in ancient togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).
Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.
Architecture
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo-Jones took Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-1774) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were erected in Paris, such as Place Concord (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-1792) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.
The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel build up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaus-Arts).
Literature
The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman François Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).
Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. Classical English prose (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by latinized syntax.
Classicism of the 18th century develops under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (-) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Dramatic works are characterized by three unities: the unity of time (the action takes place one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (one storyline).
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was, in fact, an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable generic, timeless signs that act as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, genres that imply an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality have received great development in Russian classicism: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin). Lomonosov creates his own theory of the Russian literary language based on the experience of Greek and Latin rhetoric, Derzhavin writes "Anacreontic Songs" as a fusion of Russian reality with Greek and Latin realities, G. Knabe notes.
The dominance in the era of the reign of Louis XIV "the spirit of discipline", the taste for order and balance, or, in other words, the fear of "violating established customs", instilled by the era in the art of classicism, were considered in opposition to the Fronde (and historical and cultural periodization was built on the basis of this opposition). It was believed that in classicism "forces striving for truth, simplicity, reasonable" and expressed in "naturalism" (harmoniously correct reproduction of nature), while aggravation ("idealization" or, conversely, " coarsening" of nature).
Determining the degree of convention (how accurately reproduced or distorted, translated into a system of artificial conditional images, nature) is a universal aspect of style. "School of 1660" was described by its first historians (I. Taine, F. Brunetier, G. Lanson; Ch. Sainte-Beuve) synchronously, as basically an aesthetically undifferentiated and ideologically conflict-free community that survived the stages of formation, maturity and withering in its evolution, and private "oppositions - such as Brunetier's antithesis of Racine's "naturalism" to Corneille's craving for the "extraordinary" - were derived from the inclinations of individual talent.
A similar scheme of the evolution of classicism, which arose under the influence of the theory of the “natural” development of cultural phenomena and spread in the first half of the 20th century (cf. in the academic “History of French Literature” the titles of the chapters: “The Formation of Classicism” - “The Beginning of the Decomposition of Classicism”), was complicated by another aspect contained in the approach of L. V. Pumpyansky. His concept of historical and literary development, according to which, French literature, in contrast to even those similar in type of development (“la découverte de l'antiquité, la formation de l'idéal classique, its decomposition and transition to new forms of literature that have not yet been expressed ”) of the New German and Russian, represents a model of the evolution of classicism, which has the ability to clearly distinguish between stages (formations): the “normal phases” of its development appear with “extraordinary paradigm”: “the delight of gaining (the feeling of awakening after a long night, finally the morning), education eliminating ideal (restrictive activity in lexicology, style and poetics), its long domination (associated with the established absolutist society), noisy fall (the main event that happened to modern European literature), the transition to<…>era of freedom. According to Pumpyansky, the flowering of classicism is associated with the creation of the ancient ideal (“<…>relation to antiquity is the soul of such literature"), and degeneration - with its "relativization": "Literature, which is in a certain relation to not its absolute value, is classical; relativized literature is not classical.
After the "school of 1660" was recognized as a research "legend", the first theories of the evolution of the method began to emerge based on the study of intraclassical aesthetic and ideological differences (Molière, Racine, La Fontaine, Boileau, La Bruyère). So, in some works, the problematic "humanistic" art is divorced as actually classic and entertaining, "decorating secular life" . The first concepts of evolution in classicism are formed in the context of philological controversy, which was almost always built as a demonstrative elimination of the Western (“bourgeois”) and domestic “pre-revolutionary” paradigms.
Two "currents" of classicism are distinguished, corresponding to trends in philosophy: "idealistic" (experienced by the neo-stoicism of Guillaume Du Ver and his followers) and "materialistic" (formed by Epicureanism and skepticism, mainly by Pierre Charron). The fact that in the 17th century the ethical and philosophical systems of late antiquity - skepticism (Pyrrhonism), Epicureanism, Stoicism - are in demand, experts consider, on the one hand, a reaction to civil wars and explain it by the desire to "preserve the individual in an environment of cataclysms" (L. Kosareva ) and, on the other hand, are associated with the formation of secular morality. Yu. B. Vipper noted that at the beginning of the 17th century these currents were in a tense confrontation, and he explains its causes sociologically (the first developed in the court environment, the second - outside it).
