What is antiquity? Definition. Antiquity as a cultural epoch

In all its diversity of historical forms.

General periodization of antiquity

In general, the general periodization of antiquity is as follows.

• Early antiquity (VIII century BC - II century BC) The birth of the Greek state.
• Classical antiquity (I century BC - II century AD), golden age, the time of the unity of the Greco-Roman civilization.
• Late Antiquity (III-V centuries AD). The collapse of the Roman Empire. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire marked the beginning of a new era - the Middle Ages.

Time periods may vary somewhat in the geopolitical context. Thus, the golden age of antiquity in Ancient Greece was marked earlier than in the Roman Empire. In addition, ancient civilization in the Eastern Roman Empire originated earlier and died out later than in the western part, where it was destroyed by the invading Germans. Nevertheless, the ancient cultural heritage (mostly in late antique form) is quite well preserved in the life, culture, language and traditions of most modern Romance peoples, and from them it was transferred to other peoples of the Mediterranean (South Slavs, Arabs, Turks, Berbers, Jews).

It should also be noted that many elements of classical antiquity (traditions, laws, customs, etc.) were well preserved in the Asia Minor core of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until the 11th century, before the advent of the Seljuk Turks.

Periodization of Antiquity and Protoantiquity

Crete-Mycenaean period - prehistory of antiquity

Characteristics

1. The Minoan civilization was a state ruled by a king.
2. The Minoans traded with Ancient Egypt, exported copper from Cyprus. The architecture is characterized by rethought Egyptian borrowings (eg, the use of columns).
3. The Minoan army was armed with slings and bows. The characteristic armament of the Minoans was also the double-sided ax labrys.
4. Like other peoples of Old Europe, the bull cult was widespread among the Minoans (see taurocatapsia).
5. The Minoans smelted bronze, produced ceramics and built palace complexes from the middle of the 20th century BC. e. (Knossos, Festus, Mallia).
6. Like other pre-Indo-European religions in Europe, the Minos religion is not alien to remnants of matriarchy. In particular, the Goddess with snakes was revered (possibly an analogue of Astarte).

Cultural connections

The genetic affiliation of the Minoan (Eteocretan) language has not been established. Partial decipherment of the Cretan script made it possible to identify some morphological indicators. The Phaistos disc cannot be deciphered.

Sunset

The Minoan civilization suffered greatly as a result of a natural disaster in the 15th century. BC e. - a volcanic explosion on the island of Thira (Santorini), which generated a catastrophic tsunami. This volcanic eruption may have provided the basis for the Atlantis myth.

Previously, it was assumed that the volcanic eruption destroyed the Minoan civilization, however, archaeological excavations in Crete have shown that the Minoan civilization existed for at least about 100 years after the eruption (a layer of volcanic ash was found under the buildings of the Minoan culture).

After the eruption, the Achaeans seized power on the island. The Mycenaean culture (Crete and mainland Greece) arose, combining Minoan and Greek elements. In the XII century. The Mycenaean culture was destroyed by the Dorians, who eventually settled Crete as well. The Dorians' invasion led to a sharp cultural decline, and the Cretan script fell into disuse.

All settlements of the Middle Helladic period were located, as a rule, on elevated areas and were fortified, an example of such a settlement is the ancient settlement of Malti Dorion in Messenia. In the center of this settlement there was a palace, workshops of artisans adjoined it, the rest were houses of ordinary people and warehouses.

By the end of the Middle Helladic period, a cultural upsurge in the development of the civilization of mainland Greece began to be felt, the first state formations arose, a process of class formation took place, manifested in the allocation of a stratum of the nobility, there was a significant increase in the population associated with the success of agriculture. The number of both small settlements and large cities has grown. Period in Greek history between the 16th and 16th centuries. BC e. It is customary to call the Mycenaean era, after the name of the largest political and economic center of continental Greece - Mycenae, located in Argolis.

Questions about the ethnic origin of the carriers of the Mycenaean civilization for a long time remained one of the most difficult, only after the scientists deciphered the linear script, the opinion was established that they were Achaeans. Achaeans who moved to Crete and the islands of Asia Minor around the 16th century. BC e., apparently descended from the northern, Thessalian Achaeans.

The first city-states formed in the XVII-XVI centuries. BC e. - Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos - had close cultural and trade ties with Crete, Mycenaean culture borrowed a lot from the Minoan civilization, the influence of which is felt in religious rites, secular life, artistic monuments; undoubtedly, the art of building ships was perceived from the Cretans. But the Mycenaean culture was characterized only by its own traditions, rooted in ancient times (according to A. Evans, the Mycenaean culture is only an offshoot of the Cretan and is devoid of any individuality), its own development path. A few words can be said about the development of Mycenaean trade and foreign relations with other states. Thus, a number of objects found in Egypt and previously considered to have been brought from Crete are now identified as products of Mycenaean artisans. There is a hypothesis according to which the Mycenaeans helped the pharaoh Ahmose (XVI century BC) in his fight against the Hyksos, and during the time of Akhenaten (century BC), Mycenaean ceramics were distributed in his new capital Akhetaten.

In the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. the Achaeans conquered Crete and the Cyclades, colonized many islands in the Aegean Sea, founded a number of settlements in the depths of Greece, on the site of which the famous ancient city-states later grew up - Corinth, Athens, Delphi, Thebes. This period is considered the heyday of the Mycenaean civilization.

The Achaeans maintain not only the old Cretan trade relations, but also lay new sea routes to the Caucasus, Sicily, and North Africa.

The main centers, as in Crete, were palaces, but their important difference from the Cretan ones is that they were fortified and were citadels. The monumental dimensions of the citadels are striking, the walls of which are built from untreated blocks, reaching in some cases a weight of up to 12 tons. Perhaps the most prominent citadel is Tiryns, whose entire defensive system was thought out with great care to prevent all unexpected disastrous situations.

Return of the Heraclides

The formation of an urban community in the form it is depicted in the Iliad and the Odyssey, with a heterogeneous population in a certain territory, with all the features of the state system, was facilitated by the movement of the Hellenic tribes, known as the return of the Heraclids or the resettlement of the Dorians in the Peloponnese. The mixture of tribes that took place at the same time and the unification of the conquerors and the conquered in a common political organization, the thirst for success and improvement in new places should have accelerated the transition from the tribal system to the territorial, state. The founding of colonies in Asia Minor and on the islands, which followed the movement of the Dorians, acted even more strongly in the same direction: new interests and new relations gave rise to new forms of social organization. The movement of the Hellenes, in which the main role belonged to the Dorians, dates back to the XII century (since 1104); it began with the invasion of the Epirusian people of the Thessalians through Pindus into that country, which in historical time was called Thessaly. The Aeolian natives were partly subjugated, partly fled south and gave their residence the name of Boeotia. The Dorians, who lived at the foot of Olympus, first moved to the area that was later called Dorida, and from there part of them, together with the Aetolians, crossed the Gulf of Corinth to the Peloponnese, until then occupied by the Achaeans and in the northern part by the Ionians. Only after a long struggle with the natives did the Dorians gradually establish themselves in Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, where they penetrated from the Gulf of Argos, and in Corinth. The Achaeans were forced either to submit to the newcomers in the position of incomplete inhabitants, or, having lost their tribal characteristics, to merge with the winners together, or, finally, to withdraw from their homes. Since that time, the name Achaia was given to the northern strip of the peninsula, from where the Ionians ran to their fellow tribesmen in Attica: the Achaeans escaping from the Dorians occupied the coastal region. Another part of the Achaeans left the Peloponnese and settled on the island of Lesbos. From the Isthmus of Corinth, the Dorians penetrated into central Greece and here took possession of Megaris. In the Peloponnese, the inhabitants of Arcadia stayed on their lands, in political independence from the Dorians, and Elida went to the allies of the Dorians, the Aetolians. The immediate consequences of the same conquest of the Peloponnese were the eviction of the Ionians from Attica and other regions to the islands and the coast of Asia Minor, where the Ionian 12-grade arose (Miletus, Ephesus, Phocaea, Colophon, etc.), and the foundation by the Dorians, who came out mainly from Argolis, six cities (Hexapolis) on the Carian coast and on the islands adjacent to it. With the return of the Heraclids and the foundation of the most ancient colonies, which, in turn, served as the metropolises of new settlements, the Hellenic people finally settled in Greece for permanent residence. This event constitutes the boundary beyond which lies the realm of legends and myths, and on the other side begins the historical existence of Greece as the country of the Hellenes.

