The long historical development of the Eastern Slavs as a settled, agricultural people, its close contacts with other peoples and states of that time led to the high development of the material and spiritual culture of the ancient Russian state. In its character and direction, the culture of ancient Rus' was feudal, since the “dominating material force of society” was the class of feudal landowners. But the culture of the ruling class of the Old Russian state did not exhaust and could not exhaust the fullness of the richness of the cultural heritage of ancient Rus', since, in addition to the ruling class, the masses created their own, their own culture, nourished by centuries-old traditions of folk poetry, painting, architecture, music, dance.
The most complete and multifaceted folk art of ancient Rus' found its expression in oral poetry - folklore. Wise proverbs, ritual songs, tales, heroic epics from generation to generation carried the philosophy of the ancient Russian man, brought him up, were a hundred companions in family life and on the battlefield.
Folk song has always accompanied religious ceremonies, it is not for nothing that Christian literature falls upon the songs and dances that accompanied the "Nogai" customs, the celebration of the "nasty holiday of Kolyada", the "mermaid of the game", the singing of buffoons who accompanied themselves on the harp. It is difficult for us to restore a complete picture of calendar ritual poetry from fragmentary data; in all likelihood, it was very close to its later forms, well studied by ethnographers.
Each festival in ancient Rus' was accompanied by a song, turning into a dance that dramatizes the ceremony, bringing it closer to a theatrical performance. Such are wedding "fun", funeral rites and lamentations. The wedding ceremony in ancient Rus' was a bizarre picture of a combination of pagan beliefs and customs (kidnapping, buying and selling, conspiracies and worldly dances) with Christian prayers. At funerals, funeral lamentation for the deceased sometimes reached very expressive poetic forms (Yaroslavna's lament).
Proverbs and sayings, epics, fairy tales, riddles played a huge role in the everyday life of the ancient Russian people. These forms of folklore grew up independently, without connection with rituals, but they were no less important in shaping the political and ethical norms of people's behavior. Fairy tales were intertwined with legends and epics, legends. These forms of folk art preceded written history. Subsequently, the chroniclers widely used the legendary material of the oral creativity of the people, including it in the annals as indisputable evidence, but the people created their own, unwritten story about their history. The so-called epics of the “Kyiv cycle” largely idealized the historical past, going back to those times in the life of the Slavs, when the personal valor of a representative of the people allows him to advance into heroes. The heroes of the ancient epic - Mikula Selyaninovich, Ilya Muromets - are representatives of the working people, this is a peasant or an artisan-city dweller, who became famous not only in military affairs, but also in labor. The heroes of the epic epic - Dobrynya, Kazarin, Nikita Kozhemyaka and Others - courageous heroes, always ready to defend the Russian land, their size in deep patriotism, breadth of views, integrity of characters.
A new period in the development of the culture of ancient Rus' begins with the spread of writing and literacy in Russian society. The issue of the appearance of writing among the Eastern Slavs is being decided on the basis of a number of fragmentary data indicating the presence of Slavic writing long before the creation of the alphabet by Cyril and Methodius and the adoption of Christianity by ancient Russia. It is indisputable that the formation of the ancient Russian state in the 9th century. was supposed to stimulate the need for writing. But at our disposal there are testimonies of foreign authors confirming the presence of special graphic signs - “devils and cuts”, with the help of which the Eastern Slavs wrote as early as the 8th century. So, the Chernorizet Khrabr says: “Before, the Slavs did not have books, but with features and cuts to chityahu and bastard.” This remark applies to both southern and eastern Slavs. And, in all likelihood, features and cuts were a more differentiated variety of writing signs known to the Slavs from ancient times. "The Life of Cyril" conveys the legend that Cyril, while in Korsun, saw a Russian gospel and a psalter written by "Russian letters". Although hagiographic literature cannot be classified as sufficiently reliable sources, in this case we have no reason to doubt the veracity of the message of the Life of Cyril. Moreover, archaeological finds in Gnezdovo near Smolensk and in Novgorod are material evidence that the Eastern Slavs had the beginning of the 10th century. writing. In 1949, archaeologist D. L. Avsudin, during excavations of one of the Gnezdovsky mounds, found an earthenware vessel dating from the first quarter of the 10th century. On this vessel was the inscription "pea" or "gorusina". This inscription was made in graphics close to the South Slavic (Bulgarian) writing of the 10th century. Since 1951, archaeologists have found written monuments on birch bark. The largest number of them was found in Novgorod, but similar, although single, finds of birch bark with inscriptions take place during excavations in Smolensk and Chernigov.
Birch bark documents are interesting because they represent the everyday correspondence of urban residents. The content of the letters allows us to conclude that among the townspeople, literacy was quite widespread and was not only the property of the feudal elite and circles of the clergy, but also of the ordinary trade and craft population. It is indisputable that before literacy, writing and the habit of using it in everyday life became the need of urban residents, a significant period of time, estimated at more than one decade, had to pass. This means that the creation of Russian writing is attributed to the 9th century. or earlier, and the activities of Cyril and Methodius in this field in the X century. should have limited itself only to some reformation of the already existing Russian writing system and, above all, to the creation of an alphabet. Although we will not say this with full confidence.
Written literature in Rus' was first translated; penetrating from Byzantium, Bulgaria and Moravia, it found well-prepared soil in Rus' and spread rapidly, especially at the end of the 10th century. and at the beginning of the 11th century. The chronicler reports that Prince Vladimir founded schools where the children of the "deliberate child" studied. Under Yaroslav the Wise, a great lover and collector of books, a special book depository was created at St. Sophia Cathedral. The book in Rus' was loved, cherished, its first was saved from fires, as the greatest treasure, bequeathed to the monastery "remember the soul", and it is not for nothing that the compiler of the initial chronicle enthusiastically speaks of books as rivers "watering the universe."
There are few authentic books and manuscripts of the 11th-12th centuries that survived the Tatar-Mongol pogroms and terrible fires of subsequent centuries, but even the little that has survived to this day from the rich book heritage of the ancient Russian state testifies to the high art and love for the book of the people of that time.
