Collection output:

TO THE PROBLEM OF "TYPOLOGY" AND "TYPING" IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE

Bulycheva Vera Pavlovna

Lecturer at the Department of English for Economic Specialties Astrakhan State University, Astrakhan

For linguistics, the problem of typology is not new. The term " typology”was considered in the works of ancient rhetoricians, and the list of works devoted to the study typologies, has hundreds of titles. Like some other fundamental concepts, the term typology is broad and multifaceted, within the framework of different sciences it is understood differently, which makes it extremely difficult to define it. For example, in philosophy typology(from Greek - imprint, form, pattern and - word, teaching) - this is "a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the division of systems of objects and their grouping using a generalized, idealized model or type", in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary - this is " the scientific method, the basis of which is the dismemberment of systems of objects and their grouping with the help of a generalized model or type; is used for the purpose of a comparative study of essential features, relationships, functions, relationships, levels of organization of objects.

Only in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary do we find information about linguistic typology - this is "a comparative study of the structural and functional properties of languages, regardless of the nature of the genetic relationship between them"

Perhaps, precisely because of the complexity of the concept itself, the term "typology" is absent in a number of specialized terminological dictionaries. Therefore, we believe that the term "typology" is primarily a general scientific term, and not a literary one.

Much more often in literary criticism we meet the term “typization”, although this term is also absent in terminological dictionaries in philology. Typification is “the development of standard designs or technological processes based on technical characteristics common to a number of products (processes). One of the methods of standardization".

Image-characters, like all other types of imagery, are, as it were, a clot of what the writer sees around him. Such a condensation of essential phenomena in an image is typification, and an image-character that reflects the leading features of an era, group, social stratum, and the like is usually called a literary type.

There are three types of literary types: epochal, social, universal.

Epochal types condense in themselves the properties of people of a certain historical period of time. It is no coincidence that there is an expression "children of their time." Thus, the literature of the 19th century developed and showed in detail the type of superfluous person who manifested itself in such different images: Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov - they all belong to different generations of people, but combines them into a common type of dissatisfaction with oneself and life, the inability to realize oneself, to find application his abilities, but it manifests itself every time in accordance with the requirements of the time and individuality: Onegin is bored, Pechorin is chasing life, Oblomov is lying on the couch. Epochal types most clearly express temporal signs in people.

Social types concentrate the features and qualities of people of certain social groups. It is by these indicators that we can determine in which environment a given type arose. So, Gogol in "Dead Souls" very convincingly showed the type of landowners. Each of them, according to the author's intention, is characterized by a unique enlarged character trait: Manilov is a dreamer, Korobochka is a clubhead, Nozdre is a historical person, Sobakevich is a fist, Plyushkin is a hole in humanity. Together, all these qualities recreate the general type of landowner.

Social types allow you to recreate the bright typical properties of people of a certain social group, emphasizing its most natural qualities, indicators by which we can judge the state of society, its hierarchical structure and draw appropriate conclusions about the relationship between social groups of a particular period.

Human types concentrate in themselves the properties of people of all times and peoples. This type is synthetic, since it manifests itself in both epochal and social types. This concept is multidimensional, independent of temporary or social connections and relationships. Such qualities as, for example, love and hatred, generosity and greed, characterize people from the moment of their awareness of themselves to our times, that is, these categories are constant, but filled in the process of historical development with a peculiar content. More precisely, these universal human categories are manifested individually each time, for example, Pushkin in The Miserly Knight, Gogol in Plyushkin, Molière in Tartuffe portrayed the type of a miserly person, but he found his embodiment in each writer.

Creating typical characters, the writer each time makes his judgment on the depicted. His sentence can sound in various forms, for example, in the form of satire - direct mockery, which we already hear in the title of Saltykov-Shchedrin's fairy tale "The Wild Landowner"; irony - hidden mockery, when the direct content of the statement contradicts its inner meaning, for example, in Krylov's fable "The Fox and the Donkey" the fox says: "From smart you're shaking your head." The writer's sentence can also be expressed in the form of pathos, that is, an enthusiastic depiction of positive phenomena, for example, the beginning of Mayakovsky's poem "Good":

I am the globe

Almost walked all over!

