"Superfluous people" in literature are images characteristic of Russian prose of the mid-nineteenth century. Examples of such characters in works of art are the topic of the article.
Who coined this term?
"Superfluous people" in literature are characters that appeared as early as the beginning of the nineteenth century. Who exactly introduced this term is unknown. Possibly Herzen. According to some sources - Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. After all, the great Russian poet once said that his Onegin is "an extra person." One way or another, this image is firmly established in the works of other writers.
Every schoolboy who hasn't even read Goncharov's novel knows about someone like Oblomov. This character is a representative of the outdated landlord world, and therefore cannot adapt in any way to the new one.
General signs
"Superfluous people" are found in the works of such classics as I. S. Turgenev, M. Yu. Lermontov. Before considering each of the characters that can be attributed to this category, it is necessary to highlight common features. "Superfluous people" in literature are contradictory characters who are in conflict with the society to which they belong. As a rule, they are deprived of both fame and wealth.
Examples
"Superfluous people" in literature are characters introduced by the author into an environment alien to them. They are moderately educated, but their knowledge is unsystematic. The "superfluous person" cannot be a deep thinker or scientist, but he has the "ability of judgment", the gift of eloquence. And the main sign of this literary character is a dismissive attitude towards others. As an example, we can recall Pushkin's Onegin, who avoids communication with his neighbors.
"Superfluous people" in Russian literature of the 19th century were heroes who were able to see the vices of modern society, but did not know how to resist them. They are aware of the problems of the world around them. But, alas, they are too passive to change anything.
Causes
The characters discussed in this article began to appear on the pages of the works of Russian writers in the Nikolaev era. In 1825 there was an uprising of the Decembrists. For the next decades, the government was in fear, but it was at this time that the spirit of freedom, the desire for change, appeared in society. The policy of Nicholas I was rather contradictory.
The tsar introduced reforms designed to make life easier for the peasants, but at the same time did everything to strengthen the autocracy. Various circles began to appear, the members of which discussed and criticized the current government. The landlord way of life for many educated people caused contempt. But the trouble is that the participants in various political associations belonged to the same society for which they suddenly inflamed with hatred.
The reasons for the appearance of "superfluous people" in Russian literature lie in the emergence in society of a new type of person who was not accepted by society and did not accept him. Such a person stands out from the crowd, and therefore causes bewilderment and irritation.
As already mentioned, the concept of "extra person" was first introduced into literature by Pushkin. However, this term is somewhat vague. Characters in conflict with the social environment have been encountered in literature before. The protagonist of Griboyedov's comedy has features inherent in this type of character. Is it possible to say that Chatsky is an example of an "extra person"? In order to answer this question, a brief analysis of the comedy should be made.
Chatsky
The hero of Griboedov rejects the inert foundations of the Famus society. He denounces servility and blind imitation. This does not go unnoticed by representatives of the Famus society - whipping, Khryumin, Zagoretsky. As a result, Chatsky is considered strange, if not crazy.
Griboyedov's hero is a representative of an advanced society, which includes people who do not want to put up with reactionary orders and remnants of the past. Thus, we can say that the topic of "an extra person" was first raised by the author of "Woe from Wit".
Eugene Onegin
But most literary critics believe that this particular hero is the first "extra person" in the prose and poetry of Russian authors. Onegin is a nobleman, "the heir to all his relatives." He received a very tolerable education, but does not possess any deep knowledge. To write and speak French, to behave at ease in society, to recite a few quotations from the writings of ancient authors - this is enough to create a favorable impression in the world.
Onegin is a typical representative of an aristocratic society. He is not able to "work hard", but he knows how to shine in society. He leads an aimless, idle existence, but that is not his fault. Eugene became what his father was, who gave three balls annually. He lives the way most representatives of the Russian nobility exist. However, unlike them, at some point he begins to experience fatigue, disappointment.
Loneliness
Onegin - "an extra person." He languishes from idleness, tries to occupy himself with useful work. In the society to which he belongs, idleness is the main component of life. Hardly anyone from Onegin's entourage is familiar with his experiences.
Eugene at first tries to compose. But the writer does not come out of it. Then he begins to read with enthusiasm. However, Onegin does not find moral satisfaction in books either. Then he retires to the house of his deceased uncle, who bequeathed his village to him. Here the young nobleman, it would seem, finds something to do. He makes life easier for the peasants: he replaces the yoke with a light quitrent. However, these good undertakings do not lead to anything.
The type of "superfluous person" in Russian literature appeared in the first third of the nineteenth century. But by the middle of the century, this character acquired new features. Pushkin's Onegin is rather passive. He treats others with contempt, is in a blues and cannot get rid of conventions and prejudices, which he himself criticizes. Consider other examples of the "extra person" in the literature.
Pechorin
Lermontov's work "A Hero of Our Time" is devoted to the problems of a person rejected, spiritually not accepted by society. Pechorin, like Pushkin's character, belongs to the high society. But he is tired of the mores of aristocratic society. Pechorin does not enjoy attending balls, dinners, festive evenings. He is oppressed by boring and meaningless conversations that are customary to conduct at such events.
Using the examples of Onegin and Pechorin, one can supplement the concept of "an extra person" in Russian literature. This is a character who, due to some alienation from society, acquires such features as isolation, selfishness, cynicism and even cruelty.
"Notes of an Extra Man"
And yet, most likely, the author of the concept of "superfluous people" is I. S. Turgenev. Many literary scholars believe that it was he who introduced this term. According to them, Onegin and Pechorin were subsequently ranked among the "superfluous people", although they have little in common with the image created by Turgenev. The writer has a story called "Notes of an Extra Man". The hero of this work feels like a stranger in society. This character himself calls himself such.