In 1700, in the Armory, an apra-oblique gospel was discovered, copied by the deacon Grigory for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir (Joseph) (1056 - 1057). Previously, the book was in the Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral. By the name of Ostromir, it is customary to call it the "Ostromir Gospel". In 1806, the book was found in the rooms of Catherine II and transferred to the St. Petersburg Public Library for safekeeping.
The Ostromir Gospel is written on very good parchment in two columns, on 294 sheets. The text is given by a large Charter, the book contains images of the first evangelists John, Luke, Mark, as well as a blank sheet on which Matthew should be depicted, but the sheet remained empty. The book is decorated with handwritten old Byzantine ornaments, there are richly painted gold initials. The Ostromir Gospel was written from the Bulgarian original with a large number of Russianisms in the Slavonic text. The gospel is richly bound with a gold clasp.
Another ancient monument of writing is the so-called "Izbornik of 1073", or "Izbornik of Svyatoslav". This is a kind of theological encyclopedia. It was rewritten and translated from Greek for Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich by Deacon John. In terms of its content, the Izbornik, along with theological discourses, also has special treatises on figures, metaphors, allegories (Cheroboek), and months among various peoples (Eusebius).
Written "Izbornik" on parchment on 266 sheets, in two columns. The charter is smaller than in the Ostromir Gospel. Four sheets are filled with colorful illustrations. One depicts Prince Svyatoslav with his family. In the astronomy section, images of the signs of the zodiac are given.
From the written monuments of the XI century. still preserved "Izbornik 1076" and the "Arkhangelsk Gospel" of 1092 and three Novgorod menei of the 90s of the XII century.
12th century brought to our days only eight authentic monuments of writing: four gospels, two festive stichera and two main monuments. These documents amaze with the thoroughness of the finish of the book, as well as the richness of the design.
Ancient Russian literature, known from later copies of the 12th and 15th centuries, was mostly composed of dogmatic literature, so necessary for church rituals.
Among this ecclesiastical literature, hagiographic literature occupies a special place. Although it is close in content to the motives of dogmatic works, it already contains all sorts of teachings and instructions of a purely secular content, a description of the facts that really took place in the life of one or another canonized leader of the Orthodox Church. But the circle of reading and enlightenment of the circles of Russian society was limited not only to church books. Among translated books, in addition to church books, the works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Democritus, Pythagoras and other ancient authors were also copied. The circle of historical reading was represented by the history of Alexander the Great - "Alexandria", written in the form of a historical story, "Chronographs" - reviews of world history by George Amortol and John Malla, "Cosmography" by Kozma Indikoilov, "Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius and a number of other historical works.
Acquaintance with Greek historical literature greatly contributed to the compilation of original historical works in the ancient Russian state. Original historical writings took shape under the impression of the huge political and cultural successes of ancient Rus'.
Naturally, the main theme of such works is the independence of the ancient Russian state, the laudatory hymn to its princes, the identification of the world-historical role of the Slavs among other peoples of the world.
Chronicles have become a form of historical writing. A chronicle is a work of literature that has a very complex compositional appearance, storylines, and a peculiar architectonics. The compilers of the chronicles were in no way like Pushkin's Pimen, they did not work in the quiet of monastic cells, but in the midst of political passions, they did not write impartially, but carried out a certain political and class concept. The late form of writing and the ethical rigor of the language served only as a traditional form. The oldest chronicle was compiled in 1034 in Kyiv. The Kiev chronicler in a concise, clear and intelligible form tells about the history of the Slavs and extols the Kyiv princes Oleg, Svyatoslav, Vladimir, Yaroslav, who, according to him, glorified the ancient Russian state. Subsequently, the Kiev Caves Monastery became the center of chronicle writing in Kyiv. At the same time, in Novgorod, another largest city of ancient Rus', chronicle writing was also born, a characteristic feature of which was the interest of the chronicle in the events of the Novgorod land.
At the end of the XI and the beginning of the XII century. The Kievan and Novgorod Chronicles were edited first in the Caves and then in the Vydubitsky monasteries, supplemented with information gleaned from the Byzantine chronicles (the material of Georgy Amortol's Chronograph was especially widely used). This chronicle is known in historical science as the Primary Chronicle, or The Tale of Bygone Years. "The Tale" sets itself the task of telling about "where the Russian land came from, who in Kyiv is more important than the princes, and where the Russian land came from." Moreover, the history of the Kievan state is considered by chroniclers as part of world history, the chronicle is imbued with an ardent sense of patriotism, the idea of the closeness of all Slavic peoples.
The Tale of Bygone Years simultaneously played the role of a historical work and a work intended for fiction reading. In medieval historical literature, The Tale of Bygone Years has practically no similar works that are equal in the artistic power of influence on the reader and the clarity of the historical and political concept.
In addition to writing chronicles, individual educated people of ancient Rus' came out with teachings and instructions, glorifying the Russian state, the valor of its princes, the greatness of its people. Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace" is such a work.
The most outstanding - a monument of ancient Russian literature is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The plot of this deeply patriotic work, permeated with folk poetry, was the unsuccessful campaign of 1185 - 1187 by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor and his brother Vsevolod (descendants of Oleg of Chernigov) against the Polovtsy.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is a heroic story about the courageous struggle of the Russians against the Polovtsians. This incomparable pearl of ancient Russian poetry was born in the heart of an unknown folk poet, excited by the disasters of his homeland and imbued with deep love for her. The author of the Lay condemns the princely civil strife, undermining the power of the state, draining the strength of the people. Grieving for the failure of Igor, and trying to arouse sympathy for the sad fate of the inhabitants of the Seversk principalities, the singer of the Lay makes a fiery appeal to rally all Russian forces for the sake of the national interests of protecting the motherland; an unknown bard calls to repay the Polovtsy "for the insult of this time, for the Russian land, for Igor's brine."
In this call for the defense of the motherland and in ardent love for the Russian land, expressed with brilliant artistic skill, the secret of the irresistible charm that still captivates this monument of ancient Russian creativity is hidden.