Poetic sources

The state of Hellenic societies, closest to historical time, is depicted with remarkable brightness and completeness in the so-called Homeric poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, by the beginning of the 8th century BC. existed in its current form. The state of society depicted in them contains all the elements of the further development of Greece and constitutes, as it were, the starting point in the formation of various forms of government. The creation of the Iliad and the Odyssey dates back to the 10th-9th centuries. The events sung in the poems are separated from the time of the composition of the poems by the movement of tribes and peoples in mainland Greece, which resulted in the foundation of Asia Minor and island colonies. It is not possible to distribute the historical material contained in the poems by epochs and periods; the main part of it belongs to the times of the author himself. The individual type of the Hellenic, with its most permanent virtues and weaknesses, beliefs and inclinations, was already established in the society of the time of Homer. There are still no positive laws in this society, therefore deviations from the norm of relations in one direction or another are more often and less sensitive here; however, primordial customs and attitudes, protected by the gods themselves, as well as public opinion, have great power. Fragments of the tribal system still live in society, especially in family and private legal relations, but the urban community has already taken shape, its management is distributed among the individual leader, the council of elders and the people. The economic dependence of some leaders on the people, the power of the public word, the presence of orators, examples of criticism directed against the leaders, etc., testify that already at that time the people in urban communities were not a disenfranchised mass or an unrequited instrument of other authorities. If obedience to the leader is required of the people, then care for the people, justice in solving cases, courage in war, wisdom of advice and eloquence in peacetime are obligatory for the leader. The personal dignity of the leader is one of the necessary conditions for honor on the part of the people and the very obedience to its requirements. The further success of the public consisted in the fact that the mutual relations of the authorities acquired greater certainty: the concept of the common good in the state gained precedence over all other interests, personal merits and services to society were the main right to influence and significance in the state.

Homeric society is far from homogeneous in its composition: simple and noble people are distinguished in it, in addition to the free there are slaves, among the free there are differences in status and occupation, mutual relations between masters and slaves bear the stamp of patriarchal simplicity and closeness, in relations men and women are seen to be more equal than it was in later, historical times. The poems of Hesiod fill in the testimony of Homeric songs about the Hellenic society in that distant time.

Polis period

(XI-IV centuries BC) Ethnic consolidation of the Greek world. Formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood. Highest cultural and scientific achievements of ancient Greek civilization.

Homeric (prepolis) period, "dark ages" (XI-IX centuries BC)

The final destruction of the remains of the Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization, the revival and dominance of tribal relations, their transformation into early class relations, the formation of unique prepolis social structures.

Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC)

First period of antiquity. It begins in parallel with the sunset of the Bronze Age. The beginning of the period of antiquity is considered to be the date of the establishment of the ancient Olympic Games in 776 BC. e.

Formation of polis structures. Great Greek colonization. Early Greek tyrannies. Ethnic consolidation of the Hellenic society. The introduction of iron in all spheres of production, economic recovery. Creation of the foundations of commodity production, distribution of elements of private property.

Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC)

Athens. View of the Acropolis.

5th-4th centuries BC e. - the period of the highest heyday of the polis device. As a result of the victory of the Greeks in the Greco-Persian Wars (500-449 BC), Athens rises, the Delian League is created (led by Athens). The time of the highest power of Athens, the greatest democratization of political life and the flowering of culture falls on the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC). The struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece and the contradictions between Athens and Corinth related to the struggle for trade routes led to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), which ended in the defeat of Athens.

Characterized. The flourishing of the economy and culture of the Greek city-states. Reflection of the aggression of the Persian world power, the rise of national consciousness. The growing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms of government and backward agrarian policies with an aristocratic system, the Peloponnesian War, which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of the Macedonian aggression.

Hellenistic period

Heritage of antiquity

Antiquity and modern society

Antiquity has left a huge mark on modernity.

With the advent of the first states and the emergence of various economic forms of the state in economic life, society faced many problems. Their importance and relevance remains to this day. Over time, the influence of the ancient heritage grew stronger and stronger. Latin continued to be the language of scientists throughout the European world, and acquaintance with the Greek language and Greek thinkers deepened. In the 19th century, the theory of the "Greek miracle" was formed - the absolute perfection of the art of classical Greece, in comparison with which the art of Hellenism and Rome was a decline and epigonism. The development of printing stimulated the study of Greek and Latin authors and acquaintance with them. The Pythagorean theorem, the geometry of Euclid, the law of Archimedes became the basis of teaching at school. The works of ancient geographers, who proceeded from the sphericity of the Earth and calculated its volume, played a significant role in the great geographical discoveries. The philosophical systems of ancient thinkers inspired the philosophers of modern times.

In the 18th century, on the eve of the French Revolution, materialist philosophers turn to Lucretius. His teaching about the emergence of the world from atoms, about the evolution of nature and human society without divine providence, about a natural contract that unites people for the common good, about a law that is not God, but people establish for the same benefit and cancel it when it is for this benefit ceased to satisfy, was in tune with the advanced theories of the time. And the ideas of democracy, equality, freedom, justice were just as consonant, although, having become the revolutionary slogans of the 18th century, they were understood much more broadly than in antiquity.

European theater and literature constantly turned to antiquity, and their connections with it became more and more diverse. Ancient plots were processed: "Antony and Cleopatra" and "Julius Caesar" by Shakespeare, "Andromache", "Phaedra", "Britanic" by Racine, "Medea", "Horace", "Pompey" by Corneille. Whole plays were played. For example, Shakespeare's "Comedy of Errors" repeated Plavt's "Menekhmov", and Moliere's "The Miser" - Plavt's "Cabin". The servants of Molière's comedies, Lope de Vega, Goldoni are like the dexterous, intelligent slaves of Plautus, who helped the masters arrange their love affairs. Ancient novels were translated and new ones were written in imitation of them. Many ancient images and plots - gods, goddesses, heroes, battles and festivities - served as themes for artists and sculptors, who interpreted them in accordance with the tastes of their time. Thus, an active participant in the Great French Revolution - the artist David - in contrast to the artists who catered to the tastes of the pampered nobility, painted ancient heroes full of patriotic and civic feelings: "The Oath of the Horatii", "Death of Socrates", "Leonidas at Thermopylae".

Roman law formed the basis of the law of other Western states.

In modern and recent times, the ancient world has retained its significance in various areas of spiritual and mental activity. Historians, sociologists, culturologists turn to him. The ancient world, as a kind of closed cycle, known from the beginning to the end, constantly serves as a standard for culturologists.

Adaptation of ancient culture in Russia

In ancient Rus', the first source of ancient influence was Orthodox literature, which came to Rus' along with Christianity from Byzantium and the southern Slavic lands. Ancient mythology lost its cultural content in Ancient Rus' and turned into a purely religious, pagan concept, the opposite of Christianity. Taken out of context, quotes from ancient philosophers appeared to be a confirmation of Christian ideas, ancient deities were mentioned as demons in denunciations of paganism, or were considered as historical figures. Ancient history itself was of interest to scribes in the context of sacred history and was perceived through the prism of church tradition. Some philosophical concepts of ancient authors, such as Plato, seemed to Orthodox writers to be Christian in their essence and therefore worthy of preservation. They ended up in the Old Russian literature (with indications of authorship or anonymously). . Information about the ancient past was also contained in historical writings: in the XI-XII centuries. translated "History of the Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius. She was known and used in their works by Joseph Volotsky, Ivan the Terrible, Archpriest Avvakum. Already in the XI century. Byzantine chronicles reflecting the history of the ancient world were known in Rus'. Later, novels about Alexander the Great and works about the Trojan War became available to the Russian reader. In the 17th century, the situation began to change, and starting from the reign of Peter I, the state purposefully disseminated knowledge about ancient culture. Antiquity has become an organic part of Russian culture. Without getting to know her, it is impossible to understand the numerous Greek and Roman reminiscences of the classics of Russian literature. in Russia in the 18th century. they translated ancient authors, and already Derzhavin wrote his "Monument" in imitation of Horace's "Monument". A. S. Pushkin knew Roman literature very well. His translations are unparalleled in their adequacy to the original. D. S. Merezhkovsky (“Julian the Apostate”), L. Andreev (the plays “The Rape of the Sabine Women” and “The Horse in the Senate”) turned to ancient subjects.

Very often in everyday life you can hear such a word for the time period of Ancient Greece and Rome as "antiquity". What is this period? You will find the answer to this question in this article.

Geography

What is antiquity? This is such an era in history that significantly influenced the further development of many states. Those countries considered as examples of this period were located in the territories of Southern and Central Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. The most prominent are such states as Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome. In these countries, the spiritual sphere of society has reached the highest point of development. They belong to the central part.