And life is good!

The nature of the author's assessment depends on the artist's worldview and in some cases can be erroneous, which leads to errors in typing, as a result, atypical characters appear. Their main reasons are: the writer's shallow understanding of the problem and the crisis of worldview, for example, in the 20s of the twentieth century, many writers portrayed the participation of children and adolescents in the terrible events of the civil war in a heroic-adventure, romantic way, and readers got the impression of the war as a chain deeds, beautiful deeds, victories. For example, in Pyotr Blyakhin's "Red Devils" teenagers do things that are atypical for their age and life experience, that is, the characters are created by the writer, but they are not typical. An important factor in the emergence of such characters is the crisis of worldview. Sometimes a writer lacks artistic skill, usually this happens with young, novice writers, whose first works remain in the category of students, for example, A.P. Gaidar wrote the first story, Days of Defeats and Victories, for which he received serious comments from the editor: vagueness, unconvincing images. It was never published, and the following story brought fame to the author.

It happens that the author has not found a full-fledged art form to express his life impressions and observations, for example, A.I. Kuprin planned to write a big novel about the life of the military, for which he collected a lot of autobiographical material, but while working on it, he felt that he was drowning in this volume and his plan was not realized in the intended form of the novel. Kuprin turned to Gorky, who advised him on the story. The necessary form was found and "Duel" appeared.

Sometimes the writer simply did not work enough to improve the created image.

In all these cases, the image contains either much less, or not at all what the author wanted to say. It follows from what has been said that an image and a type are in the following relationship: a type is always an image, but an image is not always a type.

Working on the image, trying to embody in it the essential patterns of time, society and all people, the writer typifies the most diverse phenomena in it:

mass. The fact of the widespread occurrence of this or that phenomenon indicates its typicality for a certain group of people or society as a whole, therefore literary types are most often created by the writer by generalizing the mass, for example, the type of a small person in the literature of the 19th century;

Rare single phenomena can also be typified. Any new phenomenon at the time of its inception is not numerous, but if it contains the prospect of further spread, then such a phenomenon is typical, and by drawing it, the writer predicts social development, for example, Gorky's songs about the falcon and the petrel were written before 1905, but they became symbols of upcoming events, which soon acquired a wide scope;

An artist can even depict a typical character by generalizing exceptional features in it, for example, A. Tolstoy, in the image of Peter the Great in the novel of the same name, recreated the typical properties of a sovereign and a person, despite the fact that the personality of Peter I is an exceptional phenomenon in history. In recreating this image, Tolstoy follows Pushkin's tradition, according to which Peter was endowed with the best qualities of his people. Exceptional in him are not qualities, but their depth and composure in one person, which makes him an exception to the rule. So, the typification of the exceptional is the condensation in one image of a large number of positive and negative qualities, which distinguishes it from all. These qualities, as a rule, are possessed by prominent historical figures, brilliant people in various fields of science and art, political criminals;

· phenomena of a negative order are also typified in the image, thanks to which a person masters the concept of the negative. Examples are the various negative actions of children in Mayakovsky's poem "What is good ...";

· typification of the positive takes place when the ideal is directly realized and ideal characters are created.

So, typification is the law of art, and the literary type is the ultimate goal that every artist strives for. It is no coincidence that the literary type is called the highest form of the image.

When working on a text, creating their artistic pictures, writers take material from life, but process it in different ways. In accordance with this, two ways of creating a literary type are distinguished in the science of literature.

1. Collective, when the writer, observing the different characters of people and noticing their common features, reflects them in the image (Don Quixote, Pechorin, Sherlock Holmes).

2. Prototype. A method of typification in which the writer takes as a basis a really existing or existing person, in which the properties and qualities inherent in a certain group of people manifested themselves especially clearly, and on its basis creates his own image. Nikolenka Irtemyev, A. Peshkov, Alexei Meresyev are depicted in this way. Using direct material to create an image, the artist not only copies it, but also, as in the first case, processes it, that is, discards the insignificant and emphasizes the most characteristic or important. If in the case of a collective image the path is from the general to the specific, then in the case of the prototype it is from the specific to the general.

