On fig. 6.1 shows the simple geometric bodies that the examination composition should consist of. In addition to the bodies already familiar to you, dies and sticks are presented here. Dies - additional flat square, round and hexagonal elements, the height of which is equal to one-eighth of the edge of the cube. Sticks are linear elements of the composition, the length of which is equal to the edge of the cube. In addition, bodies of the same proportions, but of different sizes, can be used in the composition. These are the so-called compositions with scaling (since in this case there are identical bodies on the sheet, but, as it were, taken at a different scale). Consider the compositions made by applicants in recent years (Fig. 6.2-6.20).

The form of the examination composition, its size, placement on the sheet, the degree and nature of the interaction of geometric bodies have long been established. All these positions are reflected in the examination task to one degree or another. Of course, you should immediately make a reservation that we will talk about the exam task that exists today - it may be changed at the time when you read this section of the manual. However, let's hope that the essence of the task will be preserved, and you will be able to use our tips and recommendations.

First of all, we list the criteria by which your compositions will be evaluated:

Compliance of the completed drawing with the task;

The compositional idea as a whole, the harmony of the compositional solution and the complexity of the composition;

Leaf composition;

Competent image of individual elements of the composition, the correctness of perspective and frames;

In your work, choose a topic that is close to you. It can be a massive stability or a light, aspiring to some conditional distance or upward movement. The movement can be looped or extinguished, stopped. The mass may be dense or rarefied. A composition can be built on metric, uniform patterns or, conversely, on a simple or complex rhythm. It may contain a uniform distribution of mass or sharp, highlighted accents. The listed properties can be combined (except, of course, those that exclude each other in one work). It should be remembered that the feeling of the complexity of the composition arises from the perception of the complex harmony of some non-trivial idea, and not only from the complexity of the inserts, and certainly not from the heap of many bodies.

Correct - a prerequisite for good composition. You have probably already noticed that when your composition consists of only a few geometric bodies, it is quite difficult to maintain the correct perspective on the sheet. Even if the basis of the work is almost perfectly built, the addition of each new body leads to a gradual increase in distortion.

Tracking them and correcting them is quite difficult, especially in the first compositions, when experience and practical skills are still small. That is why, in order to correctly determine the disclosure of all faces and the direction of all lines on a sheet, various methods are used to arrange all these interrelated positions, bringing them into a single system. One of these systems is described in detail in the next task. This is the so-called grid - a spatial structure that determines the opening of the faces of geometric bodies and the direction of lines in perspective throughout the sheet.

In the process of preparing for the exam, the "grid" will help you to bring together all the variety of problems associated with the process of building a composition, and at once, easily solve them. Of course, the "grid" is a useful thing, but it, of course, has its pros and cons.

On the one hand, by depicting compositions based on the "grid", you, of course, spend some (sometimes quite a lot) time on the preparatory stage (of the "grid" itself), thereby reducing the time of work on the actual composition.

On the other hand, the "grid" can significantly reduce the time for solving purely technical problems related to determining the directions of horizontal lines and the disclosure of various surfaces. Of course, a certain skill will allow you to minimize the time spent on the "mesh", but if a mistake is made in the "mesh" (which is quite likely under the stressful conditions of the exam), then you can notice this error only by drawing the first geometric body.

What to do in this case - fix the grid or abandon it altogether to make up for lost time? It is only obvious that you should start working on the exam composition from the “grid” only if you have learned how to make the “grid” quickly and efficiently for the exam, bringing this process almost to automatism, and easily build a composition based on it.

Another question that often worries the applicant is the question of tie-ins: what tie-ins should be done, how difficult should they be, and even should they be done at all? To begin with, it is possible not to make frames in the exam composition - in the examination task, the use of frames is only recommended and is not a prerequisite, however, it should be understood that a composition without frames is significantly inferior in complexity and artistic expression. Do not forget that your composition will be evaluated among others, and therefore, by making a composition without tie-ins, you will obviously reduce the competitiveness of your own (worries. Of course, the level of the exam composition grows from year to year, and this dictates the inclusion of complex tie-ins in the composition that make the exam work is more expressive and interesting.However, they require additional time to complete, which is limited in the conditions of the exam.In this situation, it all depends on your experience - if you have been diligently preparing for the composition exam, most likely you already have your favorite tie-ins, which can be enough complex, but, outlined many times, they are depicted easily and, therefore, quickly.But you should not get carried away with complex frames, overcomplicate the work - remember that even a composition made using simple frames can be quite complex and expressive. how geometric bodies should crash into each other.Sometimes in compositions, geometric bodies are embedded so slightly that it seems as if they are not embedded into each other, but only barely touching. Such compositions tend to evoke a sense of instability, unsteadiness, and incompleteness. The viewer has an irresistible desire to make such a composition denser, to embed geometric bodies deeper into each other. Analyzing such a work, it is difficult to speak of it as a composition - a group of harmoniously subordinated volumes. In other compositions, the bodies are so deeply embedded in each other that it is no longer clear - what kind of bodies are they? Such a composition, as a rule, looks like a complex mass with parts of geometric bodies sticking out of it and does not create a sense of harmony in the viewer. The bodies in it cease to exist as independent objects, turning into a geometric mixture. If we do not consider such extreme cases (when geometric bodies almost do not crash into each other or when they turn into a single dense mass), to create a medium-density composition, one should adhere to the following rule: a geometric body should crash into another (or other) geometric bodies no more than than half, better - one-third. In addition, it is desirable that the viewer can always determine the main dimensions of a geometric body from its visible part. In other words, if it crashes into any body, its top, a significant part of the side surface and the circumference of the base should remain visible in the figure. If it crashes into any body, then parts of the lateral surface of the cylinder and the circles of its bases should remain visible. Particular mention should be made of inserts of cubes and tetrahedrons - in the composition these geometric bodies form a background or, in a way, a framework for arranging and inserting other geometric bodies that are more difficult to construct. Therefore, inserts are allowed when the visible parts of cubes and tetrahedrons make up less than half of their volumes.

MBOUDO Irkutsk CDT

Toolkit

Drawing of geometric bodies

Teacher of additional education

Kuznetsova Larisa Ivanovna

Irkutsk 2016

Explanatory note

This manual "Drawing of geometric bodies" is intended for teachers working with school-age children. From 7 to 17 years old. It can be used both when working in additional education, and in a drawing course at school. The manual is compiled on the basis of the author's textbook "Drawing of Geometric Bodies" designed for first-year students of the specialty Arts and Crafts and Folk Crafts and Design (not published).

The drawing of geometric bodies is an introductory material for teaching drawing. The introduction reveals the terms and concepts used in the drawing, the concepts of perspective, the procedure for performing work on the drawing. Using the material presented, you can study the required material to teach children, analyze their practical work. Illustrations can be used both for your own deeper understanding of the topic, and in the lesson as visual material.

The purpose of teaching drawing from life is to instill in children the basics of fine literacy, teaching a realistic depiction of nature, that is, understanding and depicting a three-dimensional form on a sheet plane. The main form of education is drawing from a stationary nature. He teaches to correctly convey visible objects, their features, properties, gives children the necessary theoretical knowledge and practical skills.

The tasks of teaching drawing from nature:

To instill the skills of consistent work on a drawing according to the principle: from general to particular

To acquaint with the basics of observational, i.e., visual perspective, the concept of light and shade relations

Develop technical drawing skills.

In the drawing classes, work is carried out on the education of a complex of qualities necessary for an artist:

- eye placement

The development of "firmness of the hand"

The ability to see clearly

Ability to observe and remember what is seen

The sharpness and accuracy of the eye, etc.

This manual examines in detail one of the first topics of drawing from nature - “Drawing of Geometric Bodies”, allowing you to study in detail the shape, proportions, structural structure, spatial relationships, perspective contractions of geometric bodies and the transfer of their volume using light and shade ratios. Learning tasks are considered - layout on a sheet of paper; construction of objects, transfer of proportions; from through drawing, to the transfer of volume by tone, the shape of objects to reveal light, penumbra, shadow, reflex, glare, full tonal solution.

Introduction

Drawing from nature

Drawing is not only an independent type of fine art, but also the basis for painting, engraving, posters, arts and crafts and other arts. With the help of the drawing, the first thought of the future work is fixed.

The laws and rules of drawing are assimilated as a result of a conscious attitude to work from nature. Each touch of the pencil on the paper must be thought out and justified by the feeling and understanding of the real form.

An educational drawing should give, perhaps, a more complete picture of nature, its form, plasticity, proportions and structure. It should be considered, first of all, as a cognitive moment in learning. In addition, it is necessary to know the features of our visual perception. Without this, it is impossible to understand why the objects around us in many cases do not appear to us as they really are: parallel lines seem to converge, right angles are perceived either sharp or obtuse, a circle sometimes looks like an ellipse; the pencil is larger than the house, and so on.

Perspective not only explains the mentioned optical phenomena, but also equips the painter with the techniques of spatial representation of objects in all turns, positions, and also at various degrees of distance from him.

Three-dimensionality, volume, shape

Every object is defined by three dimensions: length, width and height. Its volume should be understood as its three-dimensional value, limited by surfaces; under the form - the external view, the external outlines of the object.

Fine art mainly deals with three-dimensional form. Consequently, in drawing one should be guided precisely by the three-dimensional form, feel it, subordinate it to all the methods and techniques of drawing. Already when depicting the simplest bodies, it is necessary to develop this sense of form in children. For example, when drawing a cube, one cannot depict only its visible sides, without taking into account the sides hidden from view. Without representing them, it is impossible to build or draw a given cube. Without a sense of the whole form as a whole, the objects depicted will appear flat.

For a better understanding of the form, before proceeding to the drawing, it is necessary to consider nature from various angles. The painter is encouraged to observe the form from different points, but draw from one. Having mastered the main rules of drawing on the simplest objects - geometric bodies - in the future it will be possible to move on to drawing from nature, which is more complex in design.

The construction, or structure, of an object means the mutual arrangement and connection of its parts. The concept of "construction" is applicable to all objects created by nature and human hands, starting with the simplest household items and ending with complex forms. A drawing person needs to be able to find patterns in the structure of objects, to understand their shape.

This ability develops gradually in the process of drawing from nature. The study of geometric bodies and objects close to them in form, and then objects more complex in structure, obliges the painters to consciously relate to drawing, to reveal the nature of the design of the depicted nature. So, the lid, as it were, consists of a spherical and cylindrical neck, a funnel is a truncated cone, etc.