On the periphery of the ancient world, for example, in the Mediterranean, on the territory of the river basin called the Danube, as well as in North Africa, there were states that became part of the ancient world a little later.

Stages of Antiquity

What is antiquity? This is a long period of universal history, which is conditionally divided into several stages. The first of them began in ancient Greece before our era, namely at the end of II - beginning of I millennium. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the period of Italian antiquity began.

Before the culture and art of Ancient Greece became exemplary, there was an active development of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization that arose at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. It influenced the historical path of ancient states. The ancient world ended its existence in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. Historians believe that the final date for ancient history is 476 AD. In general, the length of antiquity is 1.5 thousand years.

Society and economy

What is antiquity? This is not only the culture and art of Ancient Greece and Rome. It is also the socio-political structure of these states, their economy. What were these areas of life like? Society was represented by a complex structure, which, of course, gave rise to deep internal contradictions. This was also one of the reasons why the ancient states were shaken by numerous social conflicts, unrest, uprisings and even civil wars. The state was represented by the policy.

The economic development of the Ancient Greeks and Romans was quite successful for that time. Private property was of great importance. Even poor people owned at least a small plot of land, a boat or a workshop. More successful citizens, whose financial situation was good, simply put, to know, could afford large plots of land and more developed workshops.

Story

This science developed in ancient Greece. It was founded by the scientist Herodotus, thanks to whom information about the Greco-Persian wars has been preserved. Subsequently, many philosophers and scientists made their contribution to such a science as the history of Antiquity. In the writings of that time, one can see attempts to substantiate the causes of this or that event, the role of a particular historical person, and so on. Particularly famous to this day are the works of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who, by the way, was depicted on many statues.

Architecture

The era of Antiquity is closely connected with the development of architecture. First, urban planning has reached a high level. Thus, all the cities were carefully planned and thoroughly built. They housed theaters, gymnasiums (sports complexes), markets, stadiums, and temples. The roads on the streets were paved with shards of pottery, cobblestones or slabs of stone. The water supply and sewerage system was also well developed.

Both the Greeks and the Romans could build complex structures, while adding interesting architectural solutions to the buildings. So, in ancient Greece, an order system appeared. Temples were erected on a rectangular foundation; believers gathered on the steps leading inside. The temple housed a statue of a god. Therefore, many buildings were called something like this: "The Temple of Nike Apteros."

The Romans adopted many elements of Greek architecture, such as columns. However, they also brought something new to the art of antiquity. For example, arched structures and domed vaults. A new durable building material was also invented by them. That's what it's called: Roman concrete.

Theater and oratory

The culture of Antiquity is inextricably linked with such concepts as "theater" and "oratory". Indeed, the theater was one of the main types of mass spectacles. Through plays, civic consciousness was formed. Playwrights such as Aeschylus and Sophocles, Aristophanes and Menander are known throughout the world. Ancient Roman theatrical art was originally a direct imitation of Greek. However, the population of this state preferred comedies. With the addition of musical numbers, dances and even special effects, the performances became much more spectacular.

Oratory was a practical need of ancient society. It was during this period that the theory of eloquence was created, which was widely used in political struggle and litigation. The most famous orators were Demosthenes and Cicero, who lived in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, respectively.

Literature

What is antiquity? This is a period that left a deep light in the development of European states. One of the greatest achievements of the culture of this time is fiction. In the main centers of art, namely in Greece and Rome, many literary genres have developed.

These include: poetry (lyrical and epic), tragedy, comedy, novel. Such works as "Iliad", "Odyssey", "Golden Ass" are the best of their kind and belong to ancient Greek culture. Ancient Roman literature is known from the poem "Aeneid".

Influence on other states

Ancient antiquity had a great influence on other states. So, architectural elements were borrowed from here and used in many styles and directions. Statues of gods and historical figures became examples of grace and beauty, the standard by which new works of art were subsequently created. They returned to antiquity as a model during the Renaissance and Classicism, considering the works of this period as the ideal of proportionality.

During the period of Antiquity, the foundations of theatrical and oratory art, as well as literature, were laid. Moreover, the social structure of the ancient states was partially adopted by more modern countries. And, finally, the language and writing of the period of antiquity formed the basis of many modern languages, such as English, German, Spanish, Italian, French and even Russian. Many sciences were laid at this time, became the foundation for their further study. Latin was used in the era of Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and now it is scientific.

Antiquity(from lat. antiquitas- antiquity, antiquity) is an era in the historical and cultural development of mankind associated with the Greco-Roman civilization (c. VII century BC - IV century AD).

The civilization of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome is often regarded as the initial era, the source, the basis of European and modern world civilization and culture in a number of eras: Antiquity - Middle Ages - New Time. This point of view is related to the fact that Antiquity formed a state structure that became a model for modern civilization - democracy, and in the process of its formation created a culture that became one of the most significant factors in the subsequent world culture. Therefore, the heyday of Greek democracy (V-IV centuries BC) is usually estimated as the era of classical Greece.

In the architecture of the Antiquity period, an order system was created, an arch and a vault were introduced, the building was formed as a single complete compositional whole, and a regular urban planning system was created. In Antiquity, one should look for the origins of many values ​​that later formed European culture.

Also, sometimes any very old times are called antiquity, using the concept synonymous with the word "antiquity".

Since Antiquity accounts for several centuries of human history, it is customary to subdivide it into epochs and periods.

General periodization of Antiquity

In general, the general periodization of Antiquity is as follows:

• early Antiquity (VIII century BC-II century BC);
• Classical Antiquity (I century BC-I century AD), the golden age of the ancient world, the time of the unity of the Greco-Roman civilization.
• Late Antiquity (II-V AD). The collapse of the Roman Empire.

Time periods may vary somewhat in the geopolitical context. Thus, the golden age of Antiquity in Ancient Greece was marked earlier than in the Roman Empire. In addition, ancient civilization in the Eastern Roman Empire originated earlier and died out later than in the Western part, where it was destroyed by the invading Germans. Nevertheless, the ancient cultural heritage (mainly in the Late Antique form) is quite well preserved in the life, culture, language and traditions of most modern Romance peoples, and from them it was passed on to other peoples of the Mediterranean (Southern Slavs, Arabs, Turks, Berbers, Jews) .

The final period of Antiquity is designated as Hellenic-Roman, because after the conquest of the last Hellenistic monarchy - Egypt (30 BC) by Rome - the higher Greek civilization and culture continued to coexist with Roman culture, exerting a strong influence on it. In addition to democracy, among the achievements of Antiquity, art, architecture, literature, Roman law, and philosophy should be noted.

Many elements of classical Antiquity (traditions, laws, customs, etc.) were well preserved in the Asia Minor core of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until the 11th century, before the invasion of the Seljuk Turks.

Geography of Antiquity

Balkan Greece in antiquity occupied an area of ​​approx. 88 thousand sq. km. In the northwest it bordered on Illyria, in the northeast - on Macedonia, in the west it was washed by the Ionian (Sicilian), in the southeast - by the Myrtoic, in the east - by the Aegean and Thracian seas. It included three regions - Northern Greece, Central Greece and the Peloponnese. Northern Greece was divided by the Pindus mountain range into western (Epirus) and eastern (Thessaly) parts. Central Greece was delimited from North by the Timfrest and Eta mountains and consisted of ten regions (from west to east): Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris Ozolskaya, Dorida, Phokis, Locris Epiknemidskaya, Locris Opuntskaya, Boeotia, Megaris and Attica. The Peloponnese was connected to the rest of Greece by a narrow (up to 6 km) Isthmus of Corinth.

The central region of the Peloponnese was Arcadia, which bordered on the west with Elis, on the south with Messenia and Laconia, on the north with Achaia, on the east with Argolis, Phliuntia and Sicyonia; Corinthia was located in the extreme northeast corner of the peninsula. Insular Greece consisted of several hundred islands (the largest being Crete and Euboea), which formed three large archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest of the Aegean Sea, the Sporades in its eastern and northern parts, and the Ionian Islands off the western coast of Asia Minor. Balkan Greece is basically a mountainous country (it is pierced from north to south by two branches of the Dinaric Alps) with an extremely indented coastline and numerous bays (the largest are Ambracian, Corinthian, Messenian, Laconian, Argolid, Saronic, Malian and Pagasean).

The largest of the Greek islands is Crete, southeast of the Peloponnese and Euboea, separated from Central Greece by a narrow strait. The numerous islands of the Aegean Sea form two large archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest and the Sporades in its eastern and northern parts. The most significant of the islands off the western coast of Greece are Corcyra, Lefkada, Kefallenia and Zakynthos.