The difference in these two methods is that in the second case, the artist invents less, but the creative processing of life material takes place here too, so the image is always richer than the prototype, that is, the writer thickens the raw life material and brings his assessment to the image.

Along with typing methods, artists use typing techniques or means of creating an image to create an image. Basic techniques 12 .

Of course, this number does not exhaust all the richness and diversity of the poetics of a literary text. Let us dwell on the characteristics of fixed assets:

1. portrait characteristic - a typing technique in which a person's appearance is described, for example, "Lensky is rich, good-looking";

2. subject-household characteristic - a typification technique, which consists in depicting the environment that a person has surrounded himself with, for example, Onegin's office;

3. biography - a typification technique that reveals the history of a person's life, its individual stages. As a rule, a biography is introduced by writers in order to show exactly how a given human type was formed, for example, Chichikov’s biography in the first volume of Dead Souls is placed at the end, and it is from it that the reader concludes how the type of entrepreneur was formed in Rus';

4. manners and habits - a typing technique that reveals stereotypical forms of human behavior that have been formed on the basis of general rules (manner) and unique personality traits (habit), for example, Gogol in Dead Souls emphasizes the desire of provincial ladies to resemble secular women Moscow and St. Petersburg: “No lady will say that this glass or this plate stinks, but they say “behaves badly.” We can give an example of a habit by remembering Manilov's favorite pastime - smoking a pipe and laying ashes on the windowsill;

5. behavior - a typing technique through which the artist shows the actions, actions of a person.

Having laid a shelf with a detachment of books,

Read-read - and all to no avail;

6. depiction of emotional experiences - a typification technique, through which the writer shows what a person thinks and feels at different moments: “Oh, I, as a brother, would be glad to embrace the storm”;

7. attitude towards nature - a typification technique, with the help of which a person gives a direct assessment of a particular natural phenomenon, for example:

I don't like spring

In the spring I am sick;

8. worldview - a typification technique that reveals a person's system of views on nature, society and himself, for example, representatives of various beliefs - the nihilist Bazarov and the liberal Kirsanov;

Forgive me, I love so much

My dear Tatyana;

10. characterizing surname - a typing technique when a person is endowed with a surname that indicates the most important, dominant feature of the personality, speaks for itself, for example, Prostakova, Skotinin;

11. speech characteristic - a typing technique that contains a combination of lexical-phraseological, figurative, intonational properties of a person, for example, in Krylov's fable, the monkey says to the bear: “Look, my dear godfather, what kind of mug is that,” - this speech the characteristic is a clear evidence of the monkey's ignorance;

12. mutual characteristics - a typing technique in which the participants in the action evaluate each other, for example, Famusov says about Lisa: “Oh, the spoiled potion”, and Lisa about Famusov: “Like all Moscow, your father is like this: I would like a son-in-law with stars and with rank."

Methods and techniques of typing make up the form or composition of the image. In order to analyze the content of the image, the writer puts it into a certain form, that is, he builds the image using the methods and techniques of its characterization. Since content and form cannot be separated from each other, and the image is the main significant category of a literary text, the law of the unity of content and form applies to the entire work.

Bibliography:

1. BES. 2000. [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc3p/293094 , http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc3p/293062
2. Efimov V.I., Talanov V.M. Human values ​​[Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://razumru.ru/humanism/journal/49/yef_tal.htm (accessed 04/30/2013).
3. New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M.: Thought. Edited by V.S. Stepin. 2001 [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc_philosophy/4882 (Accessed 30.04.2013).
4. Chernaya N.I. Realistic conventionality in contemporary Soviet prose. Kyiv: Nauk Dumka, 1979. - 192 p.

Typing

the process of artistic generalization of life phenomena (human characters, circumstances, actions, events), in which the most significant, socially significant features of reality, the patterns of development of the individual and society are revealed.

"Creative "thinking" of characters lies in the fact that the writer not only singles out the aspects that are essential for him, but also strengthens, develops these aspects in the actions, statements of the newly created characters for this ... This is the process of creative typification of social characters in works of art" (G.N. Pospelov).