Line

The line, or line drawn on the surface of the sheet, is one of the main elements of the drawing. Depending on the purpose, it may have a different character.

It can be flat, monotonous. In this form, it mainly has an auxiliary purpose (this is the placement of a drawing on a sheet, a sketch of the general outline of nature, the designation of proportions, etc.).

The line can also have a spatial character, which the painter masters as he studies the form in lighting and environmental conditions. The essence and meaning of the spatial line is easiest to understand by observing the master's pencil in the process of his work: the line either intensifies, then weakens or completely disappears, merging with the environment; then it reappears and sounds at the full power of the pencil.

Beginning draftsmen, not realizing that the line in the drawing is the result of complex work on the form, usually resort to a flat, monotonous line. Such a line, with the same indifference delineating the edges of figures, stones and trees, conveys neither form, nor light, nor space. Completely ignorant of the issues of spatial drawing, such draftsmen pay attention, first of all, to the external outlines of the object, trying to mechanically copy it, in order to then fill the contour with random spots of light and shadow.

But the planar line in art has its purpose. It is used in decorative paintings, wall paintings, mosaics, stained-glass windows, easel and book graphics, posters - all works of a planar nature, where the image is linked to a certain plane of the wall, glass, ceiling, paper, etc. Here this line gives the ability to generalize the image.

The profound difference between planar and spatial lines must be learned from the very beginning, so that in the future there will be no confusion of these various elements of the drawing.

Beginning draftsmen have another characteristic feature of drawing lines. They put too much pressure on the pencil. When the teacher shows with his hand the techniques of drawing with light lines, they trace the lines with increased pressure. It is necessary from the very first days to wean from this bad habit. You can explain the requirement to draw with light, “airy” lines by the fact that at the beginning of the drawing we inevitably change something, move it. And erasing lines drawn with strong pressure, we spoil the paper. And, most often, there is a noticeable trace. The drawing looks messy.

If at first you draw with light lines, in the process of further work it is possible to give them a spatial character, then strengthening, then weakening.

Proportions

A sense of proportion is one of the main elements in the drawing process. Compliance with proportions is important not only in drawing from nature, but also in decorative drawing, for example, for ornament, appliqué, etc.

Compliance with proportions means the ability to subordinate the sizes of all elements of the picture or parts of the depicted object in relation to each other. Violation of proportions is unacceptable. The study of proportions is of great importance. It is necessary to help the painter to understand the mistake he made or to warn against it.

A person drawing from life should keep in mind that with the same size, horizontal lines appear longer than vertical ones. Among the elementary mistakes of novice artists is the desire to stretch objects horizontally.

If you divide the sheet into two equal halves, then the lower part will always appear smaller. Due to this property of our vision, both halves of the Latin S seem equal to us only because its lower part in the typographic font is made larger. This is the case with the number 8. This phenomenon is well known to architects, it is also necessary in the work of the artist.

Since ancient times, great importance has been attached to educating the artist's sense of proportions and the ability to accurately measure the size by eye. Leonardo da Vinci paid much attention to this issue. He recommended games and entertainment invented by him: for example, he advised sticking a cane into the ground and, at one distance or another, trying to determine how many times the size of the cane fits into this distance.

perspective

The Renaissance for the first time created a mathematically rigorous doctrine of the ways of transmitting space. Linear perspective(from lat. Rers Ri ser e "I see through"“I penetrate with my eyes”) is an exact science that teaches to depict objects of the surrounding reality on a plane in such a way that an impression is created such as in nature. All construction lines are directed to the central vanishing point corresponding to the location of the viewer. The shortening of the lines is determined depending on the distance. This discovery made it possible to build complex compositions in three-dimensional space. True, the retina of the human eye is concave, and straight lines do not appear to be drawn along a ruler. Italian artists did not know this, so sometimes their work resembles a drawing.

Square perspective

a - frontal position, b - at a random angle. P is the central vanishing point.

Lines receding into the depth of the drawing seem to converge at the vanishing point. The vanishing points are on the horizon line. Lines receding perpendicular to the horizon converge at central vanishing point. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon converge at side vanishing points

circle perspective

The upper oval is above the horizon line. For circles below the horizon, we see their upper surface. The lower the circle, the wider it seems to us.

Already in the first tasks on drawing geometric bodies, children have to build the perspective of rectangular objects and bodies of revolution - cylinders, cones.

F 1 and F 2 - lateral vanishing points lying on the horizon line.

Perspective of a cube and a parallelepiped.

P is the vanishing point lying on the horizon line.

Chiaroscuro. Tone. Tonal relations

The visible form of an object is determined by its illumination, which is a necessary factor not only for the perception of an object, but also for its reproduction in a drawing. Light, spreading through the form, depending on the nature of its relief, has different shades - from the lightest to the darkest.

This is how the concept of chiaroscuro arises.

Chiaroscuro implies a certain source of light and mostly the same light color of the illuminated object.

Considering the illuminated cube, we notice that its plane facing the light source will be the lightest, called in the figure light; the opposite plane shadow; semitone one should name the planes that are at different angles to the light source and, therefore, do not completely reflect it; reflex- reflected light falling on the shadow sides; highlight- a small part of the surface in the light, completely reflecting the strength of the light source (observed mainly on curved surfaces), and finally, drop shadow.

In order of decreasing light intensity, all light shades can be conditionally arranged in the following sequence, starting with the lightest ones: glare, light, semitone, reflex, own shadow, drop shadow.

Light reveals the shape of an object. Each form has its own character. It is limited to straight or curved surfaces, or combinations of both.

An example of chiaroscuro on faceted surfaces.

If the shape has a faceted character, then even with a minimal difference in the luminosity of the surfaces, their boundaries will be certain (see the cube illustration).

An example of chiaroscuro on curved surfaces.

If the shape is round or spherical (cylinder, ball), then light and shadow have gradual transitions.

So far, we have been talking about the chiaroscuro of equally colored objects. Until the second half of the 19th century, they were limited to the means of this chiaroscuro when transmitting illuminated plaster casts and nude sitters.

At the end In the 19th and early 20th centuries, during the period of the development of a deeper understanding of color, demands of a picturesque nature began to be made to the drawing.

Indeed, all the colorful diversity of nature, especially festive elegant costumes, diffused lighting that excludes clear chiaroscuro, the transfer of the environment - all this puts before the draftsman a number of tasks of a kind of picturesque nature, the solution of which is impossible with the help of chiaroscuro alone.

Therefore, the pictorial term entered the drawing - "tone".

If we take, for example, yellow and blue, then being in the same lighting conditions, they will appear one light, the other dark. Pink appears lighter than burgundy, brown appears darker than blue, etc.

In the drawing, it is impossible to convey the brightness of the flame and deep shadows on black velvet “at full strength”, since the tonal differences between pencil and paper are much smaller. But the artist must convey all the various tonal relationships with modest means of drawing. To do this, the darkest thing in the depicted object or still life is taken to the full strength of the pencil, and the paper remains the lightest. He arranges all other shadow gradations in tonal relationships between these extremes.

Draftsmen need to practice in developing the ability to subtly distinguish between gradations of lightness in natural productions. You need to learn to catch small tonal differences. Having determined where there will be one - two of the lightest and one - two of the darkest places, it is necessary to take into account the visual possibilities of materials.

When performing training tasks, it is necessary to observe a proportional relationship between the luminosity of several places in nature and the corresponding several parts of the drawing. At the same time, it must be remembered that comparing the tones of only one place in nature with its image is the wrong method of work. All attention should be given to the method of working with relationships. In the process of drawing, you need to compare 2 - 3 areas in terms of lightness in kind with the corresponding places in the image. After applying the desired tones, it is recommended to check.

Drawing Sequence

The modern drawing technique provides for the 3 most common stages of working on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determining the general nature of the form; 2) plastic modeling of the form with chiaroscuro and a detailed description of nature; 3) summing up. In addition, each drawing, depending on the tasks and duration, may have more or fewer common stages, and each stage may include smaller drawing stages.

Let us consider in more detail these stages of work on the drawing.

1). The work begins with the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper. It is necessary to examine nature from all sides and determine from which point of view it is more effective to place the image on a plane. The painter must get acquainted with nature, note its characteristic features, understand its structure. The image is outlined with light strokes.

Starting a drawing, first of all, they determine the ratio of the height and width of the nature, after which they proceed to establishing the dimensions of all its parts. During work, you cannot change the point of view, since in this case the entire perspective construction of the drawing will be violated.

The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is also determined in advance, and is not developed in the process of work. When drawing in parts, in most cases, the nature does not fit on the sheet, it turns out to be shifted up or down.

Premature loading of the sheet with lines and spots should be avoided. The form is drawn very generally and schematically. The main, generalized character of the large form is revealed. If this is a group of objects, you need to equate them to a single figure - to generalize.

Having completed the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper, the main proportions are set. In order not to be mistaken in proportions, one should first determine the ratio of large values, and then select the smallest ones from them. The task of the teacher is to teach to separate the main from the secondary. So that the details do not distract the beginner's attention from the main character of the form, you need to squint your eyes so that the form looks like a silhouette, like a common spot, and the details disappear.

2). The second stage is plastic modeling of the form in tone and detailed study of the drawing. This is the main and longest stage of work. Here, knowledge from the field of perspective, the rules of cut-off modeling is applied.

When drawing, it is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects and the three-dimensionality of their constructive construction, since otherwise the image will be planar.

While working on a perspective construction of a drawing, it is recommended to regularly check, comparing the contractions of the surfaces of three-dimensional forms, comparing them with verticals and horizontals, which are mentally drawn through characteristic points.

After choosing a point of view, a horizon line is drawn in the drawing, which is at the level of the drawing's eyes. You can mark the horizon line at any sheet height. It depends on the inclusion in the composition of objects or their parts that are above or below the eyes of the painter. For objects below the horizon, their upper sides are shown in the figure, and for those placed above the horizon, their lower surfaces are visible.

When it is necessary to draw a cube standing on a horizontal plane or another object with horizontal edges that is visible at an angle, then both vanishing points of its faces are on the sides of the central vanishing point. If the sides of the cube are seen in the same perspective cuts, then their upper and lower edges are directed outside the picture to the side vanishing points. In the frontal position of the cube, which is at the level of the horizon, only one side of it is visible, which looks like a square. Then the edges receding into the depth are directed to the central vanishing point.

When we see 2 sides of a horizontally lying square in the frontal position, then the other 2 are directed to the central vanishing point. The drawing of a square in this case looks like a trapezoid. When depicting a horizontal square lying at an angle to the horizon line, its sides are directed towards the side vanishing points.