D. D. Oblomievsky singled out two stages in the evolution of classicism of the 17th century, associated with the “restructuring of theoretical principles” (note G. Oblomievsky highlights the “rebirth” of classicism in the 18th century (“enlightenment version”, associated with the primitivization of the poetics of “contrasts and antithesis of the positive and the negative”, with the restructuring of Renaissance anthropologism and complicated by the categories of collective and optimistic) and the “third birth” of classicism of the period of the Empire (late 80s - early 90s of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century), complicating it with the “principle of the future” and “ the pathos of opposition". I note that characterizing the evolution of classicism of the 17th century, G. Oblomievsky speaks of various aesthetic foundations of classic forms; to describe the development of classicism of the 18th-19th centuries, he uses the words "complication" and "loss", "loss".) and pro tanto, two aesthetic forms: classicism of the “Mahlerbe-Cornelian” type, based on the category of the heroic, arising and becoming on the eve and during the English Revolution and the Fronde; classicism of Racine - La Fontaine - Moliere - La Bruyère, based on the category of the tragic, highlighting the idea of "the will, activity and domination of man over the real world", appearing after the Fronde, in the middle of the 17th century. and associated with the reaction of the 60-70-80s. Disappointment in the optimism of the first half of art. manifests itself, on the one hand, in escapism (Pascal) or in the denial of heroism (La Rochefoucauld), on the other hand, in a “compromising” position (Racine), which gives rise to the situation of a hero who is powerless to change anything in the tragic disharmony of the world, but who has not refused from Renaissance values (the principle of inner freedom) and "resisting evil". Classicists associated with the teachings of Port-Royal or close to Jansenism (Racine, late Boalo, Lafayette, La Rochefoucauld) and followers of Gassendi (Molière, La Fontaine).
The diachronic interpretation of D. D. Oblomievsky, attracted by the desire to understand classicism as a changing style, has found application in monographic studies and, it seems, has withstood the test of concrete material. Based on this model, A. D. Mikhailov notes that in the 1660s, classicism, which entered the “tragic” phase of development, was moving closer to precision prose: “inheriting gallant plots from the baroque novel, [he] not only tied them to real reality, but also brought to them some rationality, a sense of proportion and good taste, to some extent the desire for unity of place, time and action, compositional clarity and logic, the Cartesian principle of “dismemberment of difficulties”, the allocation of one leading feature in the described static character , one passion "], called the Viennese classics and determined the direction of the further development of musical composition.
The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical" music, which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.
The music of the era of Classicism sings of the actions and deeds of a person, the emotions and feelings experienced by him, the attentive and holistic human mind [ ] .
Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic direction. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as an example of an ideal, "correct" style.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore, harmony and logic are inherent in almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism.
Classicism in architecture
Classicism came to replace Rococo, which was subjected to public criticism for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerisms, and an excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The attention of the architects was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calmness and austerity characteristic of ancient architecture, especially Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.
The task of all objects created in the style of classicism is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time for harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental antique architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by a regular layout and clear forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were respected.
The aesthetics of classicism was favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism.
The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter, a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. Symmetry prevails in the classical composition, following the composition of antiquity. The color scheme consists mainly of light pastel colors, which serve to emphasize the architectural elements.
The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, resorts appear.
In the 20s of the XIX century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic color. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).
The development of classicism in the world
Classicism arose and developed under the influence of educational progressive tendencies of social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal state system and harmonious relations between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when a person developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of the figures of classicism, this was an ideal time in history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.
There are three stages in the development of classicism in the world:
- Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
- Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
- Empire.