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. From allegory to iambic. - M.: Flinta, Nauka. N.Yu. Rusova. 2004

See what "typing" is in other dictionaries:

TYPING- TYPING, typing, pl. no, female (book). 1. Subsuming under some type (see type in 1, 2 and 3 values), classification by types. Typification of publishing houses. 2. Transformation into a type (see type in 3 meanings), embodiment in typical forms (lit., art.). ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

typing- standardization, distribution, specialization, typing, classification, classification Dictionary of Russian synonyms. typing noun. standardization Dictionary of Russian synonyms. Context 5.0 Informatics. 2012 ... Synonym dictionary

typing- and, well. typiser. 1. Embodiment by means of art of the general, typical in the particular, individual, in specific artistic images, forms. Typing skill. ALS 1. I then go to the other extreme: I want to be a photographer. No typing... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

TYPING- development of typical designs or technological processes based on technical characteristics common for a number of products (processes). One of the ways to standardize... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

typing- TYPE, roar, rue; this; owls. and nesov., that. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

TYPING- English. typing; German Typisierung. One of the methods of standardization, classification. Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009 ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

TYPING- giving standard forms, the use of typical techniques, methods, and solutions common to many objects of processes. Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B. Modern economic dictionary. 2nd ed., rev. M .: INFRA M. 479 s .. 1999 ... Economic dictionary

typing- one of the ways to create images of the imagination, especially complex, bordering on the creative process. For example, when depicting a particular episode, an artist puts in it a lot of similar ones, making him, as it were, their representative. Dictionary of practical ... Great Psychological Encyclopedia

typing- In construction, a technical direction in design and construction, which consists in choosing the best structures, units and space-planning solutions for multiple use as standard in terms of technical and economic indicators ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

Typing- - development of standard designs or technological processes based on technical characteristics common to a number of products (processes). [Terminological dictionary for concrete and reinforced concrete. Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Research Center" Construction "NIIZHB them. A. A. Gvozdeva, ... ... Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

TYPING- development of standard designs or technological processes based on their common technical characteristics (processes) ... Great Polytechnic Encyclopedia

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Typing

Typification in art was mastered long before realism. The art of each era - based on the aesthetic norms of its time and in the appropriate artistic forms - reflects the characteristic, or typical, features of modernity inherent in the characters of works of art, in the conditions in which these characters acted. Among critical realists, typification represents a higher degree of this principle of artistic knowledge and reflection of reality than among their predecessors. It is expressed in the combination and organic interconnection of typical characters and typical circumstances. Among the means of realistic typification, psychologism occupies not the last place, i.e. revealing the complex spiritual world - the world of thoughts and feelings of the character. But the spiritual world of the heroes of critical realism is socially determined. This determines a deeper degree of historicism among critical realists compared to romantics. But the characters drawn by critical realists are least of all like sociological schemes. It is not so much the external detail in the description of the character - a portrait, a costume, but rather his psychological appearance that recreates a deeply individualized image.

Speaking about typification, Balzac argued that along with the main features inherent in many people representing this or that class, this or that social stratum, the artist embodies the unique individual traits of a particular individual in his appearance, in an individualized speech portrait, clothing features , gait, in manners, gestures, and in the appearance of the inner, spiritual.

19th century realists when creating artistic images, they showed the hero in development, depicted the evolution of character, which was determined by the complex interaction of the individual and society. In this they sharply differed from the enlighteners and romantics. The first and striking example was Stendhal's novel "Red and Black", where the deep dynamics of the character of Julien Sorel - the main character of this work - is revealed through the stages of his biography.

Realism in literature

From the beginning of the 30s. 19th century critical realism is increasingly beginning to supplant romanticism not only in painting, but also in literature. The works of Merimee, Stendhal, Balzac appear, in which the principles of a realistic comprehension of life are formed. Critical realism in the work of Dickens, Thackeray and a number of other authors began to determine the face of the literary process in England from the beginning of the 30s. In Germany, Heine laid the foundations of critical realism in his work.

