What is classicism in history. Classicism in art (XVII-XIX centuries)

Classicism

Classicism (- first-class, exemplary) - a trend in art and literature that received such a name because it considered classical antique (ancient Greek and ancient Roman) art to be ideal, exemplary, perfect, harmonious. The supporters of classicism saw their goal in getting closer to antique models by imitating them (antique motifs, plots, images, elements of mythology are widely used in the work of the classicists).

Classicism arose at the end of the Renaissance, took shape in France in the middle of the 17th century under Louis XIV. The emergence of classicism is associated with the formation of a centralized state, with the strengthening of the monarchy, the ideals of "enlightened" absolutism.

The code (set of rules) of classicism was compiled by the French poet and critic N. Boileau in the poetic treatise Poetic Art (1674). This work was first translated into Russian by Sumarokov in 1752, proving its applicability to Russian literature.

Classicism flourished in France in the tragedies of P. Corneille (“Sid”, “Horace”, “Cinna”), J. Racine (“Britannique”, “Mithridates”, “Phaedra”), F. Voltaire (“Brutus” , "Tancred"), in the comedies of J. B. Molière ("The Miser", "The Tradesman in the Nobility", "The Misanthrope", "Tartuffe, or the Deceiver", "The Imaginary Sick"), in the fables of J. de La Fontaine, in in the prose of F. La Rochefoucauld, J. La Bruyère, in Germany in the works of the Weimar period by J. W. Goethe (“Roman Elegies”, drama “Egmont”) and J. F. Schiller (“Ode to Joy”, dramas “Robbers” , "The Fiesco Conspiracy", "Deceit and Love").

Classicism as an artistic movement has its own features, its own principles.

Cult, the dominance of reason as the highest criterion of truth and beauty, the subordination of personal interests to high ideas of civic duty, state laws. The philosophical basis of classicism was rationalism (from the Latin gaIo - reason, rationality, expediency, rational validity of everything, the harmony of the Universe, due to its spiritual beginning), the founder of which was R. Descartes.

Exposure from the positions of statehood and enlightenment of ignorance, selfishness, despotism of the feudal order; the glorification of the monarchy, wisely governing the people, caring about education; affirmation of human dignity, civic and moral duty. In other words, classicism formulated the goal of literature as an impact on the mind to correct vices and education of virtue, and this clearly expressed the author's position (for example, Corneille praises the heroes who defend the state, the absolute monarch; Lomonosov praises Peter the Great as an ideal monarch).

Heroes of the works of classicism, mainly tragedies were "high": kings, princes, generals, leaders, nobles, higher clergy, noble citizens who care about the fate of the fatherland and serve it. In comedies, not only high-ranking persons were depicted, but also commoners, serf servants.

The characters were divided strictly into positive and negative, into virtuous, ideal, devoid of individuality, acting at the behest of the mind, and carriers of vice, who are in the grip of selfish passions. At the same time, in the depiction of positive characters, there was schematism, reasoning, that is, a tendency to moralizing reasoning from the author's positions.

The characters were unilinear: the hero personified any one quality (passion) - intelligence, courage, courage, nobility, honesty or greed, deceit, stinginess, cruelty, flattery, hypocrisy, boasting (Pushkin noted: and only...”; the leading feature of Mitrofan in “Undergrowth” is laziness).

Heroes were portrayed statically, without the evolution of characters. In fact, these were only images-masks (in Belinsky's words, "images without faces").

"Talking" names of characters (Tartuffe, Skotinin, Pravdin).

The conflict of good and evil, reason and stupidity, duty and feeling, in which good, reason, and duty have always won. In other words, in the works of classicism, vice was always punished, and virtue triumphed (for example, in Fonvizin's "Undergrowth"). Hence the abstractness, conventionality of the image of reality, the conventionality of the method of the classicists.

The heroes spoke in high-sounding, solemn, upbeat language; used such poetic means as Slavicisms, hyperbole, metaphor, personification, metonymy, comparison, antithesis, emotional epithets (“cold corpse”, “pale brow”), rhetorical questions and exclamations, appeals, mythological similes (Apollo, Zeus, Minerva, Neptune, Boreas). Syllabic versification dominated, Alexandrian verse was used.