These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural trend. In fact, he, like European classicism, became the opposite of the Baroque and quickly replaced it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) trends: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.
It all started with the reign of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feeling was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “estate classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism”. As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, Yaroslavl.
Features of classicism
Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, logical accuracy. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.
Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. It should depict truth and virtue, engage in moral education.
Architecture and art are designed to contribute to the development of the individual, so that a person becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between the various arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.
Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as saturated shades of green, pink, purple.
Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines, a smooth pattern; the elements are repetitive and harmonious, and the forms are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on the roofs, rotundas. Often, antique ornaments were present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, no frills.
Representatives of classicism
Classicism has become one of the most common styles throughout the world. Throughout the period of its existence, many talented craftsmen have appeared, and a large number of projects have been created.
The main features of architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the work of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.
In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many principles of modernism.
In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire - the "imperial style". This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the XIX century. after which it was replaced by eclectic currents.
In Britain, the “regency style” became the equivalent of the Empire style (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). One of the founders of the British architectural tradition is Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist.
The most characteristic interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon the details that do not perform a constructive function.
In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings appeared in the spirit of the Parthenon.
In Russia, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed special skill.
Classicism in the interior
The requirements for the interior in the style of classicism were in fact the same as for architectural objects: solid structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time elegance. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simple and light. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.Furniture of the Classicism era was made of precious woods, the texture, which began to perform a decorative function, acquired great importance. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of better quality and more expensive.
The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.
Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in execution.
The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, paintings.
The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray, as well as bronze and silver jewelry. Popular color is white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual details.
At present, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.
Fabrics can also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.
Architecture examples
Consider the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period is the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural trend.
In France of the era of Classicism, various public institutions were built, among which were business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times is the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Souflo. Initially, the project was conceived as the church of St. Genevieve, the patroness of Paris, but in 1791 she was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of the great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grand dome and a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. Parts of the building are clearly demarcated, you can see the transition from heavier forms to lighter ones. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.
The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.
The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combines functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the 1666 fire broke out; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant church. It has an elongated shape, like that of a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similarly to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a structure typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a building closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.
The main attraction of the cathedral is a wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome is a lantern crowned with a ball and a cross.
The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see the statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower - 12, and in the right one there is the "Big Floor" - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the dial diameter is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral stands a monument to Anna, the English queen of a previous era. At her feet you can see the allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are flanked by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).
The scale of the cathedral is another distinguishing feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with a cross is 120 meters.
The wrought iron openwork lattice work of Jean Tijoux (end of the 17th century) and carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.
As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient art and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the later works of the master, one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers were popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. In the last years of his life, the master built his own museum in Possagno.
Many talented architects, both Russians and those who came from abroad, worked in Russia during the era of classicism. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to show their talent to the fullest extent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Vallin-Delamot and the Scot Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and the Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoye Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and semi-precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into a forest.
If at the beginning of a new architectural period, a still unfamiliar style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century, original Russian architects appeared, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classical Western forms and merging with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday came during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.
The Academy of Arts revives the tradition of teaching its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to present Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.
This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn's buildings, as well as the Pashkov House, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on top of a hill, its facade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.St. Petersburg was a more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon brought to life a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in terms of its plan and composition it is an original work.
Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend to it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the facade of the Admiralty, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Stock Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution to the difficult task of preserving the design of the spit of Vasilyevsky Island, and at the same time it is combined with ensembles of previous eras.
What is Classicism?
Classicism- This is an artistic direction that has developed in European literature of the 17th century, which is based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest model, ideal, and the works of antiquity as an artistic norm. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature”. The cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot-compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are outlined in a straight line; positive and negative characters are opposed. Active appeal to public, civic issues. Emphasized objectivity of the story. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its main signs were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau's treatise Poetic Art (1674). Classicism was seen as a direction oriented towards ancient art. In the definition of classicism, they singled out, first of all, the desire for clarity and accuracy of expression, alignment with ancient models and strict obedience to the rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of three unities (the unity of time, the unity of place, the unity of action) were obligatory, which became a symbol of the three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in dramaturgy. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this trend understood their own work not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of true art, addressed to the universal, unchanging, to beautiful nature as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmonious composition, a set of certain themes, motifs, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although such prose genres as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, dramatic works and the theater itself are of particular importance in it, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.