Information sources:

• terme.ru - O. Bogorodskaya, T. Kotlova. Handbook: history and theory of culture;
• terme.ru - P. Gurevich. Dictionary of Cultural Studies: Antiquity.
• en.wikipedia.org - material from Wikipedia: Antiquity;
• best-stroy.ru - Construction Dictionary: Antiquity.

Additionally on Guénon about Antiquity:

Antiquity is a term derived from the Latin "antics" which literally means "ancient". In the narrow sense of the word "antiquity" is Greco-Roman antiquity. When we talk about ancient civilization, we need to talk about the civilization of the Mediterranean basin (river civilizations, those that formed in the valleys of large rivers, Babylonian, Sumerian, Egyptian, Chinese, Itic).

Since antiquity accounts for several millennia of human history, it is customary to subdivide it into epochs and periods.

In general, the general periodization of antiquity is as follows.

Early Antiquity (VIII century BC - II century BC)

Classical antiquity (1st century BC - 1st century AD), the golden age of the ancient world, the time of the unity of the Greco-Roman civilization.

Late Antiquity (II-V AD). The collapse of the Roman Empire.

Time periods may vary somewhat in the geopolitical context. So the golden age of antiquity in ancient Greece was marked earlier than in the Roman Empire. In addition, the ancient civilization in the Eastern Roman Empire originated earlier and died out later than in the Western part, where it was destroyed by the invading Germans.

Nevertheless, the ancient cultural heritage (mainly in the Late Antique form) is quite well preserved in the life, culture, language and traditions of most modern Romance peoples, and from them it was passed on to other peoples of the Mediterranean (Southern Slavs, Arabs, Turks, Berbers, Jews) .

It should also be noted that many elements of classical antiquity (traditions, laws, customs, etc.) were well preserved in the Asia Minor core of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until the 11th century, before the advent of the Seljuk Turks.

Crete-Mycenaean period of Ancient civilization. End of III-II millennium BC

This period includes the birth and death of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. In the Crete-Mycenaean period, the first state formations began to emerge, navigation began to develop. There is an establishment of trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East. There is writing.

For Crete and mainland Greece, various periods of development are distinguished at this stage, since on the island of Crete, where a non-Greek population lived at that time, statehood developed earlier than in Balkan Greece, which underwent BC at the end of the 3rd century. BC. the conquest of the Achaean Greeks. In fact, the Crete-Mycenaean period is the prehistory of Antiquity.

Crete-Mycenaean period. Distinctive features of the Minoan civilization:

1. The Minoan civilization was a state ruled by a king.

2. The Minoans traded with Ancient Egypt, exported copper from Cyprus. The architecture is characterized by rethought Egyptian borrowings (eg, the use of columns).

3. The Minoan army was armed with slings and bows. The typical weapon of the Minoans was also a double-sided ax labrys.

4. Like other peoples of Old Europe, the bull cult was widespread among the Minoans (see taurocatapsia).

5. The Minoans smelted bronze, produced ceramics and built palace complexes from the middle of the 20th century BC. (Knossos, Festus, Mallia).

6. Like other pre-Indo-European religions of Europe, the Minos religion is not alien to the remnants of matriarchy. In particular, the Goddess with snakes was revered (possibly an analogue of Astarte).

Crete-Mycenaean period.

Periodization of the Minoan civilization:

1. Early Minoan period (XXX-XXIII centuries BC). The dominance of tribal relations, the beginning of the development of metals, the beginnings of crafts, the development of navigation, a relatively high level of agrarian relations.

2. Middle Minoan period (XXII-XVIII centuries BC). Also known as the period of "old" or "early" palaces. The emergence of early state formations in different parts of the island. Construction of monumental palace complexes in a number of regions of Crete. early forms of writing.

3. Late Minoan period (XVII-XII centuries BC). The heyday of the Minoan civilization, the unification of Crete, the creation of the sea power of King Minos, the wide scope of Crete's trading activities in the Aegean Sea, the flourishing of monumental construction ("new" palaces in Knossos, Mallia, Phaistos). Active contacts with ancient Eastern states. Natural disaster of the middle of the XV century. BC. causes the decline of the Minoan civilization, which created the prerequisites for the conquest of Crete by the Achaeans.

Crete-Mycenaean period. Mycenaean civilization (Balkan Greece)

1. Early Helladic period (XXX-XXI centuries BC). Dominance in Balkan Greece of tribal relations among the pre-Greek population. The appearance of the first large settlements and proto-palace complexes.

2. Middle Helladic period (XX-XVII centuries BC). The settlement in the south of the Balkan Peninsula of the first waves of Greek speakers - the Achaeans, was accompanied by a slight decrease in the overall level of socio-economic development of Greece. The beginning of the decomposition of tribal relations among the Achaeans.

3. Late Helladic period (XVI-XII centuries BC). The emergence of an early class society among the Achaeans, the formation of a productive economy in agriculture, a number of state formations with centers in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, etc., the formation of original writing, the flourishing of Mycenaean culture. The Achaeans conquer Crete and destroy the Minoan civilization. In the XII century. BC. Greece is invaded by a new tribal group - the Dorians, the death of the Mycenaean statehood.

Polis period of ancient civilization

(XI-IV centuries BC) Ethnic consolidation of the Greek world. Formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood. Highest cultural and scientific achievements of ancient Greek civilization.

Homeric (prepolis) period, "dark ages" (XI-IX centuries BC)

The final destruction of the remains of the Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization, the revival and dominance of tribal relations, their transformation into early class relations, the formation of unique prepolis social structures.

Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC)

First period of antiquity. It begins in parallel with the sunset of the Bronze Age. Although the 8th-7th century BC is still largely protohistorical, with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing in the later 8th century. The beginning of the period of Antiquity is considered to be the date of the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games in 776 BC.

Formation of polis structures. Great Greek colonization. Early Greek tyrannies. Ethnic consolidation of the Hellenic society. The introduction of iron in all spheres of production, economic recovery. Creation of the foundations of commodity production, distribution of elements of private property.

Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC)

5th-4th centuries BC. - the period of the highest heyday of the polis device. As a result of the victory of the Greeks in the Greco-Persian wars (500-449 BC), the rise of Athens takes place, the Delian Union (led by Athens) is created. The time of the highest power of Athens, the greatest democratization of political life and the flowering of culture falls on the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC). The struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece and the contradictions between Athens and Corinth related to the struggle for trade routes led to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), which ended in the defeat of Athens.

Characterized. The flourishing of the economy and culture of the Greek city-states. Reflection of the aggression of the Persian world power, the rise of national consciousness. The growing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms of government and backward agrarian policies with an aristocratic system, the Peloponnesian War, which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of the Macedonian aggression.

Hellenistic period

Hellenistic (IV-I centuries BC). Short-term assertion of the world power of Alexander the Great. The origin, flourishing and collapse of the Hellenistic Greek-Eastern statehood.

First Hellenistic period (334-281 BC)

Campaigns of the Greek-Macedonian army of Alexander the Great, a short period of existence of his world power and its disintegration into a number of Hellenistic states. High Hellenism coincided in time with the fierce Punic wars, diverting the attention of Rome from the eastern regions of the Mediterranean, and lasted until the Romans conquered Macedonia in 168 and destroyed Corinth. During these years, Rhodes flourished, the rich Kingdom of Pergamum played a huge role under Attalus I (241-197) and Eumenes II (197-152), the majestic monuments of Ptolemaic Egypt were combined.

1. Second Hellenistic period (281-150 BC)

2. The heyday of Greek-Eastern statehood, economy and culture.

3. Third Hellenistic period (150-27 BC)

4. Crisis and collapse of the Hellenistic statehood.

5. Roman Empire

6. Roman Empire (27 BC-476 AD)

7. Principate (27 BC-284 AD)

8. Tetrarchy and Dominate (285-324 AD)

9. Decline of the Roman Empire (395-476 AD)

The civilizational process by the beginning of the First century gradually began to shift to the north. In the north, in the Mediterranean basin, it was inhabited by about twenty large peoples who created their own civilizations (they belong to the Mediterranean type, also known as Tallasocratic or civilizations of the peoples of the sea (Phoenician, Keklat).