The actors uttered long monologues in order to more fully reveal their views, beliefs, principles. Such monologues slowed down the action of the play.

Strict gradation, hierarchy of genres. "High" genres (tragedy, heroic poem, ode) reflected the life of the state, historical events, ancient stories. "Low" genres (comedy, satire, fable) were turned into the sphere of everyday modern private life. An intermediate place was occupied by the "middle" genres (drama, epistle, elegy, idyll, sonnet, song), depicting the inner world of an individual; they did not play a prominent role in the literary process (the flourishing of these genres will come later). The classification of genres was based on the theory of “three styles” (high, medium, low), known since ancient times. One of these styles was provided for each genre; deviations were not allowed.

It was not allowed to mix the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary.

Heroes were portrayed only in verse and in a sublime style. Prose was considered humiliating, "despicable" for dignitaries.

Dominated in dramaturgy theory of "three unities"- place (all the action of the play took place in one place), time (events in the play developed during the day), action (what happened on the stage had its beginning, development and end, while there were no “extra” episodes or characters that were not directly related to the development of the main story).

Proponents of classicism usually borrowed plots for works from ancient history or mythology. The rules of classicism demanded a logical unfolding of the plot, harmony of composition, clarity and conciseness of language, rational clarity and noble beauty of style.

Russian classicism. In Russia, due to historical conditions (during the period of the establishment of the absolute monarchy), classicism appeared later, from the end of the 20s of the 18th century, surviving until the 20s of the 19th century. At the same time, you should see your periods in the development of Russian classicism and, accordingly, the representatives of these periods.

Early Classicism: A. D. Kantemir (poetic satires), V. K. Trediakovsky (poem “Tilemakhida”, ode “For the Surrender of Gdansk”).

The heyday of classicism (40-70s): M. V. Lomonosov (odes “On the day of accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna”, “On the capture of Khotin”; tragedy “Tamira and Selim”, poem “Peter the Great”, cycle poems “Conversation with Anacreon”, satire “Hymn to the Beard”, A. P. Sumarokov (tragedies “Khorev”, “Sinav and Truvor”, “Dmitry the Pretender”, “Semira”; comedies “Guardian”, “Likhoimets” , “The Cuckold by Imagination”; fables, satires; the theoretical treatise of the “Epistole on Poetry”, which is based on the “Poetic Art” of Boileau, while introducing certain changes associated with an increase in interest in the inner life of an individual).

Late classicism: D. I. Fonvizin (comedies "The Brigadier", "Undergrowth"), Ya. B. Knyazhnin (tragedies "Dido", "Rosslav", "Vadim Novgorodsky"; comedy "Bouncer"), V. A. Ozerov (tragedies "Oedipus in Athens", "Fingal", "Dmitry Donskoy"), P.A. "Venetian nun"), G. R. Derzhavin (odes "Felitsa", "Nobleman", "God", "Waterfall", "On the capture of Ishmael"; anacreontic poems), A. N. Radishchev (ode "Liberty", story "The Life of V. F. Ushakov").

In the work of representatives of late classicism, sprouts and tendencies of realism are already visible.(for example, the recreation of the typical features of negative characters, due to serf relations, realistic descriptions of life, satirical denunciation, a mixture of genres, “calms”), classicism and its conventions are being destroyed; features of classicism are preserved rather outwardly.

Russian classicism expressed the worldview, psychology and tastes of the enlightened Russian nobility, who rose to prominence under Peter the Great.

The originality of Russian classicism. High civic-patriotic pathos, manifested in the appeal, mainly to national themes, to plots from Russian reality, from national history. In the preaching of national ideas, in the formation of socially useful, civic qualities of a person, in the development of an anti-despotic orientation, tyrannical motives, in educational tendencies (in the struggle for national culture, science, education), the objectively progressive significance of Russian classicism was contained, its connection with life was closer, people. (It is no coincidence that Pushkin called Fonvizin "a friend of freedom".).