No other artistic, in the full sense of the word, works of the Kiev period have come down to us, although they undoubtedly existed, as evidenced by the numerous hints of the author of the Lay (hints to Bayan’s work) and the general direction of development of all written literature of ancient Rus'.
Material culture, handicraft production, architecture, and painting reached a high level in ancient Rus'. From the end of the X century. in Kyiv and other cities of Rus', extensive construction of stone and wooden churches, cathedrals, princely and boyar palaces, fortifications began, which most fully reflected the high skill and artistic taste of ancient Russian builders. At the end of the X century. Kyiv was decorated with the magnificent Church of the Tithes. Under Yaroslav, the famous St. Sophia Church and the churches of Irina and George were erected in the ancient Russian capital. Yaroslav's brother Mstislav erected the Cathedral of the Savior in Chernigov and a similar cathedral in Tmutarakan. In the middle of the XI century. their "Sophias" are being erected in Novgorod and Polotsk, St. George's Church is being built in the Novgorod-Yurievsky Monastery, the Assumption Cathedral - in Vladimir, the Transfiguration Cathedral - in Chernigov (XII century) and a number of other churches and cathedrals.
Little of what was created by the architects of ancient Rus' has survived to our time. A large number of architectural monuments of ancient Rus' perished already in the 12th century, during the Tatar-Mongol invasion. But even those few buildings that have come down to us testify to the maturity and originality of the culture of ancient Rus'.
The most remarkable monument of ancient Russian architecture is the St. Sophia Church in Kyiv. Yaroslav the Wise, who founded Kyiv Sophia, built it as a rival to the famous Justinian Cathedral in Constantinople. For more than 900 years of its existence, St. Sophia Cathedral was destroyed and rebuilt again, distorted by restructuring, so that its external appearance now bears little resemblance to the former. But the interior decoration and the preserved ancient structure of Sophia allow us to get an idea of the grandeur and magnificence of this temple. In its plan, Sofia is a quadrangle, almost a square, the whole building is crowned with a large dome on a drum, the dome rises above the middle part of the cathedral, and twelve domes rise above its western and eastern parts. The interiors are lavishly decorated with mosaics and frescoes, which amaze with their skillful composition and brilliance. Remarkable is the huge image of the Mother of God, made in mosaic on a golden background in the upper part of the hemispherical vault of the main altar. The figure of the Mother of God stands on a quadrangular pedestal, which is decorated with pearls and precious stones. Along with religious themes, there are images with everyday subjects. One fresco, for example, depicts the family of Yaroslav the Wise, which, with lighted candles in their hands, walks in a solemn procession. Other frescoes depict princely hunting, musicians and buffoons.
Gorgeous in their external forms and interior decoration are Novgorod Sofia, St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, Spassky Chernigov Cathedral, the church of the Mikhailovsky Golden-Domed Monastery, the church of the St. Cyril Monastery and especially the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on Perl near Bogolyubovo.
Of the civil buildings, only the remains of the palace chambers in Bogolyubovo, the Golden Gate - in Vladimir have survived. The stone fortress is in Ladoga, the foundations of the princely stone palace are in Kyiv. In the Galicia-Volyn principality, an outstanding architectural monument was the Church of John Chrysostom in the city of Kholm, a detailed description of which was preserved in the Galician Chronicle.
The magnificent stone churches of Kyiv, Novgorod, Suzdal were built, as a rule, in princely residences and large monasteries. But along with these temples there were wooden churches in villages and towns. Not a single wooden church of antiquity has come down to us, and we judge them by the surviving drawings on the icons and by later examples. The ancient architects who built from wood were not constrained by the duties of imitating Byzantine models and could freely use the methods and principles of construction developed by the people when building dwellings, boyar choirs, princely palaces. - or a hipped roof with a cross or a small cupola at the top. Sometimes on one, middle log house, another, smaller one was placed, giving majesty to the structure, roofed wings (porch), food trucks, etc. were attached to the church.
If the stone cathedral was decorated with frescoes and mosaics, stucco pediments and magnificent cast doors, then wooden churches were decorated with wood crafts, well known to Russian craftsmen carpenters. The churches were covered with a scaly roof, under it various gaps, pediments in the form of kokoshniks, figured lattices - all this was a product of folk ingenuity.
The departure of the architect from the Byzantine models of temple construction inevitably led him to the folk building tradition of wood, and it is no coincidence that in later times the stone construction of churches began to reproduce their wooden model forms.
The fine arts of ancient Rus' were represented by fresco and mosaic painting, iconography and book miniatures. Old Russian painters mastered the technique of fresco painting to perfection, that is, painting walls with water-based paints on fresh, damp plaster. No less perfect was the mosaic technique. Old Russian masters laid out from multi-colored glass (smalt) huge but in size and very perfect in execution images.
Fresco and mosaic painting was an integral part of temple architecture. For a long time, this branch of art in Rus' had an almost exclusive purpose to serve the church and remained strictly subordinate to its charters, not daring to deviate from the Greek canons. The images of saints, biblical scenes produced by painters were in the eyes of the people not paintings, but rather sacred objects, consecrated - by legends and tradition.
Ancient Rus' was also known for such a type of painting as icon painting. The names of our oldest icon painters remained unknown, with the exception of one - the Kiev-Pechersk monk Alimpiy.
With the spread of the book in Rus', the appearance of a book miniature, which is a bright colorful illustration, was associated. The most ancient highly artistic miniatures are contained in the Ostromir Gospel and Svyatoslav's Izbornik.
Handicraft production, and in particular, artistic craft, reached its peak in the Old Russian state. Jewelry by Russian craftsmen, decorated with enamel, precious stones, pearls, the finest fabric, etc., was famous in the states of Eastern and Western Europe.
Old Russian state in the XI - XII centuries. in terms of its cultural level, it was in no way inferior to other advanced states of that time. The ancient Russian state was connected by political and dynastic interests with large European states and was a mighty power. In Europe, with a country called Russia, all states were considered.