Whether the hero of the novel "Fathers and Sons" is a "superfluous person" is a moot point.
Bazarov
Fathers and Sons depicts a mid-nineteenth-century society. The stormy political disputes by this time had reached their apogee. In these disputes, on one side stood the liberal democrats, and on the other, the revolutionary democrats-raznochintsy. Both understood that change was needed. The revolutionary-minded democrats, unlike their opponents, were determined to take rather radical measures.
Political disputes have penetrated into all spheres of life. And, of course, they became the theme of artistic and journalistic works. But there was at that time another phenomenon that interested the writer Turgenev. Namely, nihilism. Adherents of this movement rejected everything that has to do with the spiritual.
Bazarov, like Onegin, is a deeply lonely person. This feature is also characteristic of all characters, which literary critics refer to as "superfluous people". But, unlike Pushkin's hero, Bazarov does not spend time in idleness: he is engaged in natural sciences.
The hero of the novel "Fathers and Sons" has successors. He is not considered insane. On the contrary, some heroes try to adopt Bazar's oddities and skepticism. Nevertheless, Bazarov is lonely, despite the fact that his parents love and idolize him. He dies, and only at the end of his life he realizes that his ideas were false. There are simple pleasures in life. There is love and romantic feelings. And all this has a right to exist.
Rudin
In often there are "extra people". The action of the novel "Rudin" takes place in the forties. Daria Lasunskaya, one of the heroines of the novel, lives in Moscow, but in the summer she leaves the city, where she organizes musical evenings. Her guests are exceptionally educated people.
One day, a certain Rudin appears in Lasunskaya's house. This man is prone to polemics, extremely ardent, and with his wit conquers listeners. The guests and the mistress of the house are enchanted by Rudin's amazing eloquence. Lasunskaya invites him to live in her house.
In order to give a clear description of Rudin, Turgenev tells about the facts from his life. This man was born in a poor family, but never had the desire to earn money, to get out of poverty. At first he lived on the pennies that his mother sent him. Then he lived at the expense of rich friends. Rudin, even in his youth, was distinguished by extraordinary oratorical skills. He was a fairly educated person, because he spent all his leisure time reading books. But the trouble is that nothing followed his speeches. By the time he met Lasunskaya, he had already become a man, fairly battered by the hardships of life. In addition, he became painfully proud and even conceited.
Rudin - "an extra person." Many years of immersion in the philosophical sphere has led to the fact that ordinary emotional experiences seem to have died out. This Turgenev hero is a born orator, and the only thing he strove for was to conquer people. But he was too weak, spineless, to become a political leader.
Oblomov
So, the "extra person" in Russian prose is a disillusioned nobleman. The hero of Goncharov's novel is sometimes referred to as this type of literary hero. But can Oblomov be called "an extra person"? After all, he misses, languishes for his father's house and all that made up the landowner's life. And he is by no means disappointed in the way of life and traditions characteristic of the representatives of his society.
Who is Oblomov? This is a descendant of a landowner family, who is bored with working in an office, and therefore he does not get up from his sofa for days. This is a common opinion, but it is not entirely correct. Oblomov could not get used to Petersburg life, because the people around him were all prudent, heartless individuals. The protagonist of the novel, unlike them, is smart, educated and, most importantly, has high spiritual qualities. But why doesn't he want to work then?
The fact is that Oblomov, like Onegin and Rudin, does not see the point in such work, such a life. These people cannot work only for the sake of material well-being. Each of them requires a high spiritual goal. But it does not exist, or it turned out to be insolvent. And Onegin, and Rudin, and Oblomov become "superfluous".
Goncharov contrasted Stolz, a childhood friend, with the protagonist of his novel. This character first creates a positive impression on the reader. Stolz is a hardworking, purposeful person. The writer endowed this hero with German origin not by chance. Goncharov seems to be hinting that only a Russian person can suffer from Oblomovism. And in the last chapters it becomes clear that there is nothing behind Stolz's diligence. This person has neither dreams nor high ideas. It acquires sufficient means of subsistence and stops without continuing its development.
The influence of the "extra person" on others
It is also worth saying a few words about the heroes who surround the "extra person". referred to in this article, lonely, unhappy. Some of them end their lives too soon. In addition, "superfluous people" bring grief to others. Especially women who had the imprudence to love them.
Pierre Bezukhov is sometimes also referred to as "superfluous people". In the first part of the novel, he is in constant anguish, searching for something. He spends a lot of time at parties, buys paintings, reads a lot. Unlike the aforementioned heroes, Bezukhov finds himself, he does not die either physically or morally.
The term "extra person" is familiar, perhaps, to everyone. But where did he come from in Russian literature? And what is behind this definition, on what basis can one or another literary hero be classified as "superfluous" people?
It is believed that the concept of "extra person" was first used by I.S. Turgenev, who wrote The Diary of a Superfluous Man. However, A.S. Pushkin in the draft version of the VIII chapter of "Eugene Onegin" wrote about his hero: "Onegin is worth something superfluous." In my opinion, “an extra person” is an image that is typical of the work of many Russian writers and poets of the 19th century. Each of them rethought it in accordance with the spirit of their time. At the same time, the “extra person” was not the fruit of a creative fantasy - his presence in Russian literature testified to a spiritual crisis in certain sections of Russian society.
Any high school student, answering the question of which of the heroes of Russian literature fits the definition of "an extra person", will name Eugene Onegin and Grigory Pechorin without hesitation. Undoubtedly, both of these characters are the brightest representatives of the camp of "superfluous" people. Looking at them more closely, we can answer the question: who is he - an extra person?