A more pronounced accusatory-realistic tendency, expressed in satire, comedy, fable, which violated the principle of abstract depiction of reality inherent in classicism, that is, elements of realism were significant in Russian classicism.

A great connection with folk art, which gave the works of Russian classicism a democratic imprint, while Western European classicism avoided the inclusion of vernacular expressions, the use of folklore techniques (for example, Kantemir in his satires, Sumarokov widely used vernacular in satires and fables). Tonic and syllabotonic versification and free verse dominated.

"Class!" - we talk about what arouses our admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin, the word classicus and means "exemplary".

Classicismcalled the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the XVII-XIX centuries.

What about as a sample? Classicism developed the canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict trend in art, it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical, random signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect C. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When you can only like this and nothing else? Do not rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, to give direction, to show samples and to sweep aside everything insignificant and not deep.
But the canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. in the visual arts and in music: the norms that had taken root over the course of several centuries had outlived their usefulness and were torn apart.
However, we have already jumped ahead. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of genres of classicism. We will only say that as a certain trend, classicism was formed in France in the 17th century. A feature of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.

Hierarchy of genres of classicism

In classicism, a strict hierarchy of genres is established, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Consider the hierarchy of genres on the examples of various types of art.

Literature

Nicolas Boileau is considered the greatest theorist of classicism, but the founder is Francois Malherba, who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art".

Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy had to be respected three unities: the unity of time (the action must take place within one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (there must be one storyline in the work). The French tragedians Corneille and Racine became the leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy. The main idea of ​​their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov at the monument "1000th Anniversary of Russia" in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of "three calms".

"The theory of three calms" M.V. Lomonosov

The doctrine of the three styles, i.e. The classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, which distinguishes between high, medium and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three "styles" according to Lomonosov:
1. High - solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Medium - elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly compositions.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: the ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism, an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. This we find in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires A.D. Cantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, odes to M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin.
At the end of the XVIII century. the tendency to see in art the main force of human education intensified. In this regard, a literary trend arises sentimentalism, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared the main thing in human nature. The French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin - let's remember his famous "Poor Liza"!
But in the direction of classicism, works were created in the 19th century. For example, "Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboyedov. Although in this comedy there are already elements of romanticism and realism.

Painting

Since the definition of "classicism" is translated as "exemplary", then some kind of model is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. It was the highest example. There was also a reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance, which also saw a model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected the conflicts of the individual and society, the ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which testify to the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors. So wrote, for example, N. Poussin.

Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin "Self-portrait" (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings are based on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.

N. Poussin "Dance to the Music of Time" (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. It circles (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the two-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of the fleeting human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, while the old face is turned to the past. The winged, gray-bearded old man, to the music of which the round dance is spinning, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby who holds an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, the goddess of dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers in her path.

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin, State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist depicted in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a formal portrait, traditional for classicism. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a statesman, this is evidenced by his uniform and awards.
But at the same time, this is a famous poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which have already been actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, it is Karl Bryullov. His work came at a time when classical works of form were filled with the spirit of romanticism, this combination was called academism. In the middle of the XIX century. the young generation gravitating towards realism began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was facilitated, among other things, by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many sculptures of Hellenism became known.
Classicism reached its highest incarnation in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1757-1822)

A. Canova "Self-portrait" (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Louvre in Paris and in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Canova "Three Graces". Saint Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group "Three Graces" refers to the late period of creativity of Antonio Canova. The sculptor embodied his ideas of beauty in the images of the graces - ancient goddesses personifying female charm and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two extreme faces face each other (and not the viewer) and the girlfriend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged into an embrace, they are united by the interweaving of hands and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II legislators and others.

F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator, he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a bone carver of the Kholmogory carved bone.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition, it was customary to depict models naked, while the norms of morality modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.

B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order- a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. It includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of the elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

London's Osterley Park mansion. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov.

Carl Barthalomeo-Rossi(1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
Rossi's outstanding architectural and urban planning skills are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with its adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff building and the triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the Senate and Synod buildings (1829). -1834), Alexandrinsky Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two uniform long buildings of Theater Street (now the street of the architect Rossi).