Only the Tatar-Mongolian invasion slowed down its development, including cultural development, and for a long time determined the lag behind other countries in the future.
Invasions of invaders and natural disasters have led to the destruction of many precious works of architecture, painting, applied art and literature. The names of ordinary people who created for the secular and spiritual feudal lords "worn out by various cunning" masterpieces of wall painting and stone carving, the finest silver chasing and monumental architecture have almost not been preserved. Only a few of the Russian masters are mentioned in the chronicles that have come down to us.
The Russian language and culture were enriched as a result of interaction with the culture of a number of peoples. This interaction is reflected in Suzdal architecture(which traces links with Georgian and Armenian architecture ), in Novgorod painting(in which there are common motifs with Armenian fresco painting), in folklore and literature, where there are numerous references to other peoples, their culture and way of life.
Despite the dominance of theology, with the growth of experience accumulated in production and the development of enlightenment (although it affected only an insignificant part of society), the rudiments of knowledge in the field of studying nature and history. noticeably literacy grew among the feudal nobility, nobility and townspeople. The development of historical knowledge was vividly reflected in chronicles. In all major cities, from Novgorod to Kholm, from Novgorod to Ryazan, historical chronicles were kept and chronicles were compiled (holistic historical works, which were the processing of chronicles). Until our time, only the annals of Vladimir-Suzdal, Volyn and Novgorod have been partially preserved.
In Rus', as well as in other countries, there was a close connection between the development crafts, applied folk art and architecture. Since religious ideology dominated society, the best examples of architecture were associated with the church, which was also a rich customer. With the transition to feudal fragmentation, architectural monuments became characterized by reduced sizes of temples, the simplification of their interior decoration, and the gradual replacement of mosaics by frescoes. The "cubic" temple with a heavy dome became the dominant type of church architecture. These changes were also associated with the rapid spread of stone architecture.
IN fine arts stylistic diversity increased, and local folk art often came into conflict with the dominant church ideology.
Applied arts and sculpture, less than painting associated with church canons, often reflected folk games and dances, fight scenes, etc. in their plots. The art of minting coins, seals and stone carving (decoration of cathedrals, stone icons, etc.) reached a significant rise. The motifs of folk art are richly reflected in embroidery, as well as in book decorations - headpieces, endings, capital letters, etc., where, along with floral and color ornaments, scenes of folk life and work are often presented.
In monuments literature period of feudal fragmentation carried out the ideas of the ruling class. In her best creations, calling on the princes for peace and the defense of the independence of the motherland, the aspirations of the broad masses of the people are also reflected.
Church preaching literature, the ideological orientation of which was to call the population to obedience to the authorities of heaven and earth, is represented by the works of Kliment Smolyatich, Kirill Turovsky and others.
As part of the chronicles, there are stories about princes (about Andrei Bogolyubsky, Izyaslav Mstislavich Volynsky, etc.), about major historical events - about the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, etc. There are many details in these stories that testify to the growing interest in the human person, to the actions and experiences of individuals.
The greatest monument of Russian culture of the XII century. is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
The development of Russian culture in the XII-XIII centuries. took place in close connection with the further development of the Russian nationality.
In the Russian land and during the period of feudal fragmentation, a common language was preserved (in the presence of various dialects) and common civil and church legal norms were in force. The people were alien to feudal strife and kept the memory of the former unity of Rus'. This was reflected primarily in epics.
The culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation
Introduction
I chose the topic “Culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation”, because, despite the widespread opinion about the backwardness of Rus' from other countries at that time, about its cultural underdevelopment, I want to prove the opposite. Rus' of the period of the XI-XIII centuries. experienced a great surge of culture, she spiritually ascended. By the beginning of the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, Rus' was spiritually spiritually rich, by this time it had already managed to produce many monuments of architecture, literature, and painting. At the end of the XIII century, Rus' developed very strongly. In most cities, architecture, chronicle, and iconography were mastered and developed. I also want to show that Rus' took a lot from Byzantium (religion, annals, sacred church books, iconography, the construction of churches and temples), but at the same time, she presented it in her own way, in everything that the people of Rus' created, her spirit was felt, mood, feelings. The Russian people were able to bring into everything that they created a piece of themselves, so unique and dear to us. I also want to show that the culture of the people is part of its history. This is everything that was created by the mind, talent, needlework of the people and that is still passed down from generation to generation, everything that expresses its spiritual essence. A look at the world, nature, human relations and the relationship between man and God.
Russian medieval culture of the X-XIII centuries. deserved high praise, both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed the way to Russian cities, admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni). Western chroniclers called Kyiv an adornment of the East and a rival of Constantinople (Adam Beremensky). The learned presbyter, Theophilus of Paderborn, in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century, admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and black on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one or another type of art, Theophilus put Rus' in a place of honor - only Greece is ahead of it, and behind Italy, Arabia, Germany and other countries. Samples of Russian products were admired by the nobles of the German emperors both when they were in Kyiv as ambassadors, and when the Kiev prince, who had fled from the insurgent people, showed Russian things to the emperor.
The culture of that time helps us understand the formation of the state, the worldview of people, their minds and feelings, and, most importantly, the culture of that time is still present in our lives, and interest in it does not fade at all, this is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", this cathedrals and temples built at that time, and still living, these are frescoes and icons painted by icon painters of pre-Mongol Russia, these are fairy tales, epics, proverbs, sayings that are still relevant today with their teachings and morality, this is a religion that still adheres to most of the Russian people. All this has passed through the veil of time and continues to exist, amaze and live its own life even in our time.
I believe that the Russian people have made an invaluable contribution to world culture, having created hundreds of years ago works of culture that are still relevant today. So, in this test, I want to show all the richness of the Russian soul, which formed the basis of the cultural monuments of that time.