So, Eugene Onegin. A.S. Pushkin already in the first chapter of his novel draws a complete image of a secular young man. He is no better and no worse than others: educated, savvy in matters of fashion and pleasant manners, he has a secular gloss. Idleness and petty fuss, empty conversations and balls - this is what fills his monotonous, brilliant outwardly, but devoid of inner content life.
Very soon he begins to understand that his life is empty, that nothing is worth behind the “external tinsel”, and slander and envy reign in the world. Onegin is trying to find an application for his abilities, but the lack of need for work leads to the fact that he does not find something to his liking. The hero moves away from the world, leaves for the village, but here the same melancholy overtakes him. The love of sincere, not spoiled by the light of Tatyana Larina does not cause any spiritual movements in him. Out of boredom, Onegin courts Olga, which causes the jealousy of his random friend Lensky. Everything, as you know, ends tragically.
V.G. Belinsky wrote about Eugene Onegin: "The forces of this rich nature were left without application: life without meaning, and the novel without end." These words can equally be attributed to the main figure of the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time" - Grigory Pechorin. It is no coincidence that critics call him "Onegin's younger brother."
Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin, like Onegin, belongs to the noble circle. He is rich, has success with women and, it would seem, should be happy. However, Pechorin constantly experiences an acute feeling of dissatisfaction with himself and those around him, every business very soon becomes boring for him, even love tires him. Being in the rank of ensign, he does not strive for more, which indicates his lack of ambition, as well as his attitude to the service.
Onegin and Pechorin are separated by only ten years, but what! .. Pushkin began writing his novel before the Decembrist uprising, and finished at a time when society had not yet fully comprehended the lessons of this event. Lermontov "sculpted" his Pechorin during the years of the most severe reaction. Perhaps it is for this reason that what is only outlined in Onegin's character develops completely in Pechorin. So, if Onegin does not even realize that he brings misfortune to the people around him, then Pechorin is well aware that there is no good for people from his actions. He is the culprit in the death of Grushnitsky, because of him the Circassian Bela dies. He provokes (albeit unwittingly) the death of Vulich, because of him Princess Mary Ligovskaya is disappointed in life and love.:..
Both Onegin and Pechorin are inherently selfish; they are devoured by a common disease - "Russian melancholy". Both of them are distinguished by "an embittered mind seething with empty action" and a soul corrupted by the light. Onegin and Pechorin despised the society in which they were forced to live, and therefore loneliness became their lot.
Thus, the “extra person” is a hero who is rejected by society or who himself rejected him. It seems to him that society restricts his freedom, and he cannot stand dependence, and therefore tries to come into conflict with him. The result is known: the "extra person" remains lonely. At the same time, he understands that the reasons for his lack of freedom lie in himself, in his soul, and this makes him even more unhappy.
The traits of a superfluous person can also be found in other heroes of Pushkin and Lermontov. Such, for example, is Dubrovsky: having suffered an insult, he ignites with a thirst for revenge, however, having avenged the offender, he does not feel happy. In my opinion, Lermontov's Demon also corresponds to the image of the "superfluous person", although in relation to the "spirit of exile" this may sound somewhat paradoxical.
The demon is bored with evil, but he cannot do good. And his love dies with Tamara:
And again he remained, arrogant,
Alone, as before in the universe.
The main features of the "superfluous person" were developed in the characters of the heroes of Turgenev, Herzen, Goncharov. I think that even today these images are interesting for us as characters that have not disappeared from reality to this day. For example, Zilov from Alexander Vampilov's play "Duck Hunt" seems to me to be an "extra person". In my opinion, sometimes it does not hurt to compare yourself with such people - this helps to straighten your own character (get rid of selfishness) and, in general, better understand life.
To some extent, this theme is opposite to the depiction of the "little man": if there is seen the justification of the fate of everyone, then here - on the contrary, the categorical impulse "one of us is superfluous", which can both relate to the assessment of the hero, and come from the hero himself , and usually these two "directions" not only do not exclude each other, but also characterize one person: the accuser of his neighbors himself turns out to be "superfluous".
"An extra person" is also a certain literary type. Literary types (types of heroes) are a collection of characters who are close in their occupation, worldview and spiritual appearance. The spread of this or that literary type may be dictated by the very need of society to depict people with some kind of stable set of qualities. The interest and benevolent attitude towards them on the part of critics, the success of books in which such people are depicted, stimulates writers to "repeat" or "variate" any literary types. Quite often, a new literary type arouses the interest of critics, who give it a name ("noble robber", "Turgenev's woman", "superfluous person", "little man", "nihilist", "tramp", "humiliated and insulted").
The main thematic signs of "superfluous people". This is, first of all, a person potentially capable of any social action. It does not accept the "rules of the game" proposed by society, and is characterized by disbelief in the possibility of changing anything. The "superfluous person" is a contradictory personality, often in conflict with society and its way of life. This is also a hero, of course, unsuccessful in relations with his parents, and unhappy in love. His position in society is unstable, contains contradictions: he is always at least somehow connected with the nobility, but - already in a period of decline, fame and fortune - rather a memory. He is placed in an environment that is somehow alien to him: a higher or lower environment, there is always a certain motive of alienation, which does not always immediately lie on the surface. The hero is moderately educated, but this education is rather incomplete, unsystematic; in a word, this is not a deep thinker, not a scientist, but a person with a "power of judgment" to make quick but immature conclusions. The crisis of religiosity is very important, often a struggle with churchness, but often internal emptiness, hidden uncertainty, habit to the name of God. Often - the gift of eloquence, skill in writing, keeping records or even writing poetry. There is always some pretension to be the judge of one's neighbors; a shade of hatred is required. In a word, the hero is a victim of the canons of life.