The building of the General Staff on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)

Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. It was required from her: the balance of parts of the work, the careful finishing of details, the development of the main canons of the musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, the classical composition of parts of the sonata and symphony was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the XVII century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the works of I.S. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reformist operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are nevertheless associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart and L. van Beethoven.

Note

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of "classical music" is much broader. It includes not only the music of the period of the era of classicism, but also the music of the past in general, which has withstood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.

Europe 17-19 centuries. This period showed the world many talented authors who made a significant contribution to the development of art: literature, painting, sculpture, music and architecture. For the first time, the tendencies of classicism appeared in France, when it resumed to ancient times and the ideals of that time.

Features of classicism

The main features of this trend originate in antiquity. The thinking of the authors was artistically directed and tended to a clear, holistic expression, as well as simplicity of visual means, balance and logic of statements. Therefore, we can say that the thinking of a person of the era of classicism is rationally idealized.

If we talk about the fact that classicism is related to antiquity, then it is important to note that their similarity consisted in the form, which, however, could not meet the standards that were accepted in classic art. What distinguishes it from others is, first of all, the respect for ancient values ​​​​and the ability to display even when they are irrelevant.

A characteristic feature of classicism is an ontological understanding of beauty. Here it is timeless, and therefore eternal, and also much attention is paid to the laws of harmony.

Psychologically, classicism is explained by the fact that in difficult historical periods, which are transitional and carry a lot of new things, a person tends to turn to what is unchanged: for example, to the past. In this he finds support: the ancient Greeks are an example of rationalism in thinking, they gave mankind complete ideas about space and time, and many other phenomena in life, and they did it in a simple and accessible form. Complex and ornate thoughts and the same design do not mean the clarity and concreteness that humanity needed in a rapidly changing world. Therefore, antiquity played an important role in the formation of classicism.

The ideas of classicism are romantic, so many are of the opinion that they are inseparable. And yet they have significant differences: romanticism is more divorced from reality in its ideals and ways of displaying them than classicism.

What is classicism? V. Tatarkevich tried to explain this with the help of several principles, which, in turn, were originally stated by the theorist L. B. Alberti:

1. Beauty is an objective property of real objects.
2. Beauty is order, correct composition, which is evaluated by the mind.
3. Since art uses science, then it must have a rational discipline.
4. An image created in the direction of classicism can be real, but depicted according to the model of antiquity.

What is classicism in painting

The main feature of this trend in artistic creativity is manifested in the attitude of the artist to the work: his feelings, expressed through painting, are also subject to logic.

Among the brightest representatives are the works of N. Prussen, who painted pictures with mythological themes. Particular attention in them is attracted by the exact geometric composition and thoughtful combination of colors. So is C. Lorrain: although the themes of his paintings differ from the works of N. Prussen (landscapes of the city's environs), the rationalism in execution is also sustained: he harmonized them with the help of the light of the setting sun.

What is classicism in sculpture and architecture

Since antique works served as a model in classicism, when sculpting, the authors faced a contradiction: in ancient Greece, models were depicted naked, but now it was immoral. Artists got out of the situation in a cunning way: they depicted real people in the form of ancient gods. During the reign of Napoleon, sculptors began to make models wearing togas.

Classicism in Russia originated much later, but, nevertheless, this did not prevent talented authors from appearing in this country who worked in accordance with his ideas: Boris Orlovsky, Fedot Shubin, Ivan Martos, Mikhail Kozlovsky.

In architecture, they also sought to recreate the forms inherent in antiquity. Simplicity, rigor, monumentality and logical clarity are the main features.

What is classicism in literature

The main achievement of classicism is that they were divided into hierarchical groups: among them were distinguished high (epopee, tragedy, ode) and low (fable, comedy and satire).

In literature, a strict requirement was put forward for the observance of genre features in a work.