The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of good taste developed by the so-called good society. The taste of classicism prefers brevity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity to extravagant - decent. The main law of classicism is artistic plausibility, which depicts things and people as they should be in accordance with the moral norm, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which should turn them into universal universal types.
The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, the semantic fullness of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.
Classicism (from Latin classicus - “exemplary”) is an artistic direction (flow) in art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civic themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. In the West, classicism was formed in the struggle against the magnificent baroque. The influence of classicism on the artistic life of Europe in the 17th - 18th centuries. was wide and long-term, and in architecture it continued into the 19th century. Classicism, as a certain artistic direction, tends to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards the universal “norm”, a model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.
Writers and artists often turn to the images of ancient myths (see Ancient Literature).
Classicism flourished in France in the 17th century: in drama (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. B. Moliere), in poetry (J. Lafontaine), in painting (N. Poussin), in architecture. At the end of the XVII century. N. Boileau (in the poem "Poetic Art", 1674) created a detailed aesthetic theory of classicism, which had a huge impact on the formation of classicism in other countries.
The clash of personal interests and civic duty underlies the French classic tragedy, which reached ideological and artistic heights in the work of Corneille and Racine. Corneille's characters (Sid, Horace, Cinna) are courageous, stern people driven by duty, completely subordinating themselves to the service of state interests. Showing conflicting mental movements in their characters, Corneille and Racine made outstanding discoveries in the field of depicting the inner world of a person. Imbued with the pathos of the study of the human soul, the tragedy included a minimum of external action, easily fit into the famous rules of the "three unities" - time, place and action.
According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, which strictly adheres to the so-called hierarchy of genres, tragedy (along with the ode, the epic) belonged to the “high genres” and had to develop especially important social problems, resorting to ancient and historical plots, and reflect only sublime heroic sides. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, fable, satire, etc., designed to reflect modern reality. In the genre of fable, Lafontaine became famous in France, and in the genre of comedy - Molière.
In the 17th century, permeated with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment, classicism was imbued with passionate criticism of the order of the feudal world, the protection of natural human rights, and freedom-loving motives. It is also distinguished by a great attention to national historical subjects. The largest representatives of enlightenment classicism are Voltaire in France, J. W. Goethe and J. F. Schiller (in the 90s) in Germany.
Russian classicism originated in the second quarter of the 18th century, in the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, and reached development in the second half of the century, in the works of A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin, M. M. Kheraskov, V. A. Ozerova, Ya. B. Knyazhnina, G. R. Derzhavin. It presents all the most important genres - from ode and epic to fable and comedy. D. I. Fonvizin, the author of the famous satirical comedies Brigadier and Undergrowth, was a remarkable comedian. Russian classic tragedy showed a keen interest in national history (Dimitri the Pretender by A. P. Sumarokov, Vadim Novgorodsky by Ya. B. Knyaznin, and others).
At the end of the XVIII - beginning of the XIX century. Classicism, both in Russia and throughout Europe, is in crisis. He is increasingly losing touch with life, closing in a narrow circle of conventions. At this time, classicism is subjected to sharp criticism, especially from the romantics.
Details Category: A variety of styles and trends in art and their features Posted on 03/05/2015 10:28 Views: 9974"Class!" - we talk about what arouses our admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin, the word classicus and means "exemplary".Classicismcalled the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the XVII-XIX centuries.
What about as a sample? Classicism developed the canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict trend in art, it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical, random signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.
Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect C. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When you can only like this and nothing else? Do not rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, to give direction, to show samples and to sweep aside everything insignificant and not deep.