However, with all the seemingly apparent certainty and clarity of the above criteria for evaluating the "extra person", the framework that allows one to speak with absolute certainty about the belonging of a particular character to a given thematic line is very blurred. It follows from this that the "superfluous person" cannot be "superfluous" entirely, but it can be considered both in line with other topics, and merge with other characters belonging to other literary types. The material of the works does not allow assessing Onegin, Pechorin and others only from the point of view of their social "benefit", and the very type of "extra person" is rather the result of understanding the named characters from certain social and ideological positions.
This literary type, as it developed, acquired more and more new features and forms of display. This phenomenon is quite natural, since every writer saw the "superfluous person" as he was in his mind. All the masters of the artistic word who have ever touched on the topic of "extra man", not only added a certain "breath" of their era to this type, but also tried to combine all social phenomena contemporary to them, and most importantly the structure of life, in one image - the image of the hero of the time . All this makes the type of "superfluous person" universal in its own way. This is precisely what allows us to consider the images of Chatsky and Bazarov as heroes who had a direct impact on this type. These images, undoubtedly, do not belong to the type of "extra person", but at the same time they perform one important function: Griboedov's hero, in his confrontation with Famus's society, makes it impossible to peacefully resolve the conflict between an outstanding personality and an inert way of life, thereby pushing other writers to the coverage of this problem, and the image of Bazarov, completing (from my point of view) the type of "superfluous person", was no longer so much a "carrier" of time as its "side" phenomenon.
But before the hero himself could certify himself as a "superfluous person", a more hidden appearance of this type had to occur. The first signs of this type were embodied in the image of Chatsky, the protagonist of AS Griboedov's immortal comedy "Woe from Wit". "Griboyedov is a 'man of one book,'" VF Khodasevich once remarked. "If it weren't for Woe from Wit, Griboedov would have no place at all in Russian literature." And, indeed, although the history of dramaturgy speaks of Griboyedov as the author of several wonderful and funny comedies and vaudevilles in his own way, written in collaboration with the leading playwrights of those years (N.I. Khmelnitsky, A.A. Shakhovsky, P.A. Vyazemsky), but it was "Woe from Wit" that turned out to be a one-of-a-kind work. This comedy for the first time broadly and freely depicted modern life and thus opened a new, realistic era in Russian literature. The creative history of this play is exceptionally complex. Her idea dates back to 1818. It was completed in the autumn of 1824, the censorship did not allow this comedy to be printed or staged. Conservatives accused Griboedov of exaggerating satirical colors, which, in their opinion, was the result of the author's "squabbling patriotism", and in Chatsky they saw a clever "crazy man", the embodiment of "Figaro-Griboedov's" philosophy of life.
The above examples of critical interpretations of the play only confirm all the complexity and depth of its social and philosophical problems, indicated in the very title of the comedy: "Woe from Wit". The problems of mind and stupidity, insanity and insanity, tomfoolery and buffoonery, pretense and hypocrisy are posed and solved by Griboedov on a variety of everyday, social and psychological material. Essentially, all characters, including minor, episodic and off-stage ones, are drawn into the discussion of questions about attitudes towards the mind and various forms of stupidity and insanity. The main figure, around which all the variety of opinions about comedy immediately concentrated, was the smart "madman" Chatsky. The general assessment of the author's intention, problems and artistic features of the comedy depended on the interpretation of his character and behavior, relationships with other characters. The main feature of the comedy is the interaction of two plot-forming conflicts: a love conflict, the main participants of which are Chatsky and Sophia, and a socio-ideological conflict, in which Chatsky faces conservatives who have gathered in Famusov's house. I want to note that for the hero himself, not a socio-ideological, but a love conflict is of paramount importance. After all, Chatsky came to Moscow with the sole purpose of seeing Sophia, finding confirmation of his former love and, possibly, getting married. It is interesting to trace how the hero's love experiences exacerbate Chatsky's ideological opposition to the Famus society. At first, the protagonist does not even notice the usual vices of the environment where he got, but sees only the comic side in it: "I'm a weirdo to another miracle / Once I laugh, then I'll forget ...".
But Chatsky is not "an extra person." He is only the forerunner of "superfluous people". First of all, this is confirmed by the optimistic sound of the comedy finale, where Chatsky remains with the right of historical choice given to him by the author. Consequently, Griboedov's hero can find (in the future) his place in life. Chatsky could have been among those who went to Senate Square on December 14, 1825, and then his life would have been a foregone conclusion for 30 years ahead: those who took part in the uprising returned from exile only after the death of Nicholas I in 1856. But something else could have happened. An irresistible disgust for the "abominations" of Russian life would make Chatsky an eternal wanderer in a foreign land, a man without a homeland. And then - melancholy, despair, alienation, acrimony and, what is most terrible for such a hero-fighter - forced idleness and inactivity. But this is just the guesswork of the readers.