General conditions for the development of culture
Already in the 11th century in the life of the ancient Russian principalities, one trend more and more stands out: the intensification of princely strife and civil strife, which hindered the formation of Rus' and threatened its very independence. This was facilitated by the growth of patrimonial land ownership and the development of cities. The cities became strong enough not to submit to Kyiv, which could no longer provide them with effective protection if necessary; local princes, who received the support of votchinniki and townspeople, were better able to cope with this task. All this, along with the desire of the princes for independence, led to the separation of the principalities from Kyiv. The struggle for Kyiv itself, however, did not stop, for it remained the most prestigious table and the largest city of Rus'.
Fragmentation, caused by socio-political reasons, was, however, an inevitable stage in the history of Rus' - almost all countries of medieval Europe passed through it.
Civil strife between the principalities share a rather big gap in the defense of the borders of Rus', in addition, many princes did not hesitate to call for help in the fight against the neighboring principalities of the Polovtsians. Those, in turn, strongly dispersed, and the princes soon lost all control over them, and the Russian land groaned under the onslaught of raids from the outskirts. The outlying principalities, cities and villages were burned, robbed, many were taken prisoner, Poland and Hungary also actively intervened in Russian affairs.
The largest lands of the era of feudal fragmentation, which played a leading role in the fate of Rus', were the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod feudal republic.
Vladimir-Suzdal land: Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. The oldest inhabitants of this wooded region were Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes. A favorable impact on the economic growth of this Zalessky land was exerted by the increased from the 11th century. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Rus' under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Rus' was agriculture, which was carried out on the fertile outcrops of black soil among the forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade associated with the Volga route played a significant role in the life of the region. The most ancient cities of the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Mur, from the middle of the XII century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.
The beginning of the establishment of the independence of the Rostov-Suzdal land took place during the reign of one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, who made Suzdal his capital. Pursuing an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on the local boyars, urban and church circles. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, a number of new cities were founded, including Moscow for the first time under 1147. Owning the Rostov-Suzdal land, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to seize the Kiev throne in his hands. At the end of his life, he managed to capture Kiev, but he did not enjoy the support of the local population. Yuri died under strange circumstances in 1157 (most likely he was poisoned by the Kyiv boyars). The eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) was born and raised in the north and considered his native lands to be his main support. Having received control from Yuri Dolgoruky in the city of Vyshgorod (near Kyiv), during the life of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and went to Rostov with his entourage. According to legend, along with him, a written by an unknown Byzantine master of the 12th century came to the Rostov-Suzdal land. the icon of the Mother of God, which later became one of the most revered icons of Russia ("Our Lady of Vladimir"). Having established himself on the throne after the death of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital from Rostov to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. He spared no expense to strengthen and decorate his capital. In an effort to keep Kyiv under his control, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he pursued an energetic policy to strengthen the strong princely power. A cruel and power-hungry politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the "junior squad" (service people), the urban population, especially the new capital of Vladimir, and partly on church circles. Steep and often autocratic actions of the prince caused discontent in the circle of large landowners-boyars. As a result of a conspiracy between the nobility and representatives of the prince's inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yuryevich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir). Vladimir-on-Klyazma the status of the main princely capital. The reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) was the period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Novgorod the Great was under the control of Vsevolod Yurievich, and the Muromo-Ryazan land was in constant dependence on the Vladimir prince. Vsevolod the Big Nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands and at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. was the most powerful Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a struggle for power broke out between his numerous sons, which was an expression of the development of the process of feudal fragmentation already within the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself.
Galicia-Volyn land: The territory of Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians to Polissya, capturing the course of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - the extraction of salt and mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trade with other countries, in which the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky were of great importance.
An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, in a constant struggle with which the princely government tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The policies of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary had a constant impact on the processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups applied for help or in order to find asylum. The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the turmoil that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Leading a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subdue other lands of Southern Rus'. After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volhynia among themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich.
Novgorod land: from the very beginning of the history of Rus', it played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was the profit from the sale of craft products - beekeeping, hunting for fur and sea animals. Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held in their hands the exit to the Baltic Sea, from the beginning of the XIII century. Novgorod border in the West went along the line of Lake Peipus and Pskov. Of great importance for Novgorod was the annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest industries brought enormous wealth. Novgorod's trade relations with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, became stronger from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Cloth, weapons, metals, etc. were imported to Rus'. The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political separation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. For the princes Only service functions remained in Novgorod. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of land in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the possessions determined for the service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the XII century. Grand Duke Vladimir was formally considered the Novgorod prince, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod. The supreme governing body of Novgorod was the veche, the real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic, and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of the Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of their control over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages.
The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, as a rule, these movements did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.
Thus, we see that Kievan Rus finally disintegrated, other large Russian principalities and cities appeared, because of which it was not calm in Rus', civil strife, raids from the outskirts, all this disturbed the hearts and minds of the people. It was not the most peaceful time, although it was historically predictable. But at the same time, due to the fact that Rus' was divided into many principalities in each feudal state, art began to develop, which, in general, resulted in such a surge of culture in all areas of Rus'.
Monuments of literature
Russian medieval culture
The most important monument in Rus' is the chronicle - this is a historical genre of ancient Russian literature, which is an annual, more or less detailed record of historical events. Chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary gifted monks who knew translated literature, legends, epics, described events and facts related mainly to the life of princes, the affairs of monasteries, and occasionally non-Ryad affairs.