In perspective cuts, the circles look like ellipses. This is how bodies of revolution are depicted - a cylinder, a cone. The higher or lower the horizontal circle is from the horizon, the more the ellipse approaches the circle. The closer the depicted circle is to the horizon line, the narrower the ellipse becomes - the minor axes become shorter as they approach the horizon.

On the horizon line, both squares and circles look like one line.

The lines in the figure depict the shape of the object. The tone in the drawing conveys light and shadows. Chiaroscuro helps to reveal the volume of the object. By building an image, such as a cube, according to the rules of perspective, the painter thereby prepares the boundaries for light and shadows.

When drawing objects with rounded surfaces, children often experience difficulties that they cannot cope with without the help of a teacher.

Why is this happening? The shape of the cylinder and the ball remains unchanged during rotation. This complicates the analytical work of a novice draftsman. Instead of the volume of a ball, for example, he draws a flat circle, which he then shades away from the contour line. The light-to-shadow ratios are given as random spots - and the ball appears to be just a smudged circle.

On the cylinder and the ball, light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side that carries the reflex, but rather moving away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex must always obey the shadow and be weaker than the halftone, which is part of the light, that is, it must be lighter than the shadow and darker than the halftone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than the semitone in the light.

When drawing a group setting of geometric bodies located at different distances from a light source incident from the side, it should be borne in mind that as they move away from it, the illuminated surfaces of the bodies lose their luminosity.

According to the laws of physics, the intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of the object's distance from the light source. Considering this law, when placing light and shadow, one should not forget the fact that the contrasts of light and shadow increase near the source of illumination, and weaken as they move away.

When all the details are drawn, and the drawing is modeled in tone, the generalization process begins.

3). The third stage is summarizing. This is the last and most important stage of work on the drawing. At this stage, we sum up the work done: we check the general condition of the drawing, subordinating the details to the whole, clarifying the drawing in tone. It is necessary to subordinate lights and shadows, glare, reflexes and halftones to the general tone - one must strive to bring to a real sound and completion those tasks that were set at the very beginning of the work. Clarity and integrity, the freshness of the first perception should already appear in a new quality, as a result of long and hard work. At the final stage of work, it is desirable to return to a fresh, original perception again.

Thus, at the beginning of work, when the draftsman quickly outlines a general view of nature on a sheet of paper, he follows the path of synthesis - generalization. Further, when a careful analysis of the form is carried out in a generalized form, the draftsman enters the path of analysis. At the very end of the work, when the artist begins to subordinate the details to the whole, he again returns to the path of synthesis.

The work of generalizing the form for a novice draftsman presents rather great difficulties, because the details of the form attract his attention too much. Individual, insignificant details of an object observed by a draftsman often obscure a holistic image of nature, do not make it possible to understand its structure, and, therefore, interfere with the correct depiction of nature.

So, consistent work on a drawing develops from the definition of generalized parts of the subject through a detailed study of complex details to a figurative expression of the essence of the depicted nature.

Note: This manual describes the image of a composition that is quite complex for younger students from the frameworks of geometric bodies. It is recommended to first depict the frame of one cube, one parallelepiped or cone. Later - a composition of two geometric bodies of a simple form. If the training program is designed for several years, it is better to postpone the image of a composition of several geometric bodies for subsequent years.

3 stages of work on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determination of the general nature of the form; 2) construction of frameworks of geometric bodies; 3) creating the effect of the depth of space using different line thicknesses.

1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and the determination of the general nature of the form. Starting the drawing, determine the ratio of the height and width of the overall composition of all geometric bodies as a whole. After that, they proceed to establishing the dimensions of individual geometric bodies.

During work, you cannot change the point of view, since in this case the entire perspective construction of the drawing will be violated. The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is also determined in advance, and not in the process of work. When drawing in parts, in most cases, nature either does not fit on the sheet, or is shifted up, down, or to the side.

At the beginning of drawing, the form is drawn very generally and schematically. The main, generalized character of the large form is revealed. A group of objects needs to be equated to a single figure - to generalize.

2). The second stage is the construction of frames of geometric bodies. It is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects, their three-dimensionality, how the horizontal plane is located, on which geometric bodies stand relative to the eye level of the painter. The lower it is, the wider it appears. In accordance with this, all horizontal faces of geometric bodies and the circles of bodies of revolution look more or less wide for the painter.

The composition consists of prisms and bodies of revolution - a cylinder, a cone, a ball. For prisms, it is necessary to find out how they are located relative to the drawing - frontally or at an angle? The body, located frontally, has 1 vanishing point - in the center of the object. But more often, geometric bodies are located relative to the drawing at a random angle. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon line converge atside vanishing points located on the horizon line.

Perspective of the box at a random angle.

Construction of a body of revolution - a cone.

Thus, all geometric bodies are built.

3) The third and last stage is the creation of the effect of the depth of space using different line thicknesses. The drawing person sums up the work done: checks the proportions of geometric bodies, compares their sizes, checks the general state of the drawing, subordinating the details to the whole.

Topic 2. Drawing of plaster geometric bodies:

cube, ball (black and white modeling).

Note: this manual describes the image of a gypsum cube and a ball on one sheet. You can draw on two sheets. For tasks on cut-off modeling, illumination by a closely spaced lamp, soffit, etc. is highly desirable. on one side (usually on the side of the window).

Cube

1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper. Gypsum cube and ball are drawn sequentially. Both are illuminated by directional light. The upper half of the sheet of paper (A3 format) is reserved for the cube, the lower half for the ball.

The cube image is composited with a drop shadow in the center of the top half of the sheet. The scale is chosen such that the image is neither too large nor too small.

2). The second step is building the cube.

It is necessary to determine the location of the horizontal plane on which the cube stands and the horizontal faces relative to the level of the eyes, their width. How is the cube located - frontally or at an angle? If frontally, the cube has 1 vanishing point at the level of the painter's eyes - in the center of the cube. But more often the edges are located relative to the drawing at a random angle. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon converge atside vanishing points located on the horizon line.

Building a cube

The drawing must find out which of the side faces of the cube seems to be wider for him - for this face, the horizontal lines are directed to the vanishing point more gently, and the vanishing point itself is farther from the depicted object.

Having built a cube, according to the rules of perspective, we thereby prepared the borders for light and shadows. Considering the illuminated cube, we notice that its plane facing the light source will be the lightest, called light; the opposite plane - a shadow; semitones are called planes that are at angles to the light source and therefore do not completely reflect it; reflex - reflected light falling on the shadow sides. The falling shadow, the contour of which is built according to the rules of perspective, is darker than all the surfaces of the cube.

Black and white modeling of the cube

White can be left on the surfaces of the cube or the sheet of paper on which it stands, illuminated by direct, bright light. The remaining surfaces should be hatched with a light, transparent hatching, gradually strengthening it on the lines of the light division (the edges of the cube where the illuminated and shadow faces meet). In order of decreasing light intensity, all light shades can be conditionally arranged in the following sequence, starting with the lightest ones: glare, light, semitone, reflex, own shadow, drop shadow.

Summing up, we check the general condition of the drawing, clarifying the drawing in tone. It is necessary to subordinate lights and shadows, glare, reflections and halftones to the general tone, trying to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.

Ball

1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image of the ball along with the falling shadow in the center of the bottom half of the sheet of paper. The scale is chosen such that the image is neither too large nor too small.

Building a ball

2). The black-and-white modeling of a sphere is more complex than that of a cube. Light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side that carries the reflex, but rather moving away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex must always obey the shadow and be weaker than the halftone, which is part of the light, that is, it must be lighter than the shadow and darker than the halftone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than the semitone in the light. Closer to the light source, the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, as they move away, they weaken.

Black and white modeling of the ball

3). When all the details are drawn, and the drawing is carefully modeled in tone, the generalization process begins: we check the general condition of the drawing, refining the drawing in tone. Again trying to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.

Topic 3. Still life drawing from plaster

geometric bodies (black and white modeling).

Note: this manual describes the image of a complex composition of plaster geometric bodies. If the training program is designed for several years, it is better to postpone the image of such a composition for subsequent years. It is recommended to first depict the composition of two geometric bodies of a simple shape. Later, you can move on to a more complex composition. For a task on cut-off modeling, illumination by a closely spaced lamp, spotlight, etc. is highly desirable. on one side (usually on the side of the window).

3 stages of work on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determination of the general nature of the form; 2) construction of geometric bodies; 3) modeling of forms by tone.

1). The first stage is the compositional placement of images of geometric bodies on the plane of a sheet of A3 paper. Starting the drawing, determine the ratio of the height and width of the overall composition of all geometric bodies as a whole. After that, they proceed to establishing the dimensions of individual geometric bodies.

The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is determined in advance. Premature loading of the sheet with lines and spots should be avoided. Initially, the shape of geometric bodies is drawn very generally and schematically.

Having completed the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper, the main proportions are set. In order not to be mistaken in proportions, you should first determine the ratio of large values, and then smaller ones.

2). The second stage is the construction of geometric bodies. It is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects, how the horizontal plane is located on which geometric bodies stand relative to the eye level of the painter. The lower it is, the wider it appears. In accordance with this, all horizontal faces of geometric bodies and the circles of bodies of revolution look more or less wide for the painter.

The composition consists of prisms, pyramids and bodies of revolution - a cylinder, a cone, a ball. For prisms, it is necessary to find out how they are located relative to the drawing - frontally or at an angle? The body, located frontally, has 1 vanishing point - in the center of the object. But more often, geometric bodies are located relative to the drawing at a random angle. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon line converge at lateral pointsgathering located on the horizon line. In the bodies of revolution, horizontal and vertical axial lines are drawn, and distances equal to the radius of the depicted circle are plotted on them.

Geometric bodies can not only stand or lie on the horizontal plane of the table, but also be at a random angle relative to it. In this case, the direction of inclination of the geometric body and the plane of the base of the geometric body perpendicular to it are found. If a geometric body rests on a horizontal plane with 1 edge (prism or pyramid), then all horizontal lines converge at the vanishing point lying on the horizon line. This geometric body will have 2 more vanishing points that do not lie on the horizon line: one on the line of the direction of the inclination of the body, the other on the line perpendicular to it, belonging to the plane of the base of the given geometric body.