Chatsky, rejected by society, has the potential to find a use for himself. Onegin will no longer have such an opportunity. He is an "extra person" who has not been able to realize himself, who "deafly suffers from a striking resemblance to the children of the present century." But before answering why, let's turn to the work itself. The novel "Eugene Onegin" is a product of an amazing creative destiny. It was created for more than seven years - from May 1823 to September 1830. The novel was not written "in one breath", but was formed - from stanzas and chapters created at different times, in different circumstances, in different periods of creativity. The work was interrupted not only by the turns of Pushkin's fate (exile to Mikhailovskoye, the Decembrist uprising), but also by new ideas, for the sake of which he more than once abandoned the text of "Eugene Onegin". It seemed that history itself was not very favorable to Pushkin's work: from a novel about a contemporary and modern life, as Pushkin conceived "Eugene Onegin", after 1825 he became a novel about a completely different historical era. And, if we take into account the fragmentation and discontinuity of Pushkin's work, then we can say the following: the novel was for the writer something like a huge "notebook" or a poetic "album". Over the course of more than seven years, these records were replenished with sad "notes" of the heart, "observations" of a cold mind. superfluous person image literature
But "Eugene Onegin" is not only "a poetic album of live impressions of a talent playing with its wealth", but also a "novel of life", which has absorbed a huge historical, literary, social and everyday material. This is the first innovation of this work. Secondly, it was fundamentally innovative that Pushkin, largely relying on the work of A.S. Griboedov "Woe from Wit", found a new type of problematic hero - the "hero of time". Eugene Onegin became such a hero. His fate, character, relationships with people are determined by the totality of the circumstances of modern reality, outstanding personal qualities and the range of "eternal", universal problems that he faces. It is necessary to make a reservation right away: Pushkin, in the process of working on the novel, set himself the task of demonstrating in the image of Onegin "that premature old age of the soul, which has become the main feature of the younger generation." And already in the first chapter, the writer notes the social factors that determined the character of the protagonist. The only thing in which Onegin "was a true genius," that "he knew more firmly than all sciences," as the Author remarks, not without irony, was "the science of tender passion," that is, the ability to love without loving, to imitate feelings, remaining cold and prudent. However, Pushkin is still interested in Onegin not as a representative of a common social type, the whole essence of which is exhausted by a positive description issued by secular rumors: "N.N. a wonderful person." It was important for the writer to show this image in motion, development, so that later each reader would draw the proper conclusions and give a fair assessment of this hero.
The first chapter is a turning point in the fate of the protagonist, who managed to abandon the stereotypes of secular behavior, from the noisy, but internally empty "ritual of life". Thus, Pushkin showed how a bright, outstanding personality suddenly appeared from a faceless, but demanding unconditional obedience crowd, capable of overthrowing the "burden" of secular conventions, "behind the hustle and bustle."
For writers who paid attention to the theme of the "extra person" in their work, it is typical to "test" their hero with friendship, love, a duel, death. Pushkin was no exception. The two tests that awaited Onegin in the countryside - the test of love and the test of friendship - showed that external freedom does not automatically entail liberation from false prejudices and opinions. In relations with Tatyana Onegin proved himself to be a noble and mentally subtle person. And you can’t blame the hero for not responding to Tatyana’s love: as you know, you can’t command the heart. Another thing is that Onegin listened not to the voice of his heart, but to the voice of reason. In confirmation of this, I will say that even in the first chapter, Pushkin noted in the main character a "sharp, chilled mind" and an inability to have strong feelings. And it was this spiritual disproportion that became the cause of the failed love of Onegin and Tatyana. Onegin also did not pass the test of friendship. And in this case, the cause of the tragedy was his inability to live a life of feeling. No wonder the author, commenting on the state of the hero before the duel, remarks: "He could show feelings, / And not bristle like a beast." Both at Tatyana's name day and before the duel with Lensky, Onegin showed himself to be a "ball of prejudice", a "hostage of secular canons", deaf to the voice of his own heart and to Lensky's feelings. His behavior at the name day is the usual "social anger", and the duel is a consequence of the indifference and fear of the evil-speaking of the inveterate bully Zaretsky and the landlord neighbors. Onegin himself did not notice how he became a prisoner of his old idol - "public opinion". After the murder of Lensky, Eugene changed dramatically. It is a pity that only tragedy could open to him a previously inaccessible world of feelings.
Thus, Eugene Onegin becomes "an extra person." Belonging to the light, he despises it. As Pisarev noted, the only thing left for him is "to give up on the boredom of secular life as a necessary evil." Onegin does not find his true purpose and place in life, he is burdened by his loneliness, lack of demand. In the words of Herzen, "Onegin ... is an extra person in the environment where he is, but, not possessing the necessary strength of character, he cannot escape from it in any way." But, according to the writer himself, the image of Onegin is not finished. After all, the novel in verse essentially ends with such a statement of the question: "What will Onegin be like in the future?" Pushkin himself leaves the character of his hero open, emphasizing by this the very ability of Onegin to a sharp change in value orientations and, I note, a certain readiness for action, for an act. True, Onegin has practically no opportunities for self-realization. But the novel does not answer the above question, it asks the reader.
So, the theme of the "superfluous person" comes to an end in a completely different capacity, having passed a difficult evolutionary path: from the romantic pathos of the rejection of life and society to the sharp rejection of the "superfluous person" itself. And the fact that this term can be applied to the heroes of the works of the 20th century does not change anything: the meaning of the term will be different and it will be possible to call it “superfluous” for completely different reasons. There will also be returns to this theme (for example, the image of the "superfluous person" Levushka Odoevtsev from A. Bitov's novel "Pushkin's House"), and proposals that there are no "extra" people, but only various variations of this theme. But the return is no longer a discovery: the 19th century discovered and exhausted the theme of the "superfluous man."
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- 8. Fomichev S.A. Griboyedov's comedy "Woe from Wit": Commentary. - M., 1983
- 9. Shamrey L.V., Rusova N.Yu. From allegory to iambic. Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. - N.Novgorod, 1993
Extra person- a literary type characteristic of the works of Russian writers of the 1840s and 1850s. Usually this is a person of considerable ability who cannot realize his talents in the official field of Nikolaev Russia.
Belonging to the upper classes of society, the superfluous person is alienated from the nobility, despises bureaucracy, but, having no other prospect of self-realization, mostly spends time in idle entertainment. This lifestyle fails to alleviate his boredom, leading to duels, gambling, and other self-destructive behaviors. Typical features of the superfluous person include "mental fatigue, deep skepticism, discord between word and deed, and, as a rule, social passivity."