Classicism is an artistic movement that originated in the Renaissance, which, along with the Baroque, occupied an important place in the literature of the 17th century and continued to develop during the Enlightenment - until the first decades of the 19th century. The adjective "classic" is quite ancient.: even before getting its main meaning in Latin, "classicus" meant "noble, wealthy, respected citizen." Having received the meaning of “exemplary”, the concept of “classical” began to be applied to such works and authors, which became the subject of school study, were intended for reading in classes. It was in this sense that the word was used both in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance, and in the 17th century the meaning “worthy for study in classes” was enshrined in dictionaries (dictionary of S.P. Richlet, 1680). The definition of "classical" was applied only to ancient, ancient authors, but not to modern writers, even if their works were recognized as artistically perfect and aroused the admiration of readers. The first to use the epithet "classical" in relation to the writers of the 17th century was Voltaire ("The Age of Louis XIV", 1751). The modern meaning of the word "classical", which significantly expands the list of authors belonging to the literary classics, began to take shape in the era of romanticism. At the same time, the concept of "Classicism" appeared. Both terms among the romantics often had a negative connotation: Classicism and "classics" were opposed to "romantics" as outdated literature blindly imitating antiquity - innovative literature (see: "On Germany", 1810, J. de Stael; "Racine and Shakespeare" , 1823-25, Stendhal). On the contrary, the opponents of romanticism, primarily in France, began to use these words as a designation of a truly national literature that opposes foreign (English, German) influences, they defined the word "classics" of the great authors of the past - P. Corneille, J. Racine, Molière, F. La Rochefoucauld. High appreciation of the achievements of French literature of the 17th century, its significance for the formation of other national literatures of the New Age - German, English, etc. - contributed to the fact that this century was considered the "era of Classicism", in which French writers and their diligent students in other countries played a leading role. Writers who clearly did not fit within the framework of classicist principles were assessed as "stragglers" or "strayed". In fact, two terms were established, the meanings of which partly intersected: "classical"-i.e. exemplary, artistically perfect, included in the fund of world literature, and "classic" - that is, relating to Classicism as a literary movement, embodying its artistic principles.

Concept - Classicism

Classicism - a concept that entered the history of literature of the late 19th - early 20th century, in works written by scientists of the cultural-historical school (G. Lanson and others). The features of Classicism were primarily determined from the dramatic theory of the 17th century and from N. Boileau's treatise "Poetic Art" (1674). It was considered as a direction oriented towards ancient art, drawing its ideas from Aristotle's Poetics, and also as embodying the absolutist monarchical ideology. The revision of this concept of Classicism both in foreign and domestic literary criticism falls on the 1950s and 60s: from now on, Classicism began to be interpreted by most scientists not as an “artistic expression of absolutism”, but as “a literary movement that experienced a period of bright heyday in the 17th century, in the years strengthening and triumph of absolutism ”(Vipper Yu.B. On the“ seventeenth century ”as a special era in the history of Western European literatures. The 17th century in world literary development.). The term "Classicism" retained its role even when scientists turned to non-classic, baroque works of literature of the 17th century. In the definition of Classicism, they singled out, first of all, the desire for clarity and accuracy of expression, strict obedience to the rules (the so-called “three unities”), and alignment with ancient samples. The origin and spread of Classicism was associated not only with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, but also with the emergence and influence of the rationalist philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences, primarily mathematics. In the first half of the 20th century, Classicism was called the "school of the 1660s" - a period when great writers - Racine, Molière, Lafontaine and Boileau - simultaneously worked in French literature. Gradually, its origins were revealed in the Italian literature of the Renaissance: in the poetics of J. Cintio, J. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, in the tragedies of D. Trissino and T. Tasso. The search for an “ordered manner”, the laws of “true art” was found in English (F. Sidney, B. Johnson, J. Milton, J. Dryden, A. Pope, J. Addison), in German (M. Opitz, I. Kh. .Gotsched, I.V. Goethe, F. Schiller), in Italian (G. Chiabrera, V. Alfieri) literature of the 17-18 centuries. A prominent place in European literature was occupied by Russian Classicism of the Enlightenment (A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin). All this led researchers to consider it as one of the important components of the artistic life of Europe for several centuries and as one of the two (along with baroque) main trends that laid the foundations of the culture of the New Age.