3). The third stage is modeling the form with tone. This is the longest stage of work. Here knowledge of the rules of cut-off modeling is applied. By constructing geometric bodies according to the rules of perspective, the student thereby prepared the boundaries for light and shadows. The planes of the bodies facing the light source will be the lightest, called light; opposite planes - a shadow; semitones are called planes that are at angles to the light source and therefore do not completely reflect it; reflex - reflected light falling on the shadow sides; and, finally, a falling shadow, the contour of which is built according to the rules of perspective.

White can be left on the surfaces of prisms, a pyramid or a sheet of paper on which they stand, illuminated by direct, bright light. The remaining surfaces should be hatched with a light, transparent hatching, gradually increasing it on the lines of the light division (edges of geometric bodies where the illuminated and shadow faces meet). In order of decreasing light intensity, all light shades can be conditionally arranged in the following sequence, starting with the lightest ones: glare, light, semitone, reflex, own shadow, drop shadow.

At the ball, light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side that carries the reflex, but rather moving away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex must always obey the shadow and be weaker than the halftone, which is part of the light, that is, it must be lighter than the shadow and darker than the halftone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than the semitone in the light. Closer to the light source, the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, as they move away, they weaken.

White leaves only a highlight on the ball. The remaining surfaces are covered with light and transparent shading, applying strokes according to the shape of the ball and the horizontal surface on which it lies. The tone is gaining gradually.

As they move away from the light source, the illuminated surfaces of bodies lose their luminosity. Closer to the light source, the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, as they move away, they weaken.

4). When all the details are drawn and the picture is modeled in tone, the generalization process begins: we check the general condition of the picture, refining the picture in tone.

It is necessary to subordinate lights and shadows, glare, reflections and halftones to the general tone, trying to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.

Literature

Main:

Rostovtsev N. N. "Academic drawing" M. 1984

"School of Fine Arts" vol. 2, M. "Art" 1968

Trouble G.V. "Fundamentals of visual literacy" M. "Enlightenment" 1988

"School of Fine Arts" 1-2-3, "Fine Arts" 1986

"Fundamentals of Drawing", "A Concise Dictionary of Artistic Terms" - M. "Enlightenment", "Title", 1996

Additional:

Vinogradova G. “Drawing lessons from nature” - M., “Enlightenment”, 1980

Library of the "Young Artist" Drawing, tips for beginners. Issue 1-2 - "Young Guard" 1993

Kirtser Yu. M. “Drawing and painting. Textbook "- M., 2000

Kilpe T. L. "Drawing and Painting" - M., Publishing House "Oreol" 1997

Avsisyan O. A. "Nature and drawing by representation" - M., 19885

Odnoralov N. V. "Materials and tools, equipment in the fine arts" - M., "Enlightenment" 1988

Applications

Topic 1. Building frames of geometric bodies

Topic 2. Drawing of plaster geometric bodies: cube, ball

Topic 3. Drawing of a still life from plaster geometric bodies

Explanatory note ____________________________________ 2

Introduction ________________________________________________ 3

Topic 1. Construction of frames of geometric bodies _____________ 12

Topic 2. Drawing of plaster geometric bodies: cube, ball (black and white modeling) _____________________________________________ 14

Topic 3. Drawing of a still life from plaster geometric bodies (black and white modeling) _____________________________________________ 17

Applications ____________________________________________ 21

Choose one or two of the best sketches and enclose them in boxes whose proportions correspond to the proportions of the future drawing. So, an A-3 sheet measuring 30 by 40 centimeters has a 3 to 4 prop (Figure 172). In search of the most successful composition of the sheet, you may have to correct the point of view, and in some cases even make changes to the setting itself.

When composing the sheet, you should also take into account the location of the illuminated and shadow surfaces, as well as the boundaries of the falling shadows. Remember that chiaroscuro can disrupt the compositional harmony of a line drawing.

Stage 1

Figure 173 Starting a drawing on a large sheet, try to accurately transfer to it the arrangement of objects fixed in the best sketch. Mark the location of each geometric body with light lines. Once again check the size of the entire composition, as well as its compliance with the size of the sheet. Make the necessary changes to the drawing and continue working, refining the size of each geometric body in relation to other bodies and to the entire composition as a whole.

Stage 2

Figure 174. Linearize all geometric bodies. In the course of work, pay special attention to the correspondence of the disclosure of squares and ellipses lying in horizontal and vertical planes.

Stage 3

Figure 175. At this stage, it is necessary to strengthen those lines that are closer to the viewer, so you will create the effect of the depth of space already in the linear-constructive drawing. Mark the lines of your own and falling shadows and cover all the shadows with a light stroke.

Stage 4

Figure 176. Continue working in the shadows, making them more intense towards the viewer and the light source, and the falling shadows also towards the subject that casts the shadow. Gradually move on to work in the light. Carefully model the shape using knowledge of the distribution of light and shade on geometric bodies. On round surfaces, create smooth light and shade transitions; on bodies formed by planes - sharp and clear.

Comparing the light and dark tones of gypsum in nature, one must strive to correctly convey their relationship in the drawing, however, one must also be aware of special techniques that help the draftsman create a sense of three-dimensional space on a flat sheet:

1. Separation of the tonal scale into light and shadow parts: in the figure, the lightest place in the shadow should be darker than the darkest place in the light, in other words, the shadow should always be darker than the light. In nature, this is not always the case. For example, when a sufficiently well-lit surface is near the production, the reflections from it in nature can be as bright as light. They need to be “dampened” by making them darker, otherwise they will destroy the shape of the objects depicted in your drawing.

2. "Aerial perspective". This phenomenon, which we have already mentioned, can be observed in nature at great distances, when objects far removed from the viewer look less contrasted due to the thickness of the air, which weakens the shadow and darkens the light. If the size of the depicted production is small, this effect cannot be observed. It is created artificially in the drawing: geometric bodies in the foreground have a greater contrast between light and shadow than bodies in the background, while in nature the difference in illumination of near and far plans can be almost imperceptible.

The main task of an architectural drawing is not to convey the state of an object, but, if possible, to ver
new image of the form, creation of volume. That is why, when drawing, we do not copy nature, but try
trying to see, select and transfer into our work only certain features that help us to
sew this task.

Stage 5

Figure 177 Summarize the drawing. Once again, carefully follow the tonal solution of the illuminated and shadow surfaces. At the final stage, the painter does not work with a single object, detail, part of the image, but with the entire sheet at the same time, achieving the integrity of the work, the harmonious subordination of its parts. To do this, if necessary, increase the tone of the illuminated surfaces in the background and the shadow surfaces in the foreground.

Chapter 70

Chapter 72

black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies 73

Chapter 74

Linear-constructive drawing of a composition of geometric bodies according to the representation.

Make a sketch of the composition, observing the given proportions of geometric bodies (Fig. 178). Determine the general nature of the future composition, the position of the horizon line, the direction of the horizontal edges, the main tie-ins. We will immediately warn you about a typical mistake that is often made by those who work on their first composition by submission. Placing geometric bodies on a sheet, a novice draftsman quite freely places round bodies side by side (for example, a ball and a cone) or round bodies and bodies that have inclined planes (for example, a ball and a hexagonal prism). The insertion of such bodies into each other is very complex. Taking into account the limited time for completing the examination task, it would be more correct to use simple inserts in the composition, when round bodies and bodies with inclined surfaces intersect horizontal and vertical planes.

Do not overly carefully draw a sketch - on a small scale, you still can not solve all compositional issues. Even a very detailed sketch cannot be accurately transferred to a large sheet. Secondary and insignificant elements will inevitably undergo quite serious changes, and therefore you should not pay too much attention to them at the sketching stage. Enclose the sketch in a frame of appropriate proportions (3x4), make the necessary adjustments to the composition and start working on a large format sheet, trying to keep the main idea defined in the sketch, the main patterns and movements of large masses.

Continuing work on the composition, specify the dimensions and proportions of geometric bodies. Follow the correspondence of the disclosure of squares and circles lying in the horizontal and vertical planes, as well as the uniform convergence of parallel lines in perspective. Carefully build insets of geometric bodies, depicting the intersection lines of not only visible, but also invisible to the viewer surfaces. When working on individual elements, try to subordinate them to the general compositional idea, achieve integrity and harmony in your work.

The drawing should be made with clear, expressive lines and easily worked out in a conditional tone: determine the position of the light source and cover the surfaces that are in shadow with several layers of strokes. Consider figures 179,180,181,182,183 depicting examples of such compositions.

black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies

black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies 77

black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies 70

Chapter 80

Chapter IV. drawing of architectural details

Architectural details include architectural profiles (goose, heel, shaft, quarter shaft, fillet, scotia), geometric and floral ornaments, capitals, rosettes, vases, ionics, brackets, supporting and locking stones of arches, entablature. From all this variety, a vase, a capital and an ionic were chosen for the execution of educational drawings at the evening preparatory courses of the Moscow Architectural Institute.

When starting to draw an architectural detail, first determine its geometric basis, imagine a complex shape as a combination of simple geometric bodies. Having depicted a simplified diagram in perspective on a sheet, gradually complicate it, saturating it with details and carefully studying individual elements in a linear-constructive drawing. Plan paired symmetrical volumes at the same time, under this condition it is easier to follow the promising reductions. If the image of any part of the architectural detail causes you some difficulties, make small sketches of it in the margins of your drawing - perspective sketches from different points and orthogonal projections. At the end of the linear stage, introduce a light tone into the drawing, having previously outlined the lines of own and falling shadows: this will allow you to refine the main masses and identify possible errors before starting tonal work.

Chiaroscuro on architectural details is also distributed according to the laws of drawing simple geometric bodies. On curved surfaces, the transitions from light to shadow are soft, gradual, on faceted surfaces - sharp, clear. The closer the light and shadow on the object to the painter and the light source, the stronger the light-and-shadow contrast, and, conversely, the distant parts of the objects have a dimmer light and a faded shadow. Falling shadows are more saturated with tone, own ones are highlighted by reflexes, and therefore more airy and transparent. Both in a linear-constructive and in a black and white drawing, try to work evenly over the entire sheet, constantly comparing individual parts of the image with the whole. At the final stage, refine the tonal solution and summarize the work, striving for a sense of completeness and harmony.

Vase drawing.

As an object for drawing, you are offered a plaster cast from a Greek vase (amphora) dating from the 4th century BC. The masters of that time were distinguished by an amazing sense of proportions and constructive logic.