The name "superfluous man" was assigned to the type of disillusioned Russian nobleman after the publication in 1850 of Turgenev's story The Diary of a Superfluous Man. The earliest and classic examples are Eugene Onegin A. S. Pushkin, Chatsky from "Woe from Wit", Pechorin M. Lermontov - go back to the Byronic hero of the era of romanticism, to Rene Chateaubriand and Adolphe Constant. The further evolution of the type is represented by Herzen Beltov (“Who is to blame?”) and the heroes of Turgenev's early works (Rudin, Lavretsky, Chulkaturin).
Superfluous people often bring trouble not only to themselves, but also female characters who have the misfortune to love them. The negative side of superfluous people, associated with their displacement outside the social and functional structure of society, comes to the fore in the works of literary officials A.F. Pisemsky and I.A. Goncharov. The latter opposes practical businessmen “hovering in the skies” to loafers: Aduev Jr. - Aduev Sr., and Oblomov - Stolz.
Who is this "extra person"? This is a well-educated, intelligent, talented and extremely gifted hero (man), who, for various reasons (both external and internal), could not realize himself, his capabilities. The "superfluous person" is looking for the meaning of life, the goal, but does not find it. Therefore, he wastes himself on life's trifles, on entertainment, on passions, but does not feel satisfaction from this. Often the life of an "extra person" ends tragically: he dies or dies in the prime of life.
Examples of "extra people":
The ancestor of the type of "superfluous people" in Russian literature is considered Eugene Onegin from the novel of the same name by A.S. Pushkin. In terms of his potential, Onegin is one of the best people of his time. He has a sharp and penetrating mind, broad erudition (he was interested in philosophy, astronomy, medicine, history, etc.) Onegin argues with Lensky about religion, science, morality. This hero even strives to do something real. For example, he tried to alleviate the fate of his peasants (“He replaced the corvee with an old dues with a light one with a yoke”). But all this was wasted for a long time. Onegin was just burning through his life, But he got bored very soon. The bad influence of secular Petersburg, where the hero was born and raised, did not allow Onegin to open up. He did nothing useful not only for society, but also for himself. The hero was unhappy: he did not know how to love and, by and large, nothing could interest him. But throughout the novel, Onegin changes. It seems to me that this is the only case when the author leaves hope to the “extra person”. Like everything in Pushkin, the novel's open ending is optimistic. The writer leaves his hero hope for a revival.
The next representative of the type of "superfluous people" is Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin from the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time". This hero reflected a characteristic feature of the life of society in the 30s of the 19th century - the development of social and personal self-consciousness. Therefore, the hero, the first in Russian literature, tries to understand the reasons for his misfortune, his difference from others. Of course, Pechorin has enormous personal powers. He is gifted and even talented in many ways. But he does not find the use of his forces. Like Onegin, Pechorin indulged in all serious things in his youth: secular revels, passions, novels. But as a non-empty person, the hero very soon got bored with all this. Pechorin understands that secular society destroys, dries up, kills the soul and heart in a person.
What is the reason for the life restlessness of this hero? He does not see the meaning of his life, he has no purpose. Pechorin does not know how to love, because he is afraid of real feelings, afraid of responsibility. What is left for the hero? Only cynicism, criticism and boredom. As a result, Pechorin dies. Lermontov shows us that in the world of disharmony there is no place for a person who, with all his soul, albeit unconsciously, strives for harmony.
The next in the line of "superfluous people" are the heroes of I.S. Turgenev. First of all, this Rudin- the main character of the novel of the same name. His worldview was formed under the influence of philosophical circles of the 30s of the 19th century. Rudin sees the meaning of his life in serving high ideals. This hero is a great orator, he is able to lead, ignite the hearts of people. But the author constantly checks Rudin "for strength", for viability. The hero of these checks does not stand up. It turns out that Rudin is only able to speak, he cannot put his thoughts and ideals into practice. The hero does not know real life, cannot assess the circumstances and his strength. Therefore, he is "out of business."
Evgeny Vasilyevich Bazarov stands out from this orderly line of heroes. He is not a nobleman, but a commoner. He had, unlike all previous heroes, to fight for his life, for his education. Bazarov is well aware of reality, the everyday side of life. He has his "idea" and implements it as best he can. In addition, of course, Bazarov is a very intellectually powerful person, he has great potential. But the point is that the very idea that the hero serves is erroneous and pernicious. Turgenev shows that it is impossible to destroy everything without building anything in return. In addition, this hero, like all other "superfluous people", does not live the life of the heart. He gives all his potential to mental activity.
But man is an emotional being, a being with a soul. If a person knows how to love, then there is a high probability that he will be happy. Not a single hero from the gallery of "superfluous people" is happy in love. This speaks volumes. All of them are afraid to love, afraid or cannot come to terms with the surrounding reality. All this is very sad, because it makes these people unhappy. The enormous spiritual strength of these heroes and their intellectual potential are being wasted. The unviability of "superfluous people" is evidenced by the fact that they often die untimely (Pechorin, Bazarov) or vegetate, wasting themselves in vain (Beltov, Rudin). Only Pushkin gives his hero hope for rebirth. And this inspires optimism. So, there is a way out, there is a way to salvation. I think that he is always inside the personality, you just need to find strength in yourself.
The image of the "little man" in Russian literature of the 19th century
"Small man"- a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the XIX century.
The theme of the "little man" is one of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature, which was constantly addressed by writers of the 19th century. A.S. Pushkin was the first to mention it in the story “The Stationmaster”. The successors of this theme were N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and many others.
This person is small precisely in social terms, since he occupies one of the lower rungs of the hierarchical ladder. His place in society is little or completely invisible. A person is considered “small” also because the world of his spiritual life and claims is also extremely narrow, impoverished, filled with all sorts of prohibitions. For him there are no historical and philosophical problems. He lives in a narrow and closed circle of his vital interests.