The geographic outlook of the chronicler is very wide - he knows Britain in the west of the Old World, noting some ethnographic survivals among the British, and China in the east of the Old World, where people live on the edge of the earth . Using Russian archives, folk tales and foreign literature, the chroniclers created a broad and interesting picture of the historical development of the Russian state. The era of feudal fragmentation was reflected in the fact that regional literary forces appeared, each new princely center kept its own chronicles, which focused on local events, but did not cease to be interested in general Russian affairs. Literature grew in breadth. Chronicles appeared in Novgorod, Vladimir, Polotsk, Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky, Pskov, Pereyaslavl and other cities. It is important to note that at the time when Ancient Rus' became close to Byzantium, a lot of work began on translating and copying books. Russian scribes knew literature in Old Slavonic, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, but at the same time they continued to use their own language, which distinguished it from most countries of the East and West. The Russian language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature. The unity of the national and state language was a great cultural advantage of Rus' over the Slavic and German countries, in which the Latin state language dominated. Such a broad literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant to know Latin. For the Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; this explains the widespread use in Rus' of writing on birch bark and on boards (obviously waxed). For all the patriotism of Russian literature, we will not find in it a trace of preaching aggressive actions. The fight against the Polovtsy is regarded only as a defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. A characteristic feature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of various nationalities: Have mercy not only on your own faith, but also on someone else's ... otherwise it will be a Jew, or a Saracen, or a Bulgarian, or a heretic, or a Latin, or from all the trash - have mercy on everyone and deliver from trouble (Message of Theodosius of the Caves to Prince Izyaslav, XI century). In subsequent centuries, Russian literature had a great influence on the culture of the South Slavic countries, which did not know Latin as an official language. Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries, sadly, did not come down to us completely. The medieval church, aggressively disposed to the remnants of paganism in the state, zealously destroyed everything connected with it, this did not bypass literature, therefore many writings that mentioned pagan gods were destroyed. An example is the "Word of Igor's Campaign", where the church is mentioned in passing, and the whole poem is full of Russian pagan deities. Until the 18th century only one list of “Words ...” has come down, although it is known that it was read in various Russian cities, individual quotations in surviving manuscripts, hints at an abundance of books and individual works - all this convinces us that in the fire of internecine wars, persecution of the Orthodox Church , Polovtsian and Tatar raids could perish many treasures of ancient Russian literature. But the surviving part is very valuable and interesting. The largest works of Russian literature created in that period, but continuing their literary life for many more centuries, are: “The Word on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Mikhail Zatochnik, "The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" and, of course, Nestor's "The Tale of Bygone Years" occupies a prominent place among them. Most of them are characterized by a broad, all-Russian view of events and phenomena, pride in their state, awareness of the need for constant joint struggle against nomadic troops, the desire to stop the devastating wars of Russian princes among themselves. The pearl of Russian literature of the pre-Mongol period is The Tale of Igor's Campaign (~ 1187), which is in the first row of masterpieces of world poetry. "The Word..." is one of the greatest monuments of ancient Russian literature. About eight centuries ago, around 1187, one of the most brilliant works of ancient Russian literature was created. “Word…” is a perennial oak, a mighty and sprawling oak. Its branches connect with the crowns of other luxurious trees in the great garden of Russian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries, and its roots go deep into Russian soil. Russian literature from the most ancient period was distinguished by high patriotism, interest in the topics of social and state building, and an invariably developing connection with folk art. She put a person at the center of her quest, she serves him, sympathizes with him, portrays him, reflects national traits in him, looks for ideals in him. In Russian literature of the XI-XVI centuries. there was no poetry, lyricism as separate genres, and therefore all literature is imbued with a special lyricism. This lyricism penetrates chronicles, historical stories, oratorical works. It is characteristic that lyricism in ancient Russian literature is predominantly civil forms. The author does not mourn and yearn for his own personal misfortunes, he thinks about his homeland, and mainly turns to it all the fullness of his personal feelings. This lyric is not of a personal nature, although the personality of the author is expressed in it by calls to save the motherland, to overcome the turmoil in the public life of the country, with a sharp expression of grief over the defeats or civil strife of the princes. This typical feature found one of its most striking expressions in The Lay of Igor's Campaign. “Word…” is dedicated to the theme of defending the homeland, it is lyrical, full of melancholy and sorrow, angry indignation and passionate appeal. It is epic and lyrical at the same time. The author constantly intervenes in the course of events that he talks about. He interrupts himself with exclamations of anguish and grief, as if he wants to stop the disturbing course of events, compares the past with the present, calls on the contemporary princes to take active action against the enemies of the motherland. “Word…” is imbued with a great human feeling - a warm, tender, strong feeling of love for the motherland. This love is felt in every line of the work: and in the emotional excitement with which the author speaks of the defeat of Igor's troops: “On the third day, by noon, the banners of Igor fell! Here the brothers parted on the banks of the swift Kayala; there was no bloody wine; here the brave Russians finished the feast: got the matchmakers drunk, and they themselves perished for the Russian land. The grass will droop with pity, and the tree bowed to the ground with anguish. And in the way he conveys the words of the lamentation of Russian wives for the dead soldiers: “The Russian wives wept, saying: "We already have our own sweet ways not in thoughts to think, don't think to think not to be seen with eyes but gold and silver, and even more than that, you can’t hold in your hands! ” and in the broad picture of Russian nature and in the joys of Igor's return: "The sun shines in the sky, - and Igor is a prince in the Russian land. Igor rides along Borichev to the Holy Mother of God Pirogoshcha. The villages are happy, the cities are cheerful. Singing a song to the old princes, then sing to the young: "Glory to Igor Svyatoslavich, Bui tour Vsevolod, Vladimir Igorevich! The poem was inspired by the real events of the history of that time. "Word..." was created after the events of Igor's campaign and was written under the fresh impressions of these events. This work is assembled from hints, reminders, deaf indications of what else was in the memory of each person. It served as a call to end the princely strife, to unite in the face of a terrible external danger. The merit of the author is that he managed to rise above the private interests of individual princes, understood the need to unite the Russian land and expressed this idea in vivid and vivid images and paintings. The “Word…” with brilliant force and inspiration reflected the disaster of that time - the lack of political unity