The intensive development of realistic literature in Russia has produced exceptional results. They became an example for world literature and have not lost their artistic significance to this day. These are "Eugene Onegin" by A. Pushkin, the romantic-realistic "Hero of Our Time" by M. Lermontov, "Dead Souls" by N. Gogol, the novels by L. Tolstoy "Anna Karenina" and "War and Peace", the novels by F. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment", "The Idiot", "The Brothers Karamazov", "Demons", stories, novels and plays by A. Chekhov, etc.

In Russian painting, realism was established by the middle of the 19th century. A close study of nature, a deep interest in the life of the people were combined with the denunciation of the feudal system. A brilliant galaxy of realist masters of the last third of the 19th century. united in a group of "wanderers" (V. G. Perov, N. N. Kramskoy, I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, N. N. Ge, I. I. Shishkin, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Levitan and others).

Belinsky's criticism of the "naturalistic school" in literature played an important role in the formation of realistic literature in Russia. Belinsky praised N. V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" for its negative pathos, "denunciation of Russia", and humor. Belinsky emphasized the cognitive power of art: art "extracts its essence from reality", being not only a mirror of reality in general, but also a mirror of social life. Serving the public interest follows from the nature of art and is consistent with the freedom of the artist: he must first of all be a citizen; he is the investigator and accuser of life rolled into one. Belinsky asserted the idea of ​​the unity of the aesthetic and the ethical. Real art is always moral, and the content of art is "a moral question, aesthetically solved." The people are the original working stratum of the nation, because of this, art must be popular. The task of the democratic intelligentsia is to help the Russian people "grow up to themselves", and the people need to be taught, enlightened and educated.

VG Chernyshevsky saw the highest beauty not in abstract ideas like "cathedralism", but in life itself. The beautiful is life, he said, that being is beautiful in which we see life as it should be according to our concepts. Beautiful is the object that shows life in itself or reminds us of life. Chernyshevsky considered the concept of beauty to be social-class and historically conditioned. For working people, the ideal of beauty is associated with health, hence the popular ideal of female beauty. In educated people, ideas about beauty can be perverted. Each historical era has its own idea of ​​beauty. From a work of art, he demanded the reproduction of life (knowledge of life in a sensually concrete form through typification as a generalization of the essential features of the original); explanations of life; the verdict of reality and the desire to be a textbook of life.

D. I. Pisarev proclaimed the idea that aesthetics cannot become a science, since science relies on experimental knowledge, and arbitrariness reigns in art. Objectively beautiful does not exist, subjective tastes can vary ad infinitum. History leads from beauty to usefulness: the longer the history of mankind, the smarter it becomes and the more indifferent it is to pure beauty. Pisarev's paradoxical idea "boots are higher than Pushkin", and life is richer and higher than any art, at one time caused a heated controversy.

L. N. Tolstoy began with opposition to the utilitarian revolutionary-democratic aesthetics, but later, having experienced a spiritual crisis, he fell into a kind of general cultural nihilism. Through art, a person is "infected" with the artist's feelings. But such "infection" with other people's feelings is rarely justified. The working people live by their true ideals. Tolstoy rejected Shakespeare, Dante, Beethoven, Raphael, Michelangelo, believing that their art is wild and meaningless, because it is incomprehensible to the people. Tolstoy also rejected his own creative work; folk tales and other stories for the people seemed much more important to him, the main advantage of which is accessibility and understandability. Aesthetic and ethical are connected, according to Tolstoy, in inverse proportion: as soon as a person loses moral sense, he becomes especially sensitive to the aesthetic.

The Decay of Critical Realism

Realism as an artistic style did not last long. Already at the end of the XIX century. entered the arena symbolism (from fr. symbolism, Greek symbolon- sign, symbol), openly opposed to realism. Originating as a literary movement in France in the 60s and 70s. (Baudelaire, Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, Mallarme), later symbolism grew into a pan-European cultural phenomenon, capturing theater, painting, music (writers and playwrights M. Maeterlinck, G. Hofmannsthal, O. Wilde, artists E. Munch, M. K Čiurlionis, composer A. N. Skryabin and others). In Russia, symbolism appears in the 90s. 19th century (D. S. Merezhkovsky, V. Ya. Bryusov, K. D. Balmont and others), and at the beginning of the 20th century. it was developed in the works of A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanova and others. The Symbolists opposed their poetics and aesthetics to realism and naturalism in art. They recognized the dualism of the real and the ideal, the opposition of the personal and the social. The spiritual and moral life of a person was interpreted by the Symbolists almost always in a religious spirit. Since the intuitive, the unconscious was considered by them to be the main thing in artistic creativity, they often turned to the ideas of romantics, mystics, to the teachings of Plato and Kant. Many symbolists insisted on the intrinsic value of art, believing that it is higher and more primary than life.