The best humanistic traditions are associated with the theme of the "little man" in Russian literature. Writers invite people to think about the fact that every person has the right to happiness, to their own outlook on life.
Examples of "little people":
1) Yes, Gogol in the story "The Overcoat" characterizes the protagonist as a poor, ordinary, insignificant and inconspicuous person. In life, he was assigned the insignificant role of a copyist of departmental documents. Brought up in the sphere of subordination and execution of orders of superiors, Akaky Akakievich Bashmachkin not accustomed to reflect on the meaning of his work. That is why, when he is offered a task that requires the manifestation of elementary ingenuity, he begins to worry, worry, and in the end comes to the conclusion: “No, it’s better to let me rewrite something.”
The spiritual life of Bashmachkin is in tune with his inner aspirations. The accumulation of money to buy a new overcoat becomes for him the goal and meaning of life. The theft of a long-awaited new thing, which was acquired through hardship and suffering, becomes a disaster for him.
And yet Akaky Akakievich does not look like an empty, uninteresting person in the mind of the reader. We imagine that there were a great many such small, humiliated people. Gogol urged society to look at them with understanding and pity.
This is indirectly demonstrated by the surname of the protagonist: diminutive suffix -chk-(Bashmachkin) gives it the appropriate shade. "Mother, save your poor son!" - the author will write.
Calling for justice the author raises the question of the need to punish the inhumanity of society. As compensation for the humiliation and insults suffered during his lifetime, Akaky Akakievich, who rose from the grave in the epilogue, comes through and takes away their overcoats and fur coats. He calms down only when he takes away the outer clothing of the "significant person" who played a tragic role in the life of the "little man".
2) In the story Chekhov "Death of an official" we see the slavish soul of an official whose understanding of the world is completely distorted. There is no need to talk about human dignity here. The author gives his hero a wonderful last name: Chervyakov. Describing the small, insignificant events of his life, Chekhov seems to look at the world with Chervyakov's eyes, and these events become huge.
So, Chervyakov was at the performance and “felt on top of bliss. But suddenly ... sneezed. Looking around like a "polite person", the hero was horrified to find that he had sprayed a civilian general. Chervyakov begins to apologize, but this seemed not enough to him, and the hero asks for forgiveness again and again, day after day ...
There are a lot of such little officials who know only their little world and it is not surprising that their experiences are made up of such small situations. The author conveys the whole essence of the official's soul, as if examining it under a microscope. Unable to bear the cry in response to the apology, Chervyakov goes home and dies. This terrible catastrophe of his life is the catastrophe of his limitations.
3) In addition to these writers, Dostoevsky also addressed the theme of the “little man” in his work. The main characters of the novel "Poor people" - Makar Devushkin- a half-impoverished official, crushed by grief, want and social lawlessness, and Varenka- a girl who has become a victim of social ill-being. Like Gogol in The Overcoat, Dostoevsky turned to the theme of the disenfranchised, immensely humiliated "little man" who lives his inner life in conditions that trample on the dignity of man. The author sympathizes with his poor heroes, shows the beauty of their soul.
4) Theme "poor people"
develops as a writer in the novel "Crime and Punishment". One by one, the writer reveals before us pictures of terrible poverty, which humiliates the dignity of a person. The scene of the work becomes Petersburg, and the poorest district of the city. Dostoevsky creates a canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, peers penetratingly into the soul of the “little man”, discovers in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth.
Family life unfolds before us Marmeladov. These are people crushed by reality. He drinks himself with grief and loses his human appearance official Marmeladov, who has "nowhere else to go." Exhausted by poverty, his wife Ekaterina Ivanovna dies of consumption. Sonya is released into the street to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation.
The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also difficult. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry the rich Luzhin, whom she feels disgusted with. Raskolnikov himself conceives a crime, the roots of which, in part, lie in the sphere of social relations in society. The images of “little people” created by Dostoevsky are imbued with the spirit of protest against social injustice, against the humiliation of people and faith in their high calling. The souls of the "poor" can be beautiful, full of spiritual generosity and beauty, but broken by the hardest conditions of life.
6. The Russian world in the prose of the 19th century.
For lectures:
Depiction of Reality in Russian Literature of the 19th Century.
1. Landscape. Functions and types.
2. Interior: detail problem.
3. The image of time in a literary text.
4. Motif of the road as a form of artistic development of the national picture of the world.
Scenery - not necessarily an image of nature, in literature it may involve a description of any open space. This definition corresponds to the semantics of the term. From French - country, area. In French art theory, the landscape description includes both the depiction of wildlife and the depiction of man-made objects.
The well-known typology of landscapes is based on the specifics of the functioning of this text component.
Firstly, landscapes stand out, which are the background of the story. These landscapes, as a rule, indicate the place and time against which the depicted events take place.
The second type of landscape- a landscape creating a lyrical background. Most often, when creating such a landscape, the artist pays attention to meteorological conditions, because this landscape should first of all influence the emotional state of the reader.
Third type- a landscape that creates/becomes a psychological background of existence and becomes one of the means of revealing the character's psychology.
Fourth type- a landscape that becomes a symbolic background, a means of symbolic reflection of the reality depicted in a literary text.
The landscape can be used as a means of depicting a particular artistic time or as a form of presence of the author.
This typology is not the only one. The landscape can be expositional, dual, etc. Modern critics isolate Goncharov's landscapes; it is believed that Goncharov used the landscape for an ideal representation of the world. For a person who writes, the evolution of the landscape skill of Russian writers is fundamentally important. There are two main periods:
· pre-Pushkin, during this period the landscapes were characterized by the completeness and concreteness of the surrounding nature;
· post-Pushkin period, the idea of an ideal landscape has changed. It assumes the stinginess of details, the economy of the image and the accuracy of the selection of details. Accuracy, according to Pushkin, involves identifying the most significant feature perceived in a certain way by feelings. This idea of Pushkin, then will be used by Bunin.