Durability of Classicism

One of the reasons for the longevity of Classicism was that the writers of this trend considered their work not as a way of subjective, individual self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, unchanging, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. The classicist vision of reality, which was formed on the threshold of the New Age, had, like the Baroque, internal drama, but subordinated this drama to the discipline of external manifestations. Ancient literature served for the classicists as an arsenal of images and plots, but they were filled with relevant content. If early, Renaissance Classicism sought to recreate antiquity by imitation, then Classicism of the 17th century enters into competition with ancient literature, sees in it, first of all, an example of the correct use of the eternal laws of art, using which one can be able to surpass ancient authors (see the Dispute about the "ancient" and "new"). Strict selection, ordering, harmony of composition, classification of themes, motives, all the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for the writers of Classicism an attempt to artistically overcome the chaos and contradictions of reality, correlated with the didactic function of works of art, with the principle drawn from Horace "to teach entertaining." A favorite collision in the works of Classicism is the clash of duty and feelings, or the struggle of reason and passion. Classicism is characterized by a stoic mood, opposition to chaos and irrationality of reality, one's own passions and affects, a person's ability, if not to overcome them, then to curb, in extreme cases - to both dramatic and analytical awareness (the heroes of Racine's tragedies). Descartes' "I think, therefore I am" plays in the artistic worldview of the characters of Classicism the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle. The hierarchy of ethical and aesthetic values ​​determines the predominant interest of Classicism in moral, psychological and civil topics, dictates the classification of genres, dividing them into “higher” (epic, ode, tragedy) and lower (comedy, satire, fable), the choice for each of these genres specific themes, styles, character systems. Classicism is characterized by the desire to analytically separate the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the low, the beautiful and the ugly, in different works, even artistic worlds. At the same time, turning to low genres, he seeks to ennoble them, for example, to remove coarse burlesque from satire, and farcical features from comedy (Moliere's "high comedy"). The poetry of Classicism strives for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning; it refuses sophistication, metaphorical complexity, and stylistic embellishments. Of particular importance in Classicism are dramatic works and the theater itself, which is able to most organically perform both moralizing and entertaining functions. In the bosom of Classicism, prose genres are also developing - aphorisms (maxims), characters. Although the theory of Classicism refuses to include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, but in practice, the poetics of Classicism had a tangible impact on the concept of the novel, popular in the 17th century, as an “epopee in prose”, defined the genre parameters of the “little novel”, or “romantic short story” 1660-80s, and “The Princess of Cleves” (1678) by M.M. de Lafayette is considered by many experts as a model of a classic novel.

Theory of Classicism

The theory of Classicism is not limited only to Boileau's poetic treatise "Poetic Art": although its author is rightly considered the legislator of Classicism, he was only one of the many creators of literary treatises in this direction, along with Opitz and Dryden, F.Chaplain and F.d'Aubignac. It develops gradually, experiences its formation in disputes between writers and critics, changes over time. National versions of Classicism also have their differences: French - develops into the most powerful and consistent artistic system, exerts its influence on the Baroque; German - on the contrary, having arisen as a conscious cultural effort to create a "correct" and "perfect" poetic school worthy of other European literatures (Opitz), as if "choked" in the stormy waves of the bloody events of the Thirty Years' War and is drowned out, overlapped by baroque. Although the rules are a way to keep creative imagination, freedom within the boundaries of reason, Classicism understands how important intuitive insight is for a writer, a poet, forgives talent for deviation from the rules, if it is appropriate and artistically effective (“The smallest thing to look for in a poet is the ability to subordinate words and syllables to certain laws and write poetry. A poet must be ... a person with a rich imagination, with an inventive fantasy "- Opitz M. A book about German poetry. Literary manifestos). A constant subject of discussion in the theory of Classicism, especially in the second half of the 17th century, is the category of "good taste", which was interpreted not as an individual preference, but as a collective aesthetic norm developed by a "good society". The taste of Classicism prefers verbosity - laconicism, vagueness and complexity of expression - simplicity and clarity, striking, extravagant - decent. Its main law is artistic plausibility, which is fundamentally different from artlessly truthful reflection of life, from historical or private truth. Plausibility portrays things and people as they should be, and is associated with the concept of moral standards, psychological probability, decency. Characters in Classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which contributes to their transformation into universal universal types. His poetics in its initial principles is opposed to the baroque, which does not exclude the interaction of both literary trends not only within the framework of one national literature, but also in the work of the same writer (J. Milton).