The wave of symbolism quickly faded away, but symbolism nevertheless had a significant impact on the development of art in the 20th century, especially on surrealism and expressionism.

The Russian philosopher N. A. Berdyaev, who defended a broad understanding of realism, wrote that all Russian literature of the 19th century. is outside of classicism and romanticism, since it is realistic in the deepest sense of the word. Only classicism does not belong to realism, since it is inhuman in its principle. Greek tragedy, the most perfect of all human creations, is not classicism, which means that it also belongs to realism.

A contemporary of Berdyaev, the philosopher GG Shpet, however, spoke sharply negatively about realism. Forties of the 19th century constitute, perhaps, the last natural style, Shpet wrote. According to the philosophical task of the time, it had to be the style of the spirit realized in reality - the style is strong, justified, strict, serious, reasonable. In fact, everyday life was often taken for reality and replaced the cult: democracy and philistinism obscured spirituality. Spiritual realism remained an unsolved problem, because the means of symbolizing such a real have not been found. The philosophy of history was dammed by empirical history. Strict rationality was replaced by dissolute prudence and prudent comfort. Naturalism, which at one time was taken as the last word, says Shpet, was pure aesthetic nihilism. According to its idea, naturalism is a fundamental denial of not only style, but also direction. "Direction" in naturalism is replaced by teaching, morality, because the nihilist, denying useless creativity, cannot invent any justification for himself, except for a utilitarian one. Historically realism broke down in Russia in the 1940s. 19th century with Gogol. Shpet sees the salvation of art in the appearance of symbolism, opposed to realism.

• Cm.: Berdyaev N. A. O slavery and human freedom // Milestones. 1915. Vol. 4.

The artistic image is the specificity of art, which is created through typification and individualization.

Typification is the cognition of reality and its analysis, as a result of which the selection and generalization of life material, its systematization, the identification of the significant, the detection of the essential tendencies of the universe and national-national forms of life are carried out.

Individualization is the embodiment of human characters and their unique originality, the artist's personal vision of public and private life, the contradictions and conflicts of time, the concrete-sensual development of the miraculous world and the objective world by means of art. words.

A character is all the figures in a work, but excluding the lyrics.

Type (imprint, form, sample) is the highest manifestation of character, and character (imprint, distinguishing feature) is the universal presence of a person in complex works. A character can grow out of a type, but a type cannot grow out of a character.

The hero is a complex, multifaceted person. This is the spokesman for the plot action, which reveals the content of works of literature, cinema, and theater. The author, who is directly present as a hero, is called a lyrical hero (epos, lyrics). The literary hero opposes the literary character, who acts as a contrast to the hero, and is a participant in the plot

A prototype is a specific historical or contemporary personality of the author, who served as the starting point for creating an image. The prototype replaced the problem of art's relationship with a real analysis of the writer's personal likes and dislikes. The value of prototype research depends on the nature of the prototype itself.

Question 4. The unity of the artistic whole. The structure of a work of art.

Fiction is a set of literary works, each of which is an independent whole. A literary work that exists as a complete text is the result of the writer's creativity. Usually the work has a title, often in lyrical works its function is performed by the first line. The centuries-old tradition of the external design of the text emphasizes the special significance of the title of the work. After the title, the diverse connections of this work with others are revealed. These are typological properties, on the basis of which the work belongs to a certain literary genus, genre, aesthetic category, rhetorical organization of speech, style. The work is understood as a kind of unity. Creative will, the author's intention, a well-thought-out composition organize a certain whole. The unity of a work of art lies in the fact that

the work exists as a text that has certain boundaries, frames, i.e. end and beginning.