Start drawing a vase, as you would drawing any complex architectural detail, by analyzing its shape. Carefully examine the vase (Fig. 184). Mentally divide it into separate volumes and compare them with simple geometric bodies. The body of the vase has a complex drop-like shape, which can be conditionally represented as a combination of two balls and a cone, so the contour of the vase body can be divided into three parts in height, each of which has its own curvature. The neck of the vase is similar to a cylinder, which has a noticeable thinning in the middle, and is bounded above and below by narrow shelves. The vase is crowned with a massive neck in the shape of a quarter shaft. The supporting part (base) of the vase consists of two cylinders of different diameters, connected by a gooseneck profile. The handles of the vase have a complex three-part structure and thicken at the points of attachment to the neck and body of the vase.

Continuing the study of nature, make a drawing of the frontal projection of the vase. To do this, you will have to use not only the sighting method, but also a long strip of paper and even a ruler. The projection should be large enough, only then you will be able to reflect in it all the information you received: the proportional ratio of the main masses, the dimensions of individual parts in height and width.

drawing of architectural details 81

rine, their relationship, subordination and functional validity. Try to accurately convey the proportions of the vase, note how many times its width fits in height, how many times the neck fits in the body of the vase horizontally and vertically, etc. (Fig. 185).

When depicting the facade of the vase, you will notice that in this projection the neck of the vase looks too thick, the body is more massive, the base is lighter and more elegant than in nature. Of all the ways of depicting perspective is the closest to the real perception of the human eye. The orthogonal projection of an object is always different from its perception in nature. But it is orthogonal projections, due to their accuracy and informativeness, that will help you to study the complex architectural form in the best way now, and in the future will become a convenient and natural means of your professional communication.

Let's get back to nature. As you have already noticed, the main volume of the vase is a symmetrical shape. All its horizontal sections are circles of different diameters with the center lying on the same vertical (the axis of the vase). In a perspective drawing, these circles are depicted as ellipses of various sizes and openings. The minor axes of these ellipses coincide with the axis of the vase, while the major axes are perpendicular to it.

Changing your vertical position relative to nature (and, consequently, the level of the horizon line), follow the reduction in the vertical dimensions of individual elements and the entire vase, as well as how some parts of the vase overlap others.

Choose a point from which perspective vertical cuts are negligible (for example, when the horizon line is slightly above the mouth of the vase or below the base of the vase). The position when the horizon line passes through the body of the vase is not recommended due to some difficulties that a novice draftsman may have with determining the opening of ellipses. In addition, this position is the least successful for creating an expressive pattern.

Chapter 82

Stage 1

Figure 186. Determine the dimensions of the vase on the sheet, mark its axis in the middle of the sheet. Break the total vertical dimension into segments corresponding to the large parts of the vase: neck, neck, body, base. Mark the width of these elements.

Stage 2

Figure 187. Indicate the position and dimensions of the small parts of the vase in the figure.

Stage 3

Figure 188. Outline the outline of the vase in orthogonal projection. Such a contour does not take into account future changes, but is a clear constructive basis for further work.

Stage 4

Figure 189. On the horizontal axes, in the places of characteristic sections, draw ellipses. Remember that the ellipse expands the further it is from the horizon. Connect the ellipses with tangent arcs at the junctions of one shape with another. Sketch the handles of the vase, generalizing them to a simple rectangular shape, and only after making sure that the basic relationships are correct, work out their details.

Stage 5

Figure 190. The last stage is tonal study. Start as usual by defining the lines of your own and drop shadow. To do this, use nature and the knowledge already gained about the nature of chiaroscuro on simple geometric bodies. Own shadows on the neck of the vase, belts, shelves of the base, as well as handles - are similar to the shadows on the cylinder; the shadow on the neck is like the shadow on the ball; the shadow on the body of the vase can be represented as a complex combination of the shadow on two balls and a cone. Carefully consider the falling shadows on the vase. Analyze the forms from which shadows fall on the neck of the vase, its body, base, handles. Sometimes it is convenient to do this with a pencil. If you slowly move the tip of the pencil along the line of your own shadow on the vase, the shadow from the tip of the pencil will also move along the line of the falling shadow, fixing at each moment of this movement a certain pair: a point and a shadow from it.

After determining the position of the lines of own and falling shadows, continue the tonal drawing in the usual sequence. First, gain enough tone in the shadows, separating them from the light. Then you need to strengthen your own shadows towards the viewer and the light source, and the falling shadows - also towards the source of the falling shadow. Continuing to work in the shadows, gradually go into the sowing, creating smooth light and shade transitions on spherical and cylindrical surfaces. Completing the drawing, generalize the light and shade relationships, trying to harmoniously subordinate all elements of the image to the general tonal design.

The proposed staging of work is not accidental: it contains an important rule that is obligatory for everyone, and especially for beginner draftsmen: drawing from the general to the particular and from the particular to the general. Always start drawing with the total mass and only then proceed to the details. But do not immediately work out one of the details to the end. Lead the drawing all over the sheet, moving from one part to another, comparing the parts with the general, constantly covering the whole with your eyes. This rule is true for both linear-constructive and black-and-white drawings.

Naturally, your desire is to see the final result as quickly as possible, to jump to the next stage without finishing the previous one. If you want - try to do it - and you will see how a logical and calm work turns into a chaotic throwing from one detail to another in an effort to put together a drawing that “crumbles” before your eyes.

Remember also that the design is the basis of any forms. Errors in construction cannot be hidden by the most virtuoso tonal study. Therefore, errors in construction and proportions discovered during the work must be corrected immediately.

drawing of architectural details 83

Chapter 86

drawing of architectural details 87

Chapter 88

Drawing of a Doric capital.

The capital is called the upper part of the column, which, in turn, is part of the architecture of the new order. An order is a strictly verified artistic system that expresses the essence of the work of a rack-and-beam structure. The name order comes from the Latin "ordo" - order, order. Classical orders - Doric and Ionic - were formed in ancient Greece. Somewhat later, in the architecture of Rome, they received their further development. The order consists of load-bearing and carried elements, the load is transferred from the overlying elements to those located below. From the entablature (bearing part) to the column (bearing), the load is transferred through the capital, which becomes one of the most important components of the entire order composition.

As an object for drawing, you are offered a capital of the Roman Doric order. Roman orders are somewhat drier in their forms than Greek ones, however, like all order systems, they are distinguished by a strict logic of shaping, well-balanced proportions and simplicity. The Doric order is the most concise, strict and courageous of all. A novice architect needs to learn to understand and feel the logic of the structure, expressed in an artistic form, which is called tectonics in architecture. Try to feel in the drawing of the capitals how the shape changes from the upper, square parts to the lower, round ones, how each of the profiles is designed to support the elements located above and to transfer pressure from top to bottom.

Start your drawing by analyzing the shape of the capital (Fig. 191). The upper part of the capital is square in terms of abacus (abacus) - a plate with a heel and a shelf. Echin is a quarter of the shaft and mates with the neck of the column through three successively decreasing belts. Astragalus, consisting of a roller and a shelf, passes into the trunk of the column through a fillet. The trunk of the column is decorated with twenty long grooves, semicircular in plan, - flutes, which have semicircular ends.

Make a drawing of the frontal projection of the capital. The drawing should be large enough so that the details are clearly visible. Sign the names of all parts of the capital in the picture. This will make it easier for you to remember them. Analyze the main proportions of the capital, select the total height of the echinus and girdle as a unit of measurement. Compare your drawing with drawing 192.

Fig.191

Continuing to study the form, go around the capital around and examine it from different points. You will notice that the main volume, which is a round symmetrical shape, remains unchanged. Only the position of the square abacus changes. Choose a point of view for the drawing so that one side of the abacus is more open to you and the other side is less. The optimal ratio is 1/2-1/3. The horizon line should pass just below the capital, then its proportions will be close to orthogonal. If necessary, make a sketch to more accurately determine the composition of the sheet.

drawing of architectural details

Stage 1.

Figure 193. Place the future image on the sheet, determining its dimensions vertically and horizontally. Mark the corners of the abacus, the main axis, and also determine the dimensions corresponding to the main parts of the capital. It is very important at this stage of the linear drawing to find the correct ratio of the opening of the upper ellipse of the echinus and the square of the abacus. Traditionally, draughtsmen draw the abacus first, and then have considerable difficulty fitting the ellipse into it. Do it differently: having decided on the size and opening of the ellipse, draw it. Then describe a square around the ellipse, comparing the directions of its sides with nature. Stage 2

Figure 194. Mark all parts of the capital vertically and determine their horizontal dimensions. Draw the main masses, taking into account perspective reductions. Depicting the ellipses of the girdle, neck, astragalus and the lower section of the column, correlate their openings with each other and with the already drawn upper echinus ellipse. Stage 3

Figure 195. Draw flutes. Properly portray them will help you plan the trunk of the column. If you do not have the opportunity to place the plan on the drawing itself, then pin an extra sheet of paper to your work. The points transferred from the plan to the perspective image will make the drawing accurate and convincing. At this stage, the drawing is mostly linear, but when refining the main elements, it is possible to apply a tone that helps to graphically reveal the "movement" of the main surfaces. At the same time, the tone should be very light, suggesting further constructive elaboration of the form. Stage 4

Figure 196. Reveal the shape of the capital by means of chiaroscuro. A clear understanding of the mutual Location in space of the light source, the object and the painter makes it possible to understand the geometry of own and falling shadows, as well as to identify the main tonal relationships. When defining the lines of own and falling shadows, use the knowledge about the nature of chiaroscuro on simple Forms: mentally divide the capital into separate volumes and compare them with the geometric bodies already known to you.

Stage 5

Figure 197 Work out in detail the shapes in the shadows and in the light, generalize the light and shade relationships

images, harmoniously subordinate them to each other, taking into account the aerial perspective.

Chapter 92

drawing of architectural details 93

Chapter 94

drawing of architectural details 95

Ionic drawing.

Ionic is an architectural ornamental element, consisting of an ovoid shape cut off from above, framed by a “shell”, a profiled roller, and lancet leaves pointing downwards. In architecture, ionics are widely used on capitals and cornices of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. Ionic has two axes of symmetry, one of them runs along the egg-shaped form, the other - in the middle of the lancet leaf. Studying the form, make a plan, facade and side facade (Fig. 198). This will help you better understand the structure of the ionic, and will also greatly facilitate further work on the drawing.

Stage 1

Figure 199. Outline the dimensions of the future image on the sheet. Draw in perspective a rectangular slab that is the basis for the ionic.

Stage 2

Figure 200. Draw the diagonals of the ionic base plate and draw a vertical middle line - the main axis of symmetry. Imagine the generalized form of the ionic as a solid quarter shaft with a beveled top, to which a small roller adjoins from below. Draw its plan on the upper surface of the ionic, separate the central egg-shaped volume from the lateral volumes, outline the axes of symmetry passing through the center of the lancet leaves, and specify the main axis. At this stage, pay special attention to the perspective reduction of horizontal segments of equal length.