In the Age of Enlightenment, the civil and intellectual nature of the conflict in the works of Classicism, its didactic-moralistic pathos, acquires special significance. Enlightenment Classicism even more actively comes into contact with other literary trends of its era, no longer relies on the “rules”, but on the “enlightened taste” of the public, gives rise to various versions of Classicism (“Weimar classicism” by J.W. Goethe and F. Schiller) . Developing the ideas of "true art", Classicism of the 18th century, more than other literary movements, lays the foundations of aesthetics as a science of beauty, which received its development and the terminological designation itself precisely in the Enlightenment. The requirements put forward to Classicism for clarity of style, semantic fullness of images, sense of proportion and norms in the structure and plot of works retain their aesthetic relevance to this day.

The word classic comes from Latin classicus, which means exemplary, first-class.

Classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - the artistic style of European art of the 17th-19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest model and reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of the harmonious structure of society, but in many respects lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. The conflicts of the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.

A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art.

At the head of the direction is the Paris Academy of Arts, which owns the creation of a set of artificial dogmatic rules and supposedly unshakable laws of the composition of the picture. This Academy also established rationalistic principles for depicting emotions (“passions”) and the division of genres into “high” and “low”. The “high” genres included historical, religious and mythological genres, while the “low” genres included portrait, landscape, everyday genre, and still life.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism freed a person from religious and church influence, asserting the individual as the highest value of being. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

Classicism was formed as an antagonistic direction in relation to the magnificent and virtuoso art of the Baroque. But when, in the second half of the 17th century, classicism became the official art of the absolutist monarchy, it absorbed elements of the baroque. This manifested itself in the architecture of Versailles, in the work of the painter Ch. Lebrun, the sculptures of F. Girardon, and A. Coisevox.

In the middle of the 18th century, against the backdrop of the enlightenment movement, on the eve of the French Revolution, a new trend of classicism arose, opposing itself to the art of the Rococo and the work of epigones - academicians. A feature of this trend was the manifestation of the features of realism, the desire for clarity and simplicity, the reflection of the educational ideal of “natural humanity”.

The period of late classicism - Empire - falls on the first third of the 19th century. It is distinguished by splendor and splendor, expressed in architecture and applied art. This period is distinguished as independent.

IN painting classicism, the logical unfolding of the plot, a clear balanced composition, a clear transfer of volume, the subordinate role of color with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors (N. Poussin, K. Lorrain) acquired the main importance. Clear

The demarcation of plans in landscapes was also revealed with the help of color: the foreground had to be brown, the middle one - green, and the far one - blue.

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. The themes of Poussin's canvases are diverse: mythology, history, the New and Old Testament. The heroes of Poussin are people of strong characters and majestic deeds, a high sense of duty to society and the state. The public purpose of art was very important to Poussin. All these features are included in the emerging program of classicism. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art historian Winckelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").

In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor; his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds.

Sculpture the era of classicism is distinguished by rigor and restraint, coherence of forms, calmness of poses, when even movement does not violate formal isolation (E. Falcone, J. Houdon).

The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of baroque and classicism, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated toward the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted norms.

Morals. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were at first depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of modern figures in ancient togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a rather dry pathos. The purity of lines, the restraint of gestures, the impassivity of expressions are especially valued. In the choice of role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in the interpretation of Thorvaldsen, make a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. The tomb sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

main feature architecture classicism was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in

Compliance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

Literature. The French poet Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons, is considered the founder of the poetics of classicism. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the positions of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson surveyed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed.

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are intended primarily to capture stable generic features that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that imply a mandatory authorial assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).