Likewise with thin. the work is also another frame, because it functions as an aesthetic object, as a "unit" of fiction. Reading a text generates images in the mind of the reader, representations of objects in their integrity, which is the most important condition for aesthetic perception and what the writer strives for when working on a work.

So, the work is, as it were, enclosed in a double frame: as a conditional world created by the author, separated from the primary reality, and as a text, delimited from other texts.

Another approach to the unity of a work is an axiological one: to what extent the desired result has been achieved.

A deep justification for the unity of a literary work as a criterion for its aesthetic perfection is given in Hegel's Aesthetics. He believes that in art there are no random details that are not connected with the whole, the essence of artistic creativity lies in the creation of a form corresponding to the content.

Artistic unity, the coherence of the whole and parts in a work belong to the age-old rules of aesthetics, this is one of the constants in the movement of aesthetic thought, which retains its significance for modern literature. In modern literary criticism, a view is affirmed of the history of literature as a change in the types of art. consciousness: mytho-epic, traditionalistic, individual-author's. In accordance with the aforementioned typology of artistic consciousness, fiction proper can be traditionalistic, where the poetics of style and genre dominates, or individual authorial, where there is the poetics of the author. The formation of a new - individual-author's - type of artistic consciousness was subjectively perceived as a liberation from all sorts of rules and prohibitions. The understanding of the unity of the work is also changing. Following the genre-stylistic tradition, observance of the genre canon ceases to be a measure of the value of a work. Responsibility for the artistic beginning is shifted only to the author. For writers with an individual-author's type of artistic consciousness, the unity of the work is ensured primarily by the author's idea of ​​the creative concept of the work, here are the origins of the original style, i.e. unity, harmonic correspondence to each other of all sides and methods of the image.

The creative concept of the work, understood on the basis of the literary text and non-artistic statements of the author, the materials of creative history, the context of his work and the worldview in general, helps to identify centripetal tendencies in the artistic world of the work, the diversity of the form of the author's "presence" in the text.

Speaking about the unity of the artistic whole, i.e. about the unity of a work of art, it is necessary to pay attention to the structural model of a work of art.

In the center - Artistic content, where the method, theme, idea, pathos, genre, image are determined. The artistic content is clothed in a form - composition, art. speech, style, form, genre.

It is during the period of domination of the individual-author's type of artistic consciousness that such a property of literature as its dialogicity is most fully realized. And each new interpretation of a work is at the same time a new understanding of its artistic unity. So in a variety of readings and interpretations - adequate or polemical in relation to the author's concept, deep or superficial, full of cognitive pathos or frankly journalistic, a rich potential for the perception of classical works is realized.

A specific feature of artistic-figurative consciousness is the embodiment common in singular. In other words, the problem manifests itself typing. Typification in art - this generalized image of human individuality, characteristic of a particular social environment. The typical is by no means a random phenomenon, but the most probable, exemplary for a given system of connections is a phenomenon.

The origins of such a view on the content of the “typical” in art are noted in the work of Aristotle, who repeatedly wrote that “art recreates the probable, the possible.” European classicism put forward the thesis "about the exemplary artistic image." The Enlightenment brought to the fore the idea of ​​"normal", "natural" as the basis of art." Hegel wrote that art creates images of "ideal phenomena in their own way." However, the defining concept of typification becomes only in aesthetics. XIX associated with realistic art.

Marxism attaches particular importance to the concept of typification. This problem was first posed by K. Marx and F. Engels in their correspondence with F. Lassalle about his drama Franz von Sickingen. In a letter dated May 18, 1859, F. Engels emphasized: “Your “Sickingen” takes an absolutely correct approach: the main characters are really representatives of certain classes and trends, and therefore also certain ideas of their time, and draw motives for their actions not in petty individual whims, but in the historical stream that carries them ”(Engels - F. Lassalle 05/18/1859. Op. T. 29. - P. 493). In another letter to M. Harkness, F. Engels will link typification directly with the realistic art of the 19th century: “realism presupposes, in addition to the truthfulness of details, the truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances” (F. Engels - M. Harkness 04.1888. Op. T. 37.- p. 35).