Ancient civilization existed for twelve centuries starting from the eighth century BC. and ended in the fifth century AD. Ancient civilization is divided into two local civilizations; a) Ancient Greek (8th-1st century BC) b) Roman (8th century BC - 5th century AD) Between these local civilizations, a particularly bright era of Hellenism stands out, which covers the period from 323 BC to BC. e. before 30 BC

At the turn of the VII - VI centuries. BC. in Southern Europe, a social mutation took place within this type of society. As a result of the reforms of Solon and related processes in the policies of Ancient Greece, a phenomenon of antiquity arose, the basis of which was civil society and the rule of law; availability of specially developed legal norms, rules, privileges and guarantees to protect the interests of citizens and owners.

The main elements of the ancient structure not only survived, but also, in synthesis with Christianity, contributed to the formation in medieval communal cities, trading republics of Europe that had autonomy and self-government (Venice, Hansa, Genoa), the foundations of a privately owned market economy. During the Renaissance, and then the Enlightenment, the ancient genotype of European civilization manifested itself in full, taking the form of capitalism.

Despite the alternative social genotype of antiquity in comparison with the evolutionary type of development in the East, until about the XIV - XVII centuries. There was much in common between West and East. Cultural achievements in the East at that time were quite comparable in their significance to the successes of the European Renaissance (the Copernican system, printing, the great geographical discoveries). The East is the world's largest hydraulic and defensive structures; multi-deck ships, including those for ocean navigation; collapsible metal and ceramic fonts; compass; porcelain; paper; silk.

Moreover, Europe, acting as the heir to ancient civilization, joined it through Muslim intermediaries, for the first time becoming acquainted with many ancient Greek treatises translated from Arabic. Many European humanist writers of the Renaissance made extensive use of artistic means developed in Iranian and Arabic poetry, and the very concept of “humanism” (“humanity”) was first heard in Farsi and was comprehended in the work of Saadi.

The concept of "antiquity" appeared in the Renaissance, when Italian humanists introduced the term "antique" (Latin antiguus - ancient) to define the Greco-Roman culture, the oldest known at that time. Without belittling the importance of other ancient civilizations, it should be recognized that Ancient Greece, the Hellenistic states and Ancient Rome had a special influence on the history of the peoples of Europe.

In the history of ancient Greece, the following periods are distinguished: Homeric and early archaic (IX-VIII centuries BC - the collapse of a tribal society); (VII-VI centuries BC - the formation of slave-owning states - policies); classical (5th century to the last third of the 4th century BC - the heyday of policies); Hellenistic (the last third of the 4th century - to the middle of the 2nd century BC - the decline of policies, the Macedonian empire, the Hellenistic states).

However, before antiquity, the Cretan-Mycenaean culture existed in the history of Ancient Greece. Its centers were considered the island of Crete and the city of Mycenae. The time of the emergence of the Cretan culture (or Minoan - after the legendary king of Crete Minos) - the turn of the III-II millennium BC. After going through periods of rise and fall, it lasted until about 1200 BC.

All life in Crete was concentrated around the palaces, perceived as a single architectural ensemble. Of particular note are the remarkable wall paintings inside the rooms, corridors and porticos. Among the monuments of crafts and arts of the Cretan civilization that have come down to us are beautiful frescoes, wonderful bronze figurines, weapons and magnificent polychrome (multicolor) ceramics. Religion played an important role in the life of Crete; there developed a special form of royal power - theocracy, in which secular and spiritual power belonged to one person.

The heyday of the Mycenaean (or Achaean) civilization falls on the XV-XIII centuries. BC. As in Crete, the main embodiment of culture is the palaces. The most significant of them were found in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Athens, Iolka.

At the end of the XIII century. BC. a huge mass of the North Balkan barbarian tribes, not affected by the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, rushed to the south. The leading role in this migration of peoples was played by the Greek tribe of the Dorians. They had a great advantage over the Achaeans - more effective than bronze, iron weapons. It was with the arrival of the Dorians in the XII-XI centuries. BC. the Iron Age begins in Greece, and it was at this time that the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization ceased to exist.

culture of the Homeric period. The next period of Greek history is usually called the Homeric period, after the great Homer. His beautiful poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", created in the VIII century. BC, is the most important source of information about this time. During this period, there is a kind of accumulation of forces before a new rapid rise. Of great importance was the radical renewal of the technical base - the widespread use of iron and its introduction into production. This prepared the path of historical development, by embarking on which, during the 3rd - 4th centuries, the Greeks were able to reach heights of cultural and social progress unprecedented in the history of mankind, leaving far behind their neighbors both in the East and in the West.

culture of the archaic period. The archaic period of Greek history covers the VIII-VI centuries. BC. At this time, the Great Colonization took place - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black and Marmara Seas. As a result, the Greek world came out of the state of isolation in which it found itself after the collapse of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture. The Greeks learned a lot from other peoples: from the Lydians - minting coins, from the Phoenicians - alphabetic writing, which they improved. The achievements of Ancient Babylon and Egypt also influenced the development of science and art. These and other elements of foreign cultures organically entered Greek culture.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. in Greece, socio-economic and political development reached a level that gave the ancient society a special specificity in comparison with other civilizations of antiquity. These phenomena include: classical slavery, the system of monetary circulation and the market, the policy - the main form of political organization, the ideas of the sovereignty of the people and the democratic form of government. The largest policies are Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Argos, Thebes. Pan-Greek sanctuaries became important centers of economic, political, and cultural ties between cities, the emergence of which was facilitated by the creation of a single pantheon of gods as a result of the merging of local cults.

An important component of spiritual life was mythology, extremely rich and fascinating. For more than two millennia, it has been a source of inspiration for many poets and artists. Remarkable is the work of Hesiod (VIII-VII centuries BC), who wrote the poems "Theogony" (on the origin of the gods) and "Works and Days". In "Theogony" an attempt was made to systematize not only the genealogy of the gods, but also the history of the origin of the world.

In the era of archaism, the first philosophical system of antiquity arose - natural philosophy. Its representatives (Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander) tried to comprehend nature and its laws, to identify the fundamental principle of all things, while they perceived the world as a single material whole. Pythagoras (VI century BC) and his followers followed the same line of research into the root cause of the world, they considered numbers and numerical relations to be the basis of all things, made a significant contribution to the development of mathematics, astronomy and music theory.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC. Greek historiography is born. The emergence of the Greek theater also dates back to this time.

Despite the fact that in the archaic period Greece was not a single country, regular trade relations between individual policies led to the formation of ethnic identity - the Greeks gradually began to realize themselves as a single people, different from others. One of the manifestations of this self-consciousness was the famous Olympic Games (the first - in 776 BC), to which only Hellenes were allowed.

The classical period (from the turn of the 6th-5th centuries BC to 339 BC) is the heyday of the polis organization of society. Freedom in all spheres of public life is a special pride of the citizens of the Greek polis.

Athens became the center of Greek culture. The Athenian state in only one century (V century BC) gave mankind such eternal "companions" of its history and culture as Socrates and Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes, Phidias and Thucydides, Themistocles, Pericles, Xenophon . This phenomenon is called the "Greek miracle".

The outward manifestation of the inner freedom of the Greeks is their democracy. The formation of Greek democracy begins with the "military democracy" of Homeric times, then the reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes (6th century BC), and, finally, its development in the "golden age" of Pericles (reigned 490-429 BC). BC.). Citizens of the policy, imitating nature and the gods, served by slaves, fully enjoyed the benefits of life in well-organized, in their opinion, small states, feeling themselves truly independent and sovereign. A policy system of values ​​was developed: a firm belief that the policy is the highest good, that the existence of a person outside its framework is impossible, and the well-being of an individual depends on the well-being of the policy. His values ​​included the recognition of the superiority of agricultural labor over all other activities (the only exception was Sparta) and the condemnation of the pursuit of profit.

A special distinguishing feature from other civilizations is ancient anthropocentrism. It is in Athens that the philosopher Protagoras of Abdera (c. 490 - c. 420 BC) proclaims the famous saying "man is the measure of all things." For the Greeks, man is the personification of everything that exists, the prototype of everything created and being created; it became not only the predominant, but almost the only theme of classical art. This well-being of the Greeks was reflected in the art of the archaic and classical periods, which does not know examples of not only spiritual, but also bodily suffering. Myron, Poliklet, Phidias - the greatest sculptors of this time - depicted gods and heroes. Their "Olympic" calm, majesty, state of mind, devoid of doubts and worries, express the perfection that a person, if not achieved, can and must achieve.