Stage 3

Figure 201. Draw the details - egg, shells, profiled roller, leaves. Depicting the leaves, make them a large front view in the fields (Fig. 202). This will help you draw the leaves correctly in perspective.

Stage 4

Figure 203. Draw lines of own and falling shadows. Start, as usual, with shadow areas and stroke them several times, separating them from the light. Then you need to strengthen the falling shadows towards the object casting the shadow, the viewer and the light source. At the same time, strengthen the lines of your own shadows, forming zones of reflections. At this stage, do not get carried away with details, "sculpt" the general shape in accordance with the law of aerial perspective and the basic principles of the distribution of light and shade on simple geometric bodies.

Stage 5

Figure 204. Continuing to work, go to the riveting of a large form in the light and then to the details. Complete the drawing with a generalization of the form, a harmonious subordination of all its parts.

Chapter 98

plaster head drawing 99

Plaster head drawing

The human head is the most complex natural structure. This is due to its complex function in the human body. You can start drawing a head only with a sufficiently developed spatial representation, a thorough knowledge of the general provisions of the drawing and good practice in depicting simpler forms.

The practical section "Drawing a plaster head" begins with an examination of its external form in an "introductory drawing". This first experience will form the basis of further, more detailed analysis. In the drawing of the skull, the structure of the bone base of the head is analyzed. In Houdon's ecorche drawing, the location and principle of operation of the main muscles, as well as cartilaginous tissues, are studied. For a detailed examination of the skull and muscles, it would be advisable to refer to anatomical atlases and manuals. In the following drawings, special attention is paid to the main details of the head: nose, lips, eyes and ear. And, finally, returning to the drawing of a plaster head at a new level of understanding of its architectonics (i.e., the relationship between the internal structure and external form), you will be able to consolidate and gradually improve your skills in drawing plaster casts from ancient sculptures: Caesar, Aphrodite, Doryphorus, Diadumen, Socrates, Antinous and Apoxyomenos, traditionally offered for drawing at the entrance exams at the Moscow Institute of Architecture.

Drawing "antiques" is a continuation of the old academic traditions. The plastic perfection of classical sculpture, its static nature and extraordinary expressiveness will allow you to quickly understand the general three-dimensional structure of the head, understand its details and basic proportions.

24. Introductory drawing. Head of Doryphorus.

The sculpture of Doryphoros was created in the 5th century BC by the Greek sculptor Polykleitos, a representative of the Peloponnesian school. Polikleitos was not only a sculptor, but also an art theorist. He created the treatise "Canon", where the ideal proportions of the human body were developed in great detail. The figure of Doryphorus - a young hoplite warrior (spearman) - was the embodiment of this canon. At the same time, she was to become the personification of the ideal citizen of the Greek polis: a man like the immortal gods, equally beautiful in body and spirit, a courageous defender of his native city. The face of Doryfor is schematic, it is devoid of individual features and expression, which is why the head of Doryfor is offered for the first "introductory" work, as a result of which you will get an initial, largely simplified idea of ​​the shape of the head.

The head has a brain and facial parts. Its external plasticity is known with the help of a number of anatomical points - nodes (reference points or beacons) and lines. So, on the head are clearly visible: the chin tubercles, the line of the lower jaw, the corners of the mouth, the lines limiting the area of ​​the mouth, the line of the incision of the lips, the filter, the base, the tip and wings of the nose, the bridge of the nose, the cheekbones, the zygomatic arches, the orbital edges, the tear ridges, the eyebrow arches , lines limiting the eyebrow arches, frontal tubercles, temporal lines, crown, auricles, auditory openings, mastoid processes of the temporal bones, parietal and occipital tubercles, nuchal line, border of the neck and chin, jugular fossa and protrusion of the seventh cervical vertebra. Find all these points and lines in figures 205 and 206, and then on the plaster head.

Knowing the anatomical points - beacons and characteristic lines, you will never get confused in the details and will always be able to distinguish the main from the accidental. For a better understanding of the external spatial relationships of the points of the head, a simplified diagram is often used, representing its structure in the form of an irregular polyhedron. It is impossible, however, to abuse such schemes in the drawing. They are necessary only as visual aids for a competent and convincing image of a human head.

Chapter 100

drawing of architectural details 101

Draw from the drawing by P.I.Churilin

from the textbook "The structure of the human head"

Chapter 102

Draw from PIChurilin's drawing

from the textbook "The structure of the human head"

It is also customary to study the human head by analyzing its sections in three mutually perpendicular planes: sagittal, horizontal and frontal (Fig. 207).

The sagittal plane is the plane of symmetry of the body. Its name comes from the Latin "sagttta" - an arrow. A cut in this plane gives us the midline, which is the basis of the professional line of the face and is very important for the drawing of the head.

The horizontal plane passes through the base of the occiput and the base of the nose.

Frontal plane perpendicular to the first two and "cuts" the head at its widest point. It passes through the top of the head, the parietal tubercles and the fulcrum of the skull on the spine. The study of these sections, as well as orthogonal projections of the head: front, back, side and top views will help to you better understand the external plasticity of the head and more accurately convey it in your drawing.

plaster head drawing 103

The task of the “introductory” drawing is a good composition on the sheet, the total volume correctly conveyed, as well as the exact location and size of each detail of the head.

Stage 1

Figure 208. Starting work, determine the position of the horizon line and the angle. To do this, mentally enclose your head in a cube. Find the overall dimensions and place the future image on the sheet using short serifs. Remember that if you draw the head in front - the spaces on the left and right should be equal so that the image does not “fall over”, but if you draw the head in profile, in 3/4 or 7/8 - the sheet space in front of the head (from the side face) should be larger than from the back of the head. With light lines outline the outline of the head (outline).

Stage 2

Figure 209. Draw the main large parts: separate the mass of the head from the neck, outline the front part, its front plane and easily draw an axial profile line. Specifying the profile line, find the characteristic points lying on it: the point of the top of the forehead (on the hairline), the point between the eyebrows, the point of the base of the wings of the nose and the point of fracture of the chin. These points determine the main canonical proportional relations of the parts of the head. According to the Greek classical canon, the distances between these points must be equal. Draw horizontal lines through these points (in the figure extending to the vanishing point on the horizon) and mark on them, respectively, the width of the forehead, the base of the nose and the chin. For the correct choice of the directions of these lines, use the sighting method.

In accordance with the ancient canon, along the line of the eyes, the ancient head is divided into two equal parts - from the top of the head to the line of the eyes and from the line of the eyes to the base of the chin. The segment from the superciliary arches (the point between the eyebrows) to the base of the wings of the nose is divided into three equal parts - the line of the eyes passes along the upper division line, and the base and wings of the nose are separated along the lower line. The segment between the point of the base of the wings of the nose and the fracture of the chin is also divided into three equal parts. The middle line of the mouth passes along the upper division line, which is also called the lip cut line, the lower line divides the chin in half. The distance between the eyes is equal to the length of the eye, i.e. the eye line is also divided into three equal parts. The height of the ear is equal to the length of the nose.

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Creativity & Hobbies

Learn the basics of architectural drawing

The cornerstone in architectural education is the knowledge of the fundamentals of architectural drawing. Even though I didn't get into architecture this year, I haven't given up on becoming an architect and will slowly but surely move towards my goal.

So, in front of me is the book "Drawing by Representation. From Geometry to Architecture". Starting today, I will begin to study this book thoughtfully and diligently, practicing drawing every day. I commit to spend 1.5-2 hours a day drawing from a book (exceptions: unforeseen circumstances, days off, travel and situations where I can't use the tools and tutorial) and show the community my work. I will not rush much, and I will set the deadlines approximately, with a large margin. The deadline is March 6 next year.

Goal Accomplishment Criteria

The book has been studied: all tasks have been completed, photos of the work have been posted on the site.

personal resources

Time every day, paper, tools, book.

1. Part 1. Initial exercises

   Section 1 Drawing Straight Lines

   • Straight line pattern
   • Drawing parallel straight lines
   • Drawing straight lines "from point to point"
   • Division of straight lines into equal segments
   • Division of angles into equal parts
   • Line drawing

   Section 2 Drawing curved lines

   • curved line pattern
   • Draw curved lines by anchor points
   • Ornament pattern based on a circle
   • Ellipse drawing
   • Ellipse pattern

2. Part 2. Perspective of a square and a circle

   • Perspective diagram
   • Drawing a square in perspective
   • Drawing of a square circumscribed around a circle in perspective

3. Perspective of simple geometric solids

   Section 5. Perspective drawing of a cube and a tetrahedral prism

   • Perspective cube drawing
   • Drawing of nine cubes
   • Linear-constructive drawing of a composition of cubes according to the plan and facade in frontal and angular perspectives
   • Linear-constructive drawing of a composition of cubes in perspective
   • Linear-constructive drawing of a composition of cubes and tetrahedral prisms in perspective

   Section 6. Pyramid and Hexagon Perspective

   • Linear-constructive drawing of a pyramid
   • Linear-constructive drawing of a hexagonal prism

   Section 7. Cylinder, Cone, and Ball Perspective

   • Linear-constructive drawing of a cylinder
   • Linear-constructive drawing of a cone
   • Section of a cylinder and a cone by planes parallel to the bases
   • Section of a cone by parallel planes perpendicular to its base
   • Drawing of cylinders of different diameters stacked on top of each other
   • Linear-constructive drawing of the ball
   • Section of a ball by parallel planes
   • Drawing of a ball standing on a cube
   • Drawing of a cube circumscribed inside a sphere

4. Part 4. Tonal drawing

   Section 8. Tone. Initial exercises

   • Hatching tonal spots
   • Hatching flat figures
   • Tonal scale made in hatching technique
   • Shading flat figures
   • Hatching in the technique of "wide stroke"
   • Planar composition of polygons

   Section 9. Black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies

   • Tonal drawing of a cube
   • Tonal drawing of a tetrahedral prism
   • Tonal drawingpyramid
   • Tonal drawing of a cylinder
   • Tonal drawing of a cone
   • Tonal ball pattern
   • Tonal drawing of a stepped cone
   • Tonal pattern of illuminated surfaces
   • Tonal pattern of shadow surfaces
   • Tonal drawing of a composition of four cubes

5. Part 5. Inserts of geometric bodies

   Section 10

   • Inset cube and tetrahedral prism
   • Inset cube and pyramid
   • Inset cube and hexagonal prism
   • Cube and Cylinder Inset
   • Cube and Cone Inset
   • Insertion of a sphere and a cube according to given orthogonal projections
   • Cube and ball with a common center
   • Insertion of a sphere and a cube, when the cutting planes of the cube do not pass through the center of the sphere

   Section 11. Complex tie-ins.