But the canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. in the visual arts and in music: the norms that had taken root over the course of several centuries had outlived their usefulness and were torn apart.
However, we have already jumped ahead. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of genres of classicism. We will only say that as a certain trend, classicism was formed in France in the 17th century. A feature of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.Hierarchy of genres of classicism
In classicism, a strict hierarchy of genres is established, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Consider the hierarchy of genres on the examples of various types of art.Literature
Nicolas Boileau is considered the greatest theorist of classicism, but the founder is Francois Malherba, who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art".
Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy had to be respected three unities: the unity of time (the action must take place within one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (there must be one storyline in the work). The French tragedians Corneille and Racine became the leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy. The main idea of their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.In Russia
In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.
M. V. Lomonosov at the monument "1000th Anniversary of Russia" in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of "three calms"."The theory of three calms" M.V. Lomonosov
The doctrine of the three styles, i.e. The classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, which distinguishes between high, medium and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three "styles" according to Lomonosov:
1. High - solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Medium - elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly compositions.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: the ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism, an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. This we find in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires A.D. Cantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, odes to M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin.
At the end of the XVIII century. the tendency to see in art the main force of human education intensified. In this regard, a literary trend arises sentimentalism, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared the main thing in human nature. The French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin - let's remember his famous "Poor Liza"!
But in the direction of classicism, works were created in the 19th century. For example, "Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboyedov. Although in this comedy there are already elements of romanticism and realism.Painting
Since the definition of "classicism" is translated as "exemplary", then some kind of model is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. It was the highest example. There was also a reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance, which also saw a model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected the conflicts of the individual and society, the ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which testify to the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors. So wrote, for example, N. Poussin.Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)
N. Poussin "Self-portrait" (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings are based on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.
N. Poussin "Dance to the Music of Time" (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. It circles (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the two-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of the fleeting human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, while the old face is turned to the past. The winged, gray-bearded old man, to the music of which the round dance is spinning, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby who holds an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, the goddess of dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers in her path.V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)
V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin, State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist depicted in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a formal portrait, traditional for classicism. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a statesman, this is evidenced by his uniform and awards.
But at the same time, this is a famous poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which have already been actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, it is Karl Bryullov. His work came at a time when classical works of form were filled with the spirit of romanticism, this combination was called academism. In the middle of the XIX century. the young generation gravitating towards realism began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.Sculpture
The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was facilitated, among other things, by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many sculptures of Hellenism became known.
Classicism reached its highest incarnation in the works of Antonio Canova.Antonio Canova (1757-1822)
A. Canova "Self-portrait" (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Louvre in Paris and in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.
A. Canova "Three Graces". Saint Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group "Three Graces" refers to the late period of creativity of Antonio Canova. The sculptor embodied his ideas of beauty in the images of the graces - ancient goddesses personifying female charm and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two extreme faces face each other (and not the viewer) and the girlfriend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged into an embrace, they are united by the interweaving of hands and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II legislators and others.
F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator, he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a bone carver of the Kholmogory carved bone.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition, it was customary to depict models naked, while the norms of morality modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.
Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.
B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw
Architecture
The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order- a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. It includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of the elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
London's Osterley Park mansion. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov.
Carl Barthalomeo-Rossi(1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
Rossi's outstanding architectural and urban planning skills are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with its adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff building and the triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the Senate and Synod buildings (1829). -1834), Alexandrinsky Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two uniform long buildings of Theater Street (now the street of the architect Rossi).
The building of the General Staff on Palace Square
Music
The concept of classicism in music is associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.
Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)
Barbara Kraft "Posthumous portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)
Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. It was required from her: the balance of parts of the work, the careful finishing of details, the development of the main canons of the musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, the classical composition of parts of the sonata and symphony was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the XVII century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the works of I.S. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reformist operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are nevertheless associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. Mozart and L. van Beethoven.Note
It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of "classical music" is much broader. It includes not only the music of the period of the era of classicism, but also the music of the past in general, which has withstood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.