Only in the IV century. BC. - late classic - when the Greeks discovered in life new facets beyond their control, the place of greatness gradually begins to be occupied by human experiences, passions, impulses. These processes are manifested both in sculpture and in literature. The tragedies of Aeschylus (late archaic) express the ideas (ideal duty) of human achievement, patriotic duty in general. Sophocles (classic) is already glorifying man, and he himself says that he depicts people as they should be. Euripides (late classic) seeks to show people as they really are, with all their weaknesses and vices.

In the 5th century BC. Greek historiography is actively developing. Even the ancients called Herodotus (454-430 BC) the "Father of History". He wrote a complete, beautifully presented work - "History", based on the plots of the Greco-Persian wars. The main task of art in the 5th century. BC, its basis is a true image of a man, strong, energetic, full of dignity and balance of mental strength - the winner in the Persian wars, a free citizen of the policy. At this time, realistic sculpture in marble and bronze reaches its peak. Magnificent are the works of Phidias ("Athena the Warrior", "Athena the Parthenos" for the Parthenon in Athens, "Zeus" for the temple in Olympia), Myron ("Discobolus"), Polykleitos (statue of Hera, made of gold and ivory, " Doryfor", "Wounded Amazon").

Harmony, proportionality, classical proportions - this is what fascinates us in ancient art and has determined the European canons of beauty and perfection for centuries. Feelings of order and measure are the most important for antiquity: evil was understood as immensity, and good as moderation. "Respect the measure in everything!" taught by the ancient Greek poet Hesiod. "Nothing too much!" - read the inscription above the entrance to the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi.

Hellenistic civilization. In the last decades of the 4th c. BC. the end of the classical culture of ancient Hellas came. This was started by the Eastern campaign of Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) and the massive colonization flow of the Hellenes to the newly conquered lands. This led to the destruction of polis democracy. As a result, a new stage in the development of material and spiritual culture, forms of political organization and social relations of the peoples of the Mediterranean, Western Asia and adjacent regions gradually took shape. The spread and influence of the Hellenistic civilization was extremely wide: Western and Eastern Europe, Western and Central Asia, North Africa. The era of Hellenism has come - the synthesis of Hellenic and Eastern cultures. Thanks to this synthesis, a common cultural language emerges, which formed the basis of the entire subsequent history of European culture.

The culture of the Hellenistic civilization combined local stable traditions with the traditions of the culture introduced by conquerors and settlers, Greeks and non-Greeks.

These changes determined the need of the Hellenes to understand their inner world. To meet this need, there were new philosophical trends: cynics, epicureanism, stoicism (philosophy in Greece has always been considered not so much a subject of study as the guide of life). The main question was: where do evil and injustice come from in the world and how to live in order to maintain at least moral, internal independence and freedom?

Even a cursory enumeration of the achievements of Hellenistic culture shows its enduring significance in the history of mankind. Hellenism enriched the world civilization with new discoveries in the field of scientific knowledge and invention. Suffice it to mention in this connection the names of Euclid (3rd century BC) and Archimedes (c. 287-212 BC). Within the framework of philosophy, social utopias were born and developed, describing the ideal social structure. The treasury of world art was replenished with such masterpieces as the altar of Zeus in Pergamon, the statues of Venus de Milo and Nike of Samothrace, the sculptural group of Laocoön. Public buildings of a new type appeared: a library, a museum, which served as a center for the work and application of scientific knowledge. These and other achievements of culture, later inherited by the Byzantine Empire, the Arabs, entered the golden fund of universal culture.

The dignity of Greek culture lies in the fact that it opened the human citizen, proclaiming the supremacy of his mind and freedom, the ideals of democracy and humanism. History knows no more outstanding discoveries, because for a person there is nothing more valuable than the person himself.

Antiquity

Antiquity [ (goes back to lat. antiquitas- antiquity) - in the general sense, this word means " Greco-Roman antiquity”, in other words, the civilization of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in all its diversity of historical forms.

Also, sometimes Antiquity is called any very ancient times, using the concept synonymously with the word " antiquity».

In Antiquity, one should look for the origins of many values ​​that later formed European culture.

Since Antiquity accounts for several centuries of human history, it is customary to subdivide it into epochs and periods.

1 General periodization of Antiquity

2 Periodization of Antiquity and Protoantiquity

2.1 Crete-Mycenaean period - prehistory of Antiquity

2.1.1 Minoan civilization (Crete)

2.1.2 Mycenaean civilization (Balkan Greece)

2.2 Polis period

2.2.1 Homeric (prepolis) period, "dark ages" (XI-IX centuries BC)

2.2.2 Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC)

2.2.3 Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC)

2.3 Hellenistic period

2.3.1 First Hellenistic period (334-281 BC)

2.3.2 Second Hellenistic period (281-150 BC)

2.3.3 Third Hellenistic period (150-27 BC)

2.4 Roman Empire

2.4.1 Principate (27 BC-284 AD)

2.4.2 Tetrarchy and Dominate (285-324 AD)

2.4.3 Decline of the Roman Empire (AD 395-476)

3 Geography of Antiquity

4 Legacy of Antiquity

4.1 Antiquity and modern society

General periodization of Antiquity

In general, the general periodization of Antiquity is as follows.

Early Antiquity(VIII century BC - II century BC) The birth of the Roman Empire.

classical antiquity(I century BC - I century AD), golden age ancient world, the time of the unity of the Greco-Roman civilization.

Late Antiquity(II-V AD). The collapse of the Roman Empire.

Time periods may vary somewhat in the geopolitical context. So the golden age of Antiquity in Ancient Greece was marked earlier than in the Roman Empire. Moreover, ancient civilization Eastern Roman Empire originated earlier and died out later than in the Western part, where its way of life was destroyed by the invading Germans. Nevertheless, the ancient cultural heritage (mainly in the Late Antique form) is quite well preserved in the way of life, culture, language and traditions of most modern Romance peoples, and from them it was transmitted to others peoples mediterranean (south slavs, Arabs, Turks, Berbers, Jews).

It should also be noted that many elements of classical Antiquity (traditions, laws, customs, etc.) were well preserved in the Asia Minor core of Eastern Roman ( Byzantine) empires until the 11th century, before the advent of Seljuk Turks.

Periodization of Antiquity and Protoantiquity

Crete-Mycenaean period - prehistory of Antiquity

Cretan-Mycenaean (late III-II millennium BC). Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. The emergence of the first state formations. The development of navigation. Establishment of trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East. The emergence of original writing. For Crete and mainland Greece, various periods of development are distinguished at this stage, since on the island of Crete, where a non-Greek population lived at that time, statehood developed earlier than in Balkan Greece, which underwent BC at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. the conquest of the Achaean Greeks. In fact, the Crete-Mycenaean period is the prehistory of Antiquity.

Minoan civilization (Crete)

Priest King, fresco in the palace of Knossos

Early Minoan period (XXX-XXIII centuries BC). The dominance of tribal relations, the beginning of the development of metals, the beginnings of crafts, the development of navigation, a relatively high level of agrarian relations.

Middle Minoan period (XXII-XVIII centuries BC). Also known as the period of "old" or "early" palaces. The emergence of early state formations in different parts of the island. Construction of monumental palace complexes in a number of regions of Crete. early forms of writing.

Late Minoan period (XVII-XII centuries BC). The heyday of the Minoan civilization, the unification of Crete, the creation of the sea power of the king Minos, the wide scope of commercial activity of Crete in the Aegean Sea basin, the flourishing of monumental construction ("new" palaces in Knossos, Mallia, Phaistos). Active contacts with ancient Eastern states. Natural disaster of the middle of the XV century. BC e. causes decline Minoan civilization, which created the prerequisites for the conquest of Crete by the Achaeans.

History of discovery and name open March 16 1900 English archaeologist Arthur Evans and named after the mythical king of Crete Minos- owner labyrinth built, according to legend, Daedalus. According to the same legend, the ancient Greeks paid tribute to Minos with people whom he fed to the monster. minotaur- offspring of his wife Pasiphae.

Characteristics

The Minoan civilization was a state ruled by a king.

The Minoans traded with Ancient Egypt, exported copper from Cyprus. Architecture is characterized by rethought Egyptian borrowings (for example, the use columns).

The Minoan army was armed with slings and bows. The characteristic weapon of the Minoans was also a double-sided ax labrys.

Like other nations old europe, was common among the Minoans bull cult(cm. taurocatapsia).

The Minoans melted bronze, produced ceramics and built palace complexes from the middle of the 20th century BC. e. ( Knossos, Fest, Mallia).

Like others pre-Indo-European religions Europe, the Minos religion is no stranger to remnants matriarchy. In particular, respect goddess with snakes(possibly similar Astartes).