Second level. Interior - image of the interior. The main unit of the interior image is a detail (detail), attention to which was first demonstrated by Pushkin. The literary test of the 19th century did not show a clear boundary between the interior and the landscape.
Time in a literary text in the 19th century becomes discrete, intermittent. Heroes easily go into memories and whose fantasies rush into the future. There is a selectivity of the attitude to time, which is explained by the dynamics. Time in a literary text in the 19th century has a convention. The most conditional time in a lyrical work, with the predominance of the grammar of the present tense, for lyrics, the interaction of different time layers is especially characteristic. Artistic time is not necessarily concrete, it is abstract. In the 19th century, the depiction of historical color became a special means of concretizing artistic time.
One of the most effective means of depicting reality in the 19th century was the motif of the road, becoming part of the plot formula, a narrative unit. Initially, this motif dominated the travel genre. In the 11th-18th centuries, in the genre of travel, the motif of the road was used, first of all, to expand ideas about the surrounding space (cognitive function). In sentimentalist prose, the cognitive function of this motif is complicated by evaluativeness. Gogol uses travel to explore the surrounding space. The renewal of the functions of the road motif is associated with the name of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. "Silence" 1858
For our tickets:
The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for his romantic poem "Mtsyri", poetic story "Demon", a lot of romantic poems. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, influenced by English historical novels, creates story "The Captain's Daughter" where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did an enormous job, exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types
that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices(the influence of classicism affects). Comedy is in the same vein. "Inspector". The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to portray the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature
. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country.
Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers address to the socio-political problems of Russian reality.
The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
people.
The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.
7. Literary situation at the end of the 19th century.
Realism
The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the undivided dominance of the realistic trend in Russian literature. basis realism as an artistic method is socio-historical and psychological determinism. The personality and fate of the depicted person appear as the result of the interaction of his character (or, more deeply, universal human nature) with the circumstances and laws of social life (or, more broadly, history, culture - as can be seen in the work of A.S. Pushkin).
Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century. often call critical, or socially accusatory. Recently, in modern literary criticism, there have been more and more attempts to abandon such a definition. It is both too wide and too narrow; it levels the individual characteristics of the writers' creativity. The founder of critical realism is often called N.V. Gogol, however, in Gogol's work, social life, the history of the human soul is often correlated with such categories as eternity, supreme justice, the providential mission of Russia, the kingdom of God on earth. Gogol's tradition to one degree or another in the second half of the 19th century. picked up by L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, partly N.S. Leskov - it is no coincidence that in their work (especially later) there is a craving for such pre-realistic forms of comprehension of reality as a sermon, a religious and philosophical utopia, a myth, a life. No wonder M. Gorky expressed the idea of the synthetic nature of Russian classical realism, about its non-delimitation from the romantic direction. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the realism of Russian literature not only opposes, but also interacts in its own way with the emerging symbolism. The realism of the Russian classics is universal, it is not limited to the reproduction of empirical reality, it includes a universal content, a “mystical plan”, which brings realists closer to the search for romantics and symbolists.
Socially accusatory pathos in its purest form appears most in the work of writers of the second row - F.M. Reshetnikova, V.A. Sleptsova, G.I. Uspensky; even N.A. Nekrasov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, with all their closeness to the aesthetics of revolutionary democracy, are not limited in their work posing purely social, topical issues. Nevertheless, a critical orientation towards any form of social and spiritual enslavement of a person unites all realist writers of the second half of the 19th century.
XIX century revealed the main aesthetic principles and typological properties of realism. In Russian literature of the second half of the XIX century. It is conditionally possible to single out several directions within the framework of realism.
1. The work of realist writers who strive for the artistic recreation of life in the "forms of life itself." The image often acquires such a degree of reliability that literary heroes are spoken of as living people. I.S. belong to this direction. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, partly N.A. Nekrasov, A.N. Ostrovsky, partly L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.
2. Bright in the 60s and 70s the philosophical-religious, ethical-psychological direction in Russian literature is outlined(L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky). Dostoevsky and Tolstoy have amazing pictures of social reality, depicted in the "forms of life itself." But at the same time, writers always start from certain religious and philosophical doctrines.
3. Satirical, grotesque realism(in the 1st half of the 19th century, it was partly represented in the works of N.V. Gogol, in the 60-70s it unfolded in full force in the prose of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The grotesque does not appear as hyperbole or fantasy, it characterizes the method of the writer; he combines in images, types, plots what is unnatural, and is absent in life, but is possible in the world created by the creative imagination of the artist; similar grotesque, hyperbolic images emphasize certain patterns that prevail in life.
4. Completely unique realism, "hearted" (Belinsky's word) by humanistic thought, presented in art A.I. Herzen. Belinsky noted the “Voltaireian” warehouse of his talent: “talent went into the mind”, which turns out to be a generator of images, details, plots, biographies of a person.
Along with the dominant realistic trend in Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. the direction of the so-called "pure art" also developed - it is both romantic and realistic. Its representatives eschewed "damned questions" (What to do? Who is to blame?), but not reality, by which they meant the world of nature and the subjective feeling of a person, the life of his heart. They were excited by the beauty of life itself, the fate of the world. A.A. Fet and F.I. Tyutchev can be directly comparable with I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. The poetry of Fet and Tyutchev had a direct influence on the work of Tolstoy in the era of Anna Karenina. It is no coincidence that Nekrasov discovered F.I. Tyutchev to the Russian public as a great poet in 1850.