   • Oblique section of a hexagonal prism
   • Inset of two hexagonal prisms
   • Oblique section of the pyramid
   • Inset pyramid and hexagonal prism
   • Inclined section of the cylinder
   • Cylinder and hexagonal prism insert
   • Pyramid and Cylinder Insert
   • Inclined section of a cone
   • Cone and hexagon insert
   • Inset Cone and Pyramid
   • Inclined section of the ball
   • Hexagonal prism and ball inset

6. Composition of simple geometric bodies

   Section 12

Imagine that you have a sheet plane in front of you, absolutely not filled with any image elements. In other words, a clean slate. How is it perceived by us? Naturally, the plane of the sheet does not carry any information, it is perceived by us as meaningless, empty, not organized. But! One has only to put on it any spot, or a line, a stroke, and this plane begins to come to life. This means that our pictorial elements, any - spot, line, stroke - enter into a spatial connection with it, forming some kind of semantic link. It's easier to say - the plane and any element on it begin to interact, conduct a dialogue with each other, and begin to "tell" us about something.

So we get the most primitive composition, which is even difficult to call such, but this is it.

Further. You and I have one universal tool given to us by nature, these are our eyes, our vision. So, our eye sees and perceives the world around us in proportions and proportions. What does it mean? Our vision is able to feel harmony, and what is not harmonious. Our eye is able to find the difference between the discrepancy between the sizes of individual parts and the whole, or vice versa, to see a complete correspondence. Vision is able to perceive combinations of colors that do not irritate the eye, or vice versa - they can be completely disharmonious. I will say more, our natural instinct from the very beginning, whether you like it or not, strives for a sense of harmony in everything. And subconsciously obliges by feeling to arrange objects and their parts so that not a single part of the composition is alien or disproportionate. You only need learn to listen to your feelings and understand how to achieve harmony, that is, to compose a good composition. Any.

Go ahead. Let's take some shape, for example, a circle and try to place it in different places on the plane of the sheet. We can see, we can feel that in some cases it will take a more stable position, in others it will be unstable. The picture on the left: see how our vision works - it would seem that for a circle the most stable place is the coincidence of its center with the geometric center of the sheet plane (drawing diagonal lines from corner to corner of the sheet, we get the center of the sheet at the intersection of these lines). However, that's not all. Due to an optical illusion (the eye somewhat overestimates the upper and underestimates the lower part of the plane), the circle is perceived to be slightly shifted down. Do you feel how the circle is somehow attracted to the base of the square? The circle is not clearly felt either in the middle or below, and this results in a misunderstanding of its position, disharmony is felt. How to achieve harmony? In what position should the circle be in order for us to perceive it harmoniously in the plane of the sheet? Naturally, it needs to be moved up a little. See picture on the right. Feel the stable position of the circle? He takes exactly his place in the square. Thus, our simplest composition will be more harmonious, and therefore more correct.
Understanding: the plane and the object form a kind of conditional spatial relationship that we can correct.

Our plane initially has a certain conditional structure, even if there is not a single element on it yet. The plane can be divided into axes - horizontal, vertical, diagonal. We get the structure - look at the picture on the left. In the center of the plane (geometric center), all the forces of this hidden structure are in a state of equilibrium, and the central part of the plane is perceived actively, while the non-central parts are perceived passively. This is how we feel. Such a perception of conditional space, so our vision seeks to find peace. Understanding this is rather arbitrary, but true.

The eye seeks to see harmony in what it observes - it determines the center of our composition, which seems to it more active, everything else is more passive. This is what only the study of one clean sheet plane can give us. Moreover, this is what only the study of one square-shaped sheet plane can give us. But the principle is the same. This is what concerns the structure of the sheet plane.

But this would be - completely insufficient - to dismember the plane or to compose a composition from one element on the sheet. It's boring and no one needs it, neither you nor the viewer. There is always more, more varied and much more interesting.

Now let's try to compose another composition, but with several participants. See picture on the left. What do we see, what do we feel? And we feel that our composition is not harmonious, because its individual parts are not balanced. The objects are strongly shifted to the left, leaving an empty, unnecessary, unused space on the right in the composition. And the eye always strives to balance everything and achieve harmony. What do we need to do here? It is natural to balance the parts of the composition so that they harmoniously make up one large composition and are part of one whole. We need to make sure that our vision is comfortable.

Look at the picture on the right. Is that how you feel more harmonious? I think yes. What does it mean? In the visual perception of the elements and the plane of the sheet and in the analysis of their relationships: the influence of the internal forces of the structure of the plane on the behavior of the pictorial elements is felt. What does it mean? Our elements participating in the composition interact with conditional diagonal, vertical and horizontal axes of the plane. We have achieved a stable visual balance of all components of the composition relative to the geometric center. Even if not a single figure is in the middle here, they balance each other, forming together a center where vision expects it, and therefore it is more comfortable to look at this drawing than at the previous one.

And if you add a few more elements, then in this case they should be somewhat weaker in size or tone (or color) and in a certain place, so as not to visually knock down the geometric center of the composition, otherwise you will have to change the arrangement of the elements in order to achieve harmony. again, that is, harmonious perception. This is about the concept geometric center of the composition, which we have now introduced into the study.

You always need to strive for a stable visual balance of all components of the composition in its various directions - up and down, right and left, diagonally. And the composition should be harmonious from any position, in any turn - turn your composition upside down, or 90 degrees, it should also be pleasant to view, without any hint of discomfort. And it is easier to consider that the geometric center of the composition is located at the intersection of diagonal lines or a little higher, it is in this place that the eyes, after viewing the composition itself, whatever it may be, eventually stops and finds “rest”, calms down precisely in this place, even if there is no object on it. This is a conditional place. And a harmonious composition is one when it is no longer required to either introduce new elements or remove any of it. All acting "persons" participating in a holistic composition are subordinated to one general idea.

Fundamentals of composition - static balance and dynamic balance

The composition must be harmonious and its individual sections must be balanced. Let's go ahead and understand the following concepts:

Static balance And dynamic balance. These are ways to balance the composition, ways to create harmony. The methods are different, as they affect our vision in different ways. Let's say we have two compositions. We look at the picture on the left: what do we have? We have a composition in which a circle and stripes participate. This shows the static balance of the circle and the stripes. How is it achieved? Firstly, if you look at the hidden structure of the composition sheet, you can understand that it is built primarily along the horizontal and vertical axes. More than static. Secondly, static elements are used - a circle and stripes, the circle is balanced by stripes and does not fly out of the plane, and the conditional geometric visual center is located at the intersection of the diagonals, and the composition can also be viewed from all sides, without giving rise to disharmony.
Now look at the picture on the right. We see a dynamic balance of several semicircles and circles with highlighting of the dominant color. How is dynamic balance achieved? If you look at the hidden structure of the sheet, then in addition to the horizontal and vertical axes of the composition, you can clearly see the use of the diagonal axis. Its presence, use, gives out a red circle, which in this composition is a dominant, a dominant spot, the area to which the eye pays attention first of all. We introduce the concept composition center.

Composition Center. Dominant

Compositional center, dominant, as it is understood: in the composition on the left there is a certain compositional center, or dominant, which is the beginning of the composition and to which all other elements are subordinate. We can say more: all other elements enhance the significance of the dominant and "play along" with it.

We have the main protagonist - the dominant and secondary elements. Secondary elements can also be divided by importance. More significant - accents, and less significant - secondary elements. Their significance is determined only by the content of the story, the plot of the composition, and so all the elements of the composition are important and must be subordinated to each other, "twisted" into one whole.

The compositional center depends on:

1. Its size and the size of other elements.

2. Positions on the plane.

3. The shape of the item, which is different from the shape of other items.

4. The texture of the element, which is different from the texture of other elements.

5. Colors. By applying a contrasting (opposite color) to the color of secondary elements (bright color in a neutral environment, and vice versa, or a chromatic color among achromatic ones, or a warm color with a general cold range of secondary elements, or a dark color among light ones ...

6. Developments. The main element, the dominant, is more developed than the secondary ones.

Compositional and geometric centers of the composition

Let's continue... This dominant, a conspicuous active element, is located at least not in the center of the sheet, but its weight and activity is supported by many secondary elements located diagonally further, opposite this dominant. If we draw another diagonal, then on both sides of it the "weight" of the composition will be conditionally the same. The composition is balanced both vertically and horizontally, and diagonally. Elements are used that differ in activity from the previous composition - they are more actively located and more active in shape. Although they are elementary, on a conditional grid and the structure of the composition is simple, but besides this, the composition has a dynamic balance, as it leads the viewer along a certain trajectory.

Note: the composition on the right is not at all created with the help of paints on paper, but I really liked it, and in essence, by and large, this does not change. This is also a composition. We continue...

You say, where is the geometric center of the composition? I answer: the geometric center of the composition is where it should be. Initially, it may seem that it is located where the dominant is located. But the dominant is rather an accent, the plot of the composition, that is, the compositional center. However, we do not forget that there is also a hidden structure of the composition, the geometric center of which is located, as in the composition, on the left. The first glance the viewer turns to composition center, dominant, but after considering it, and further after reviewing the entire composition, your eye nevertheless stopped at geometric center, right? Check it out for yourself, follow your feelings. He found "calm" there, the most comfortable place. From time to time, he again examines the composition, paying attention to the dominant, but then again calms down in the geometric center. That is why such a balance is called dynamic, it introduces movement - visual attention is not scattered evenly throughout the composition, but follows a certain course that the artist created. Your eye will find movement in the compositional center, but will not be able to rest there. And it is precisely with the successful construction of the composition, namely, the correct use of the geometric center, that it is harmoniously visible from any turn. And the compositional center - from it the composition begins to conduct a dialogue with the viewer, this is the section of the composition that allows you to control the viewer's attention and direct him in the right direction.

Static composition and dynamic composition

Here we come to the following terms that we need to consider with you. These terms differ in meaning from static equilibrium and dynamic, meaning: you can balance any composition by nature in different ways. So... What is static composition? This is the state of the composition, in which the balanced elements as a whole give the impression of its steady immobility.