Cultural connections According to the testimony Homer, in addition to the Minoans proper (autochthonous Cretans, Eteocretans), Crete also lived Pelasgians(according to Herodotus etc., who arrived from Asia Minor or Greece), as well as the Kidons (a small people, possibly related to the Minoans - the name of the city comes from them Kydonia). Later, the island was infiltrated Achaeans(Greeks).

Genetic affiliation Minoan (Eteocretan) language not installed. Partial decryption Cretan script allowed to reveal some morphological indicators. Undecipherable Phaistos disk.

Sunset The Minoan civilization suffered greatly as a result of a natural disaster in the 15th century. BC e. - volcanic explosion on the island of Thira ( Santorini), which gave rise to a catastrophic tsunami. This volcanic eruption may have been the basis of the myth of Atlantis.

Previously, it was assumed that the volcanic eruption destroyed the Minoan civilization, however, archaeological excavations in Crete have shown that the Minoan civilization existed for at least about 100 years after the eruption (a layer of volcanic ash was found under the buildings of the Minoan culture).

After the eruption, the Achaeans seize power on the island. Arises Mycenaean culture(Crete and mainland Greece), combining Minoan and Greek elements. In the XII century. Mycenaean culture destroyed Dorians, which eventually inhabit Crete. The Dorians' invasion leads to a sharp cultural decline, falling into disuse Cretan script.

Nevertheless, Eteocretan(the language of the autochthonous Cretans), apparently, still continued to exist - its last monuments, written in the Greek alphabet, date back to the 3rd century BC. BC e. (a millennium after the disappearance of the Minoan civilization!)

Mycenaean civilization (Balkan Greece)

Early Helladic period (XXX-XXI centuries BC). Dominance in Balkan Greece of tribal relations among the pre-Greek population. The appearance of the first large settlements and proto-palace complexes.

Middle Helladic period (XX-XVII centuries BC). The settlement in the south of the Balkan Peninsula of the first waves of Greek speakers - the Achaeans, was accompanied by a slight decrease in the overall level of socio-economic development of Greece. The beginning of the decomposition of tribal relations among the Achaeans.

Late Helladic period (XVI-XII centuries BC). The emergence of an early class society among the Achaeans, the formation of a productive economy in agriculture of a number of state entities with centers in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, etc., the formation of original writing, the flourishing of Mycenaean culture. The Achaeans conquer Crete and destroy the Minoan civilization. In the XII century. BC e. Greece is invaded by a new tribal group - the Dorians, the death of the Mycenaean statehood.

Early Helladic Greece Is a part Cretan-Mycenaean period Greek history.

IN III-II thousand BC e. in the Balkan Greece lived Pelasgians, Leleges And Carians, the whole country according to Herodotus called Pelasgia. Later Greek historians considered these peoples barbarians, although in reality their culture was at a higher level of development (archaeological data testify to this) than the culture Achaean Greeks who invaded Greek territory at the turn III-II thousand BC e.

All settlements of the early Helladic era can be divided into two types - these are strongholds(for example, in Lerne), in which representatives of the tribal nobility lived, and densely built-up villages (for example, Rafina And Zigouries), inhabited mainly by peasant farmers. All citadels were surrounded by fortifications, which were also present in some settlements.

In addition to farming, in the early Helladic period, craft(pottery, blacksmith), but the number of artisans was small and the products provided local demand, but it is possible that it also went beyond the boundaries of a separate community.

The division of settlements into citadels and settlements may indicate the beginning of class formation in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The civilization of this period was already ahead of other European cultures in its development, but movement prevented further progressive growth. tribes throughout Balkan Greece.

The emergence of the first Achaean states With the advent of the first wave of Achaean tribes, we can talk about the formation of the Greek people at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Archaeological data of finds from the Middle Helladic period (XX-XVII) indicate a certain decline in the culture of this period compared to the culture of the Early Helladic period. IN burials this time there were no metal products, instead of them reappear stone tools, the inventory of such burials is very scarce and monotonous, most likely, this can be explained by the lack of class stratification of society. Monumental structures are also disappearing, although it is impossible not to note the appearance of some innovations, such as Potter's wheel And war chariot.

All settlements of the Middle Helladic period were located, as a rule, on elevated areas and were fortified, an example of such a settlement is settlement Malti Dorion V messenia. In the center of this settlement there was a palace, workshops of artisans adjoined it, the rest were houses of ordinary people and warehouses.

By the end of the Middle Helladic period, a cultural upsurge in the development of the civilization of mainland Greece began to be felt, the first state formations arose, a process of class formation took place, manifested in the allocation of a stratum of the nobility, there was a significant increase in the population associated with the success of agriculture. The number of both small settlements and large cities has grown. Period in Greek history between XVI And XI centuries BC e. It is customary to call the Mycenaean era, after the name of the largest political and economic center of continental Greece - Mycenae located in Argolis.

Questions about the ethnic origin of the carriers of the Mycenaean civilization for a long time remained one of the most difficult, only after deciphering the linear script by scientists, the opinion was established that they were Achaeans. Achaeans who migrated to Crete and islands Asia Minor around the 16th century BC e., apparently descended from the northern, Thessalian Achaeans.

The first city-states formed in the XVII-XVI centuries. BC e. - Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos- had close cultural and trade ties with Crete, Mycenaean culture borrowed a lot from Minoan civilization, whose influence is felt in cult rituals, secular life, artistic monuments; undoubtedly, the art of building ships was perceived from the Cretans. But the Mycenaean culture was characterized only by its inherent traditions, rooted in ancient times (according to A. Evans, the Mycenaean culture is only an offshoot of the Cretan and is devoid of any individuality), its own path of development. A few words can be said about the development of Mycenaean trade and foreign relations with other states. Thus, a number of items found in Egypt and previously considered to have been brought from Crete, are now identified as products of Mycenaean artisans. There is a hypothesis according to which the Mycenaeans helped pharaoh Ahmose(XVI century BC) in his struggle with Hyksos, and at the time Akhenaten (XV V. BC BC) in his new capital Akhetatone Mycenaean pottery was widespread.

In the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. Achaeans conquered Crete And Cyclades, colonized many islands in Aegean Sea, founded a number of settlements in the depths of the territory of Greece, on the site of which the famous ancient city-states later grew up - Corinth, Athens, Delphi, Thebes. This period is considered the heyday of the Mycenaean civilization.

The Achaeans maintain not only the old Cretan trade relations, but also lay new sea routes on Caucasus, Sicily, V North Africa.

The main centers, as in Crete, were palaces, but their important difference from the Cretan ones is that they were fortified and were citadels. The monumental dimensions of the citadels are striking, the walls of which are built from untreated blocks, reaching in some cases a weight of up to 12 tons. The most outstanding, perhaps, the citadel is Tiryns, the entire defensive system of which was thought out with great care to prevent all unexpected disastrous situations.

Return of the Heraclides The formation of an urban community in the form in which it is depicted in the Iliad and the Odyssey, with a heterogeneous population in a certain territory, with all the features of the state structure, was greatly facilitated by the movement of the Hellenic tribes, known as the return of the Heraclids or resettlement Dorians V Peloponnese. The mixture of tribes that took place at the same time and the unification of the conquerors and the conquered in a common political organization, the thirst for success and improvement in new places should have accelerated the transition from the tribal system to the territorial, state. The founding of colonies in Asia Minor and on the islands, which followed the movement of the Dorians, acted even more strongly in the same direction: new interests and new relations gave rise to new forms of society. The movement of the Hellenes, in which the main role belonged to the Dorians, dates back to the XII century (since 1104); it started with an invasion epirus people Thessalians through pind to the country that in historical times was called Thessaly. The Aeolian natives were partly conquered, partly fled south and gave their place a name Boeotia. Living at the foot Olympus the Dorians moved first into that region, which was later called Dorida, and from there a part of them, together with Aetolians, through Gulf of Corinth crossed to the Peloponnese, until that time occupied by the Achaeans and in the northern part Ionians. Only after a long struggle with the natives did the Dorians gradually establish themselves in messenia, laconica, Argolis, where they penetrated from the side Gulf of Argos, and in Corinth. The Achaeans were forced either to submit to the newcomers in the position of incomplete inhabitants, or, having lost their tribal characteristics, to merge with the winners together, or, finally, to withdraw from their homes. Since that time, the northern strip of the peninsula received the name Achaia, from where the Ionians ran to their fellow tribesmen in Attica: Achaeans escaping from the Dorians occupied the coastal region. Another part of the Achaeans left Peloponnese and settled on the island Lesvos. From the Isthmus of Corinth, the Dorians penetrated into central Greece and took possession of Megaris. In the Peloponnese, the inhabitants of the Peloponnese held onto their lands, in political independence from the Dorians. Arcadia, A Elida went to the allies of the Dorians, the Aetolians. The immediate consequences of the same conquest of the Peloponnese was the eviction of the Ionians from Attica and other regions to the islands and the Asia Minor coast, where the Ionian 12-gradia arose ( Miletus, Ephesus, Phocaea, Colophon etc.), and the foundation by the Dorians, who came out mainly from Argolis, of six cities ( Hexapolis) on the Carian coast and on the adjacent islands. With the return of the Heraclids and the foundation of the most ancient colonies, which, in turn, served mother countries new settlements, the Hellenic people settled permanently in Greece. This event constitutes the boundary beyond which lies the kingdom of legend and myth, and on this side begins the historical existence of Greece, with the common name of the Hellenes.