In the 20th century, old ideas about art and the artistic image disappear, and the content of the concept of “typification” also changes.

There are two interrelated approaches to this manifestation of artistic and figurative consciousness.

Firstly, maximum approximation to reality. It must be emphasized that documentary, how the desire for a detailed, realistic, reliable reflection of life became not just leading artistic trend of the 20th century. Modern art has perfected this phenomenon, filled it with previously unknown intellectual and moral content, largely defining the artistic and figurative atmosphere of the era. It should be noted that interest in this type of figurative conventionality does not subside even today. This is due to the amazing success of journalism, non-fiction films, art photography, the publication of letters, diaries, memoirs of participants in various historical events.

Secondly, maximum amplification of convention, and in the presence of a very tangible connection with reality. This system of conventions of the artistic image involves bringing to the fore integrative aspects of the creative process, namely: selection, comparison, analysis, which are in organic connection with the individual characteristics of the phenomenon. As a rule, typification presupposes a minimal aesthetic deformation of reality, which is why in art history this principle was given the name lifelike, recreating the world “in the forms of life itself”.

At the end of the analysis of the place and significance of typification in the artistic-imaginative consciousness, it must be emphasized that typification is one of the main patterns of the artistic exploration of the world. Largely thanks to the artistic generalization of reality, the identification of the characteristic, essential in life phenomena, art becomes a powerful means of understanding and transforming the world.

The main directions of the formation of modern artistic and figurative consciousness

Modern artistic-imaginative consciousness should be anti-dogmatic, that is, to be characterized by a resolute rejection of any kind of absolutization of a single principle, attitude, formulation, evaluation. None of the most authoritative opinions and statements should be deified, become the ultimate truth, turn into artistic and figurative standards and stereotypes. The elevation of the dogmatic approach to the “categorical imperative” of artistic creativity inevitably absolutizes the class confrontation, which in a concrete historical context ultimately results in the justification of violence and exaggerates its semantic role not only in theory, but also in artistic practice. The dogmatization of the creative process also manifests itself when certain artistic techniques and attitudes acquire the character the only possible artistic truth.

Modern domestic aesthetics needs to get rid of and imitation, so characteristic of her for many decades. To get rid of the method of endless quoting of the classics on issues of artistic and figurative specificity, from the uncritical perception of other people's, even the most temptingly convincing points of view, judgments and conclusions and to strive to express their own, personal views and beliefs, is necessary for any and every modern researcher, if he wants to be a real scientist, and not a functionary in a scientific department, not an official in the service of someone or something. In the creation of works of art, epigonism manifests itself in the mechanical adherence to the principles and methods of any art school, direction, without taking into account the changed historical situation. Meanwhile, epigonism has nothing to do with genuine creative development classical artistic heritage and traditions.

Another very essential and important feature of the modern artistic-figurative consciousness should be dialogism that is, the focus on a continuous dialogue, which is in the nature of a constructive debate, a creative discussion with representatives of any art schools, traditions, methods. The constructiveness of the dialogue should consist in the continuous spiritual enrichment of the debating parties, be creative, truly dialectical in nature. The very existence of art is eternal dialogue artist and recipient (viewer, listener, reader). The contract binding them is indissoluble. The newly born artistic image is a new edition, a new form of dialogue. The artist fully pays his debt to the recipient when he tells him something new. Today, more than ever before, the artist has the opportunity to say something new and in a new way.

All of the above directions in the development of artistic and figurative thinking should lead to the approval of the principle pluralism in art, that is, to the assertion of the principle of coexistence and complementarity of multiple and most diverse, including conflicting points of view and positions, views and beliefs, trends and schools, movements and teachings.

LITERATURE

Gulyga A. V. Principles of aesthetics. - M., 1987.

Zis A. Ya. In search of artistic meaning. - M., 1991.

Kazin A. L. Artistic image and reality. - L., 1985.

Nechkina M. F. Functions of the artistic image in the historical process.-M., 1982.

Stolovich L. N. Beauty. Good. Truth: Essay on aesthetic axiology. - M., 1994.