of Rus', the enmity of the princes among themselves and, as a result, the weakness of its defense against the increased and more frequent pressure of the raids of nomadic peoples and the eastern neighbors of Rus'. “The Tale of Igor's Campaign” not only tells about the events of Igor Svyatoslavich's campaign - it gives an assessment and is a passionate and excited speech of a patriot, either referring to the events of modern times, or recalling the deeds of hoary antiquity. This speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but always full of faith in the motherland, full of pride in it, confidence in its future. "The Word ..." remains a relevant work of literature today. Despite the fact that it happened about 825 years ago, it remains a great monument of Russian culture and interest in it and interest in it does not fade away, but rather increases. It shows all the love of a Russian person for his homeland, his people and his excitement for the future of his country. The literature of that time does not fade away despite the past centuries. Thanks to her, we learn a lot of what happened at that time, the teachings of the authors of those times are vital even now. In the example of chronicles, "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and other works of that period, we can see that the Russian people were spiritually high, educated and exalted. He was interested in what was happening in the state and beyond, moreover, he knew how to correctly assess what was happening, without concealing from the reader and the black sides of that time. These were really educated people who brought a particle of themselves into the literature of pre-Mongol Rus'. A particle of the Russian heritage, feelings, moods. Folklore
still important and vital in our time remains the folklore of Ancient Rus'. Despite the fact that proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, epics and songs began to be recorded only from the 17th century, they appeared precisely in the period of pre-Mongol Rus. All of them are filled with meaning, teachings and ridicule of the bad qualities of people. They show us the unity of man with nature, God, his spiritual strength. From the 10th century there was the biggest surge in the appearance of epics. Favorite epic heroes were Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Mikula Silyanovich, Volga. Russian epic XI - XII centuries. enriched with plots dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. By the middle of the XII - XIII centuries. include the appearance of Novgorod epics about the "guest" Sadko, a wealthy merchant, descended from an ancient noble family, as well as a cycle of legends about Prince Roman, the prototype of which is Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky. Sayings of that time ridiculed lies, cowardice, human weakness, they praised work, kindness, complicity, again, unity. They taught a person to be strong in spirit and body, to honor elders, to love their homeland. A lot of sayings that appeared in ancient Rus' have survived to this day. People continue to use them, because the meaning of sayings and proverbs has remained the same. Fairy tales that appeared in that period also partially survived to our times, they were transferred from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. Most fairy tales and legends have pagan roots. Pagan gods and gods, persecuted by the Orthodox Church, found their refuge and refuge in fairy tales and still live there. In fairy tales, we see foresters, goblin, water, mermaids, brownies and other deities of pagan culture. This is a forester in “The Frog Princess”, a water man (the sea king in folk tales and epics), he also finds his own spirit and fetishism in them (a tablecloth is a self-assembly, boots are fast walkers, a magic ball). In fairy tales, we can also observe the idea of the people about the afterlife, about the eternal world of the ancestors, its relationship with the world of the living on earth. We can observe in fairy tales a vision of death, the afterlife, about the soul, as a transition to a different form of existence. They found a reflection of this belief mainly in fairy tales, especially those associated with the image of Baba Yaga, who carried out an adapter to another world. Fairy tales allow us to understand the idea of the pagans about the accomplices of death, the paths leading to the other world, the boundaries between the earthly and the “eternal world”, about ways to overcome it and helpers on the long and difficult journey to the “other world”. But let's not forget that the theme of honesty, courage, truth was also raised in fairy tales, she cursed evil, lies, laziness, betrayal. The main villains have always been punished according to the severity of their guilt. Thus, folklore shows us the ideas of the people of that time, its moral qualities, rationality and faith in the good good feelings of that generation. Architecture and painting
A major contribution to the history of world culture is Russian medieval architecture. Having already had experience in building fortresses, towers, palaces, wooden pagan temples, Russian architects mastered the new Byzantine brick building technique with amazing speed and decorated the largest Russian cities with magnificent monumental structures. In a number of cases, the architecture very sensitively reflected the political history of the country: the short-term rivalry between Chernigov and Kyiv affected the simultaneous construction of monumental cathedrals (Chernigov 1036, Kyiv 1037). Novgorod uprising of 1136 Suspended princely construction in Novgorod and opened the way for the boyars. Earlier, the isolation of the Principality of Polotsk was reflected in the construction of its own St. Sophia Cathedral there with an unusual layout. The full-blooded development of cities that competed with Kiev led to the flourishing of architecture and the creation of local architectural schools in Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With all that, Russian architecture of the XII - XIII centuries. is a known unity. It cannot be said that the Russian architecture of this time was under any influence or influence, although Rus' had extensive ties with the East, West and Byzantium. Having mastered at the turn of the X - XI centuries. Byzantine form, Russian architects very quickly modified it, introduced their own features and created their own all-Russian style, which varied by region. Appearance in the XII century. tower-like, upward-looking, slender buildings (Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Pskov) especially clearly testified to the development of the Russian national style, born as a result of the impact of wooden construction. The unstable borders of the feudal states were not barriers to mutual cultural communication. A striking example of such a commonality of style, indicating that art is not so much a geographical as a chronological concept, is the white-stone architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal land with its amazing proportions and fine decorative carvings. The white-stone temples of Vladimir with their generous carved ornaments are rightfully compared by researchers in terms of overall harmony and richness of plots with the Tale of Igor's Campaign, where the folk, pagan also overshadows the Christian. A careful study of the proportions of ancient Russian buildings made it possible to reveal the peculiar geometric techniques of Russian architects of the 11th - 12th centuries, which helped them create buildings that were amazing in proportion to the parts. Recent finds in old Ryazan and Tmutarakan of geometric drawings from a system of inscribed squares and rectangles made it possible to reveal another method of mathematical calculations, a method that goes back to the basis of Babylonian architecture and came to Rus' through the mediation of Transcaucasia and Tmutarakan. Diverse and rich Russian architecture for a long time retained the power of artistic influence. The same can be said about the painting of ancient Rus'. Russian painting and drawing have come down to us in the form of frescoes, icons, book miniatures. The high level of artistic expressiveness achieved by ancient Russian painting is partly due to the fact that the perception of Byzantine craftsmanship was