1. A composition based on which one can visually clearly observe the use of a hidden sheet structure for building. In a static composition, there is a conditional order of construction.

2. Items for a static composition are chosen closer in shape, weight, texture.

3. There is a certain softness in the tonal solution.

4. The color scheme is based on the nuances - close colors.

dynamic composition, respectively, can be built in the opposite way. This is the state of the composition, in which elements balanced among themselves give the impression of its movement and internal dynamics.

I repeat: but, no matter what the composition is, you should always strive for a stable visual balance of all components of the composition in its various directions - up and down, right and left, diagonally.

And the composition should be harmonious from any position, in any turn - turn your composition upside down, or 90 degrees, with general masses and color / tonal spots, it should also be pleasantly viewed, without any hint of discomfort.

Composition basics - exercises

Additional exercises can be done with gouache, as an application, colored pencils and other materials with which your soul wishes to work. You can do from the exercise that you find easiest or most interesting to the most difficult.

1. Balance on a square plane a few simple-shaped elements. Follow the same principle to compose a simple landscape motif.

2. From simple stylized motifs of natural forms, sketch a closed composition (not going beyond the picture), enclosed in a sheet format. Closed composition - the action only spins in the space that you use, full disclosure. In the compositions there is a move in a circle.

3. Organize several triangles and circles according to the principle of dynamic composition (asymmetric arrangement of figures on a plane), varying the color, lightness of the figures and the background.

4. Applying the principle of dividing the elements of the composition, balance several figures of various configurations in a rectangular format. According to this principle, perform a simple composition on an arbitrary topic.

5. From simple stylized motifs of natural forms, using the principle of division of elements, sketch an open composition. An open composition is a composition that can be developed further - in breadth and height.

6. Divide the plane of the sheet into a conditional structure according to sensation and compose a composition based on it: a black and white solution.

Expressive means of composition

The expressive means of composition in decorative and applied arts include line, dot, spot, color, texture ... These means are at the same time elements of the composition. Based on the tasks and goals set and taking into account the possibilities of a certain material, the artist uses the necessary means of expression.

The line is the main shaping element that most accurately conveys the nature of the outlines of any shape. The line performs a dual function, being both a means of representation and a means of expression.

There are three types of lines:

Straight: vertical, horizontal, oblique
Curves: circles, arcs
Curves with variable radius of curvature: parabolas, hyperbolas and their segments

The expressiveness of the associative perception of lines depends on the nature of their outline, tonal and color sound.

Lines transmit:

Vertical - striving up

Inclined - instability, fall

Polylines - variable movement

Wavy - uniform smooth movement, swing

Spiral - slow rotational movement, accelerating towards the center

Round - closed movement

Oval - the aspiration of the form to tricks.

Thick lines protrude forward, while thin lines recede into the depths of the plane. Performing sketches of the composition, they create combinations of certain lines, spots, stimulating the manifestation of its plastic and color properties.

Dot - as one of the expressive means is widely used in many works of decorative and applied art. It helps to reveal the texture of the image, the transfer of conditional space.

The spot is used for the rhythmic organization of non-pictorial ornamental motifs. Spots of various configurations, organized into a certain composition, acquire artistic expressiveness and, emotionally influencing the viewer, evoke an appropriate mood in him.

Artists in their works often use as pictorial elements geometric figures: circle, square, triangle. Compositions from them can symbolize the movement of time, the rhythms of human life.

The rhythmic organization of ornamental motifs from non-pictorial elements (spots of abstract configuration, silhouettes of geometric figures), combined into compositional structures, becomes a means of artistic expression.

More composition tools

1. Subordination: a person in the first second begins to perceive the composition as a silhouette image against a certain background: the area of ​​​​the silhouette, the pattern of the contour line, the degree of compactness, tone, color, surface texture, and so on.

2. Symmetry and asymmetry: An effective means of achieving balance in the composition is symmetry - the regular arrangement of form elements relative to a plane, axis or point.

Asymmetry - the harmony of an asymmetric composition is more difficult to achieve, it is based on the use of a combination of various patterns of composition construction. However, compositions built on the principles of asymmetry are in no way inferior in aesthetic value to symmetrical ones. When working on its spatial structure, the artist combines symmetry and asymmetry, focusing on the dominant patterns (symmetry or asymmetry), uses asymmetry to highlight the main elements of the composition.

3. Proportions are the quantitative relationship of the individual parts of the composition with each other and with the whole, subject to a certain law. A composition organized by proportions is perceived much easier and faster than a visually unorganized mass. Proportions are subdivided into modular (arithmetic), when the relationship of parts and the whole is formed by repeating a single given size, and geometric, which are built on the equality of relations and manifest themselves in the geometric similarity of divisions of forms.

4. Nuance and contrast: nuance relationships - slight, weakly expressed differences in objects in size, pattern, texture, color, location in sheet space. As a means of composition, nuance can manifest itself in proportions, rhythm, color and tonal relationships, and plasticity.
Contrast: it consists in a pronounced opposition of the elements of the composition. The contrast makes the picture noticeable, distinguishes it from others. There are contrasts: directions of movement, size, conditional mass, shape, color, light, structure or texture. With a contrast of direction, the horizontal is opposed to the vertical, the slope from left to right is the slope from right to left. With a contrast of size, high is opposed to low, long to short, wide to narrow. With mass contrast, a visually heavy element of the composition is located close to the light one. With the contrast of the forms, "hard", angular forms are contrasted with "soft", rounded ones. With the contrast of light, light areas of the surface are contrasted with dark ones.

6. Rhythm is a certain ordering of single-character elements of a composition, created by repeating elements, their alternation, increase or decrease. The simplest pattern on the basis of which the composition is built is the repetition of elements and intervals between them, called modular rhythm or metrical repetition.

The metric series can be simple, consisting of one element of the form, repeating at regular intervals in space (a), or complex.

A complex metric series consists of groups of identical elements (c) or may include individual elements that differ from the main elements of the series in shape, size or color (b).

The combination of several metric series, combined into one composition, greatly enlivens the form. In general, the metric order expresses static, relative peace.

A certain direction can be given to the composition by creating a dynamic rhythm, which is based on the laws of geometric proportions by increasing (decreasing) the size of similar elements or on a regular change in the intervals between the same elements of a series (a - e). A more active rhythm is obtained by simultaneously changing the size of the elements and the intervals between them (e).
With an increase in the degree of rhythm, the compositional dynamics of the form intensifies in the direction of thickening the rhythmic series.

To create a rhythmic series, you can use a regular change in color intensity. Under conditions of metric repetition, the illusion of rhythm is created as a result of a gradual decrease or increase in the intensity of the color of an element. When the size of the elements changes, the color can enhance the rhythm, if the growth of its intensity occurs simultaneously with the increase in the size of the elements, or visually balance the rhythm, if the color intensity decreases with the increase in the size of the elements. The organizing role of rhythm in a composition depends on the relative size of the elements that make up the rhythmic series, and on their number (to create a series, you need to have at least four or five elements).

Warm bright colors are used to bring out the active elements of the composition. Cool colors visually remove them. Color actively affects the human psyche, is able to cause a variety of feelings and experiences: to please and upset, invigorate and oppress. Color acts on a person regardless of his will, since we receive up to 90% of information through vision. Experimental studies show that the least eye fatigue occurs when observing a color belonging to the middle part of the spectrum (yellow-green region). The colors of this region give a more stable color perception, and the extreme parts of the spectrum (violet and red) cause the greatest eye fatigue and irritation of the nervous system.

According to the degree of impact on the human psyche, all colors are divided into active and passive. Active colors (red, yellow, orange) have an exciting effect, accelerate the vital processes of the body. Passive colors (blue, purple) have the opposite effect: they soothe, cause relaxation, and reduce efficiency. Maximum performance is observed when the green color is active.

The natural human need is to color harmony = subordination of all the colors of the composition to a single compositional idea. The whole variety of color harmonies can be divided into nuance combinations based on rapprochement (identity of tonality, lightness or saturation), and contrast combinations based on opposition.

There are seven variants of color harmony based on similarity:

1. the same saturation with different lightness and color tone;

2. the same lightness with different saturation and color tone;

3. the same color tone with different saturation and lightness;

4. the same lightness and saturation with a different color tone;

5. the same color tone and lightness with different saturation;

6. the same color tone and saturation at different lightness;

7. the same color tone, lightness and saturation of all elements of the composition.

With changing tonality, harmony can be achieved by combining two main and intermediate colors (for example, yellow, green and mustard) or by contrasting tonality. Contrasting combinations are made up of complementary colors (for example, red with cool green, blue with orange, purple with yellow ...) or from triads that include colors equally spaced on the color wheel (for example, yellow, purple, green-blue, red, green and blue-violet). Color harmony is formed not only by combinations of chromatic colors, but also by saturated chromatic with achromatic (blue and gray, brown and gray, and so on).

More exercises...

1. Draw a natural motif with a line and a spot

2. Perform a thematic composition using graphic means of expression - line, spot, dot

3. From objects freely placed in space, make a balanced still life composition, without resorting to perspective reductions of objects and spatial plans

8. Dismember the plane of a circle inscribed in a square (black and white solution), and make a rappoport composition from the dissected circles. You can do the same with other geometric shapes.

Artist and composition

Now we will not talk about how to compose a composition, but rather about the forces that impel us to create it. These forces are much stronger and more efficient, than you would thoroughly and spending many hours studying the technical aspects of its creation, but sparingly investing even a drop of your soul into the process. It is a strong motivation, an impelling force. You are an artist, regardless of what knowledge and skills you have and at what stage of development you are. You are an ARTIST, a creative person. Before creating a composition, any, you hatch an idea, think, feel emotions, observe its creation even within yourself. Some of us dream about it, some of us day by day are under the influence of this magical process, sometimes it just prevents us from living like all ordinary people, because we create it from the very beginning still inside ourselves. Any composition, any creation is a sublimation of those sensations and experiences that accompany the artist and grow in him, in his mind. And then, one day, at one moment, you understand that here it is, creation, it can now be born into the world, and you finally understand what you must do. And the composition is born. Now nothing can stop your creative process. But by and large, the composition is the mood of the artist, thoughts, the very idea that he splashes onto the lifeless plane of a sheet or canvas, forcing them to LIVE their own, original life, unlike everyone else. And even if the artist is not very strong in studying the laws of drawing up a composition on a sheet, the creative power of creation is many times stronger, everything else will come with time. Don't be afraid to express your thoughts and feelings. Daring and simple, mysterious and evil, joyful and fantastic.... no one will tell about your thoughts better than you.