Poetic sources

The state of Hellenic societies closest to historical time is depicted with remarkable clarity and completeness in the so-called Homeric poems, Iliad And Odyssey, back to top 8th century BC existed in its current form. The state of society depicted in them contains all the elements of the further development of Greece and constitutes, as it were, the starting point in the formation of various forms of government. The creation of the Iliad and the Odyssey dates back to the 10th-9th centuries. The events sung in the poems are separated from the time of the composition of the poems by the movement of tribes and peoples in mainland Greece, which resulted in the foundation of Asia Minor and island colonies. It is not possible to distribute the historical material contained in the poems by epochs and periods; the main part of it belongs to the times of the author himself. The individual type of the Hellenic, with its most permanent virtues and weaknesses, with its beliefs and inclinations, was already established in the society of the time of Homer. There are no positive laws in this society yet; therefore deviations from the norm of relations in one direction or another are here more often and less sensitive; however, the primordial customs and attitudes protected by the gods as well as public opinion. Fragments of the tribal system still live in society, especially in family and private law relations; but the city community has already taken shape, its management is distributed among the individual leader, the council of elders and the people. Economic dependence of other leaders on the people, the power of a public word, cash speakers, examples of criticism directed against leaders, etc., testify that already at that time the people in urban communities were not a powerless mass or an unrequited instrument of other authorities. If obedience to the leader is required of the people, then care for the people, justice in solving cases, courage in war, wisdom of advice and eloquence in peacetime are obligatory for the leader. The personal dignity of the leader is one of the necessary conditions for honor on the part of the people and the very obedience to its requirements. The further success of the public consisted in the fact that the mutual relations of the authorities acquired greater certainty; the notion of the common good in the state took precedence over all other interests; personal dignity and service to society were the main right to influence and importance in the state.

Homeric society is far from homogeneous in its composition: it distinguishes between simple and noble people, in addition to the free there are slaves; among the free, there are differences in status and occupation; mutual relations between masters and slaves bear the stamp of patriarchal simplicity and intimacy; in relations between men and women, more equality is seen than it was in later, historical times. poems Hesiod fill in the testimony of Homer's songs about the Hellenic society in that distant time.

Polis period

(XI-IV centuries BC) Ethnic consolidation of the Greek world. Formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood. Highest cultural and scientific achievements of ancient Greek civilization.

Homeric (prepolis) period , "dark ages" (XI-IX centuries BC)

The final destruction of the remains of the Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization, the revival and dominance of tribal relations, their transformation into early class relations, the formation of unique prepolis social structures.

Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC)

First period of antiquity. It begins in parallel with the sunset of the Bronze Age. The beginning of the period of Antiquity is considered to be the date of the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games in 776 BC e.

Formation of polis structures. Great Greek colonization. Early Greek tyrannies. Ethnic consolidation of the Hellenic society. The introduction of iron in all spheres of production, economic recovery. Creation of the foundations of commodity production, distribution of elements of private property.

classical greece (V-IV centuries BC)

5th-4th centuries BC e. - the period of the highest heyday of the polis device. As a result of the victory of the Greeks in Greco-Persian Wars(500-449 BC) Athens rises, creates Delian League(led by Athens). The time of the highest power of Athens, the greatest democratization of political life and the flowering of culture falls on the reign of Pericles(443-429 BC). Fight between Athens and Sparta hegemony in Greece and the contradictions between Athens and Corinth, associated with the struggle for trade routes, led to Peloponnesian War(431-404 BC), which ended with the defeat of Athens.

Characterized. The flourishing of the economy and culture of the Greek city-states. Reflection of the aggression of the Persian world power, the rise of national consciousness. The growing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms of government and backward agrarian policies with an aristocratic system, the Peloponnesian War, which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of the Macedonian aggression.

Hellenistic period

Hellenistic (IV-I centuries BC). Short-term assertion of the world power of Alexander the Great. The origin, flourishing and collapse of the Hellenistic Greek-Eastern statehood.

First Hellenistic period (334-281 BC)

Campaigns of the Greek-Macedonian army of Alexander the Great, a short period of existence of his world power and its disintegration into a number of Hellenistic states. High Hellenism coincided in time with the fierce Punic wars, diverting the attention of Rome from the eastern regions of the Mediterranean, and lasted until the Romans conquered Macedonia in 168 and destroyed Corinth. During these years, Rhodes flourished, the rich Kingdom of Pergamon played a huge role under Attalus I (241-197) and Eumenes II (197-152), majestic monuments of Ptolemaic Egypt were created.

Second Hellenistic Period (281-150 BC)

The heyday of Greek-Eastern statehood, economy and culture.

Third Hellenistic Period (150-27 BC)

Crisis and collapse of the Hellenistic statehood.

The Roman Empire

The Roman Empire (27 BC-476 AD)

Principate (27 BC-284 AD)

Tetrarchy and Dominate (285-324 AD)

Decline of the Roman Empire (AD 395-476)

Geography of Antiquity

Geography. Balkan Greece in antiquity occupied an area of ​​approx. 88 thousand sq. km. In the northwest it bordered on Illyria, in the northeast - on Macedonia, in the west it was washed by the Ionian (Sicilian), in the southeast - by the Myrtoic, in the east - by the Aegean and Thracian seas. It included three regions - Northern Greece, Central Greece and the Peloponnese. Northern Greece was divided by the Pindus mountain range into western (Epirus) and eastern (Thessaly) parts. Central Greece was delimited from North by the Timfrest and Eta mountains and consisted of ten regions (from west to east): Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris Ozolskaya, Dorida, Phokis, Locris Epiknemidskaya, Locris Opuntskaya, Boeotia, Megaris and Attica. The Peloponnese was connected to the rest of Greece by a narrow (up to 6 km) Isthmus of Corinth.

The central region of the Peloponnese was Arcadia, which bordered on the west with Elis, on the south with Messenia and Laconia, on the north with Achaia, on the east with Argolis, Phliuntia and Sicyonia; Corinthia was located in the extreme northeast corner of the peninsula. Insular Greece consisted of several hundred islands (the largest being Crete and Euboea), which formed three large archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest of the Aegean Sea, the Sporades in its eastern and northern parts, and the Ionian Islands off the western coast of Asia Minor. Balkan Greece is basically a mountainous country (it is pierced from north to south by two branches of the Dinaric Alps) with an extremely indented coastline and numerous bays (the largest are Ambracian, Corinthian, Messenian, Laconian, Argolid, Saronic, Malian and Pagasean).

The largest of the Greek islands is Crete, southeast of the Peloponnese and Euboea, separated from Central Greece by a narrow strait. The numerous islands of the Aegean Sea form two large archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest and the Sporades in its eastern and northern parts. The most significant of the islands off the western coast of Greece are Kerkyra, Lefkada, Kefallenia and Zakynthos.

Legacy of Antiquity

Antiquity and modern society

Antiquity has left a huge mark on modernity.

Funds Analysis mass media and reader preferences shows that at the turn XX-XXI centuries society is on the rise of interest in the ancient heritage [ source unspecified 138 days ] . There are intensive archaeological search, and their results immediately become the subject of media attention and public discussion. For example, Turkish archaeologists have been conducting research in the ancient city for seven years Antadros in the northwest of modern Turkey - they are trying to find evidence of the settlements of the legendary Cimmerians. As historian Gürcan Polat of Turkey's Aegean University said, "the time for real discovery is yet to come." Archaeologists from the Roman French School and University of Bordeaux in the summer of 2006, excavations began on a large necropolis in Roman catacombs Saints Peter and Marcellin relating to the beginning of Christianity in ancient Rome. Serious discussions are ongoing in connection with the start of excavations of the so-called " Bosnian pyramids» on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.