prepared by the development of Slavic folk art back in the pagan period. Colorful combinations of patterns on fabrics, complex ornamental compositions of flowers, trees, birds and animals come from ancient times, when people worshiped the elements of nature and everything that this nature gives rise to: animals, birds, fish, trees, grass, stones. The bulk of the works of painting and sculpture that have survived to this day, unfortunately, belongs to only one category - to church art. Secular art is known to us only in part. Each church building was not only the most beautiful architectural structure, but also a whole gallery of fresco painting, subordinated to a single complex design. Sacred images were arranged in several tiers, which were supposed to inspire the Slav with superstitious fear and a sense of subordination to the god of heaven and the princes of the earth. From the church frescoes, she looked at the images of Christian saints in the clothes of bishops, kings, combatants, monks, who were below the common people. The class essence of the feudal church was fully revealed in relation to art, which the church tried to monopolize in order to influence the minds of the Russian people through its attractive power. Russian medieval cathedrals, like the cathedrals of Western European countries, were examples of a very skillful and subtle use of all types of art in order to establish the ideas of the feudal church. A Kyivian or Novgorodian, entering a church, found himself in a special world of images, separated from the noisy city bargaining. The huge head of Jesus Christ, as it were, hovered in the sky, above the smoke of incense, the space of the dome. The stern "fathers of the church" stood in a continuous row from behind the altar, ready to teach and punish. The Christian Mother of God reminded the Slav of the ancient pagan goddess of earth and fertility (Rozhanitsa, Makosh) and thus united the old and new cults in his mind. When, frightened and depressed by the grandeur of the temple depicted on the walls, the Slav left it, his last impression was the picture of the Last Judgment painted over the exit. He was returning from the church to his world, and the church admonished him with images of terrible torment awaiting those who dare to disobey church laws. The development of the class struggle and anti-church movements, “heresies”, led to the spread of certain plots in art, for example, “The Miracle of Michael the Archangel in Khony”, where Michael, “the voivode of the heavenly forces”, punishes the peasants who tried to raise an uprising. The plot of "The Assurance of Thomas" is directed against skeptics who doubted Christian legends. Thus, we can conclude that, despite the fact that a lot in architecture and painting appeared with the advent of Christianity from Byzantium to Rus', they did not adopt much from it. In all manifestations of art, there is one's own, incomparable, Russian soul of man. Yes, it has changed a little, thanks to the new currents of culture and religion in Rus', its own note of art, which originated and flourished in pagan Rus', still continued to be present in everything. Also, despite the feudal fragmentation of the state and civil strife between the princes, there is still a cultural and linguistic community of all the principalities. It can even be said that the feudal split of the state had a positive effect on the development of architecture and painting in different principalities, and not in any one. This once again shows how powerful and spiritually united the state of ancient Rus' remained. Religion
It is known that baptism in Rus' took place in 988, but at the same time, the Russian land experienced baptism for a long time. The people did not want to part with a long-term way of life, even having joined the Christian faith. In 990, Rostov was baptized, but the inhabitants of Rostov, who first accepted baptism, then expelled three bishops one after another. Only the fourth bishop, with the help of military force, was able to destroy the pagan sanctuary in Rostov and force people to accept Christianity. In 992, Polotsk was baptized, a few years later Turov. The Smolensk land accepted Christianity for quite a long time, and the bishopric in Smolensk was approved only in 1137. No information has been preserved about the conversion of the population of the Ryazan and Murom regions to the new faith. Apparently, the Christianization of these areas began no earlier than the 12th century. The Eastern Slavs reacted very painfully to the demand to abandon the faith of their ancestors. The staunch pagans fled the cities. In 1024, an uprising began in Suzdal led by pagan priests. Prince Yaroslav brutally suppressed the movement of the priests. However, less than half a century later, in 1071, the priests again raised trouble in the Rostov land and in Novgorod, but it was again extinguished. Nevertheless, if the princes could forcibly baptize, then it was impossible to force anyone to believe. The result of the religious reform of Prince Vladimir was the dual faith that dominated in Rus' since the 10th-11th centuries. Christianity was slowly mixed with pagan beliefs, creating a completely new type of worldview in which the dogmas and values of the old and new religion coexisted peacefully. The rural population, for the most part, remained faithful to paganism, with which all folk culture was associated. Moreover, in the cities, Christianity was entrenched only externally. This is true both for ordinary citizens and for the princely-boyar environment. The church, too, had to put up with this reality, forced to make concessions in order to instill in people at least the most important thing in the teachings. The church itself tried to get closer to the people and sometimes indulged in tricks. It is known, for example, that in Novgorod the church of St. Basil stood on Volosova Street, and the saint in it is depicted on an icon surrounded by cattle, that is, very often churches were rebuilt on the site of former pagan sanctuaries. The church also tried to make the temple of God closer and more understandable for a person by what reminded them of pagan worship: this is the worship of icons and statues (for example, pagan idols of the gods), as well as the division between the pantheon of canonized saints, each of them was assigned a certain power and they were patrons of one specific direction (for example, the division of forces between the gods in paganism), and even the fact that a candle was placed on the right saint was reminiscent of a ritual when a fire was lit in front of the right idol. This also applies to burials, as early as the 13th century. jewelry and weapons were placed in the princely burials at the temples, as required by the pagan rite. But despite all the prairies, the church, with the advent of Christianity in Rus', did a lot, it opened a qualitatively new page in history and culture. The new religion raised literature and architecture to a new level, thanks to which iconography appeared. But, as in other ramifications of culture, we see that Rus' not only adopted a new faith, having risen a step higher, but, as always, it brought its origins to the church, making it unlike other religions. Conclusions
Starting from the X century. Rus' has reached great heights in culture. For the most part, this was benefited by the emergence of Christianity as a new faith and a new round in the history of Rus'. High hopes were placed on her, and as it turned out, not in vain. It helped to maintain linguistic and cultural unity in the state, which at that time had split into many small fragments - feudal principalities, but, most importantly, people did not adopt everything from other countries, completely copying already established pictures, not, they brought it into culture, into literature, architecture, painting, religion, a piece of themselves, they rebuilt everything that the same Byzantium gave them to their liking, leaving, not small, at that time, pagan culture and adapting it to the newcomer. Later in the XVIII-XIX centuries. the culture will become even more secular and lose its Christian and pagan influence, but now, which is very pleasant, people are starting to return to their roots. Rus' XI-XIII centuries. was very high spiritually and morally. She was able, no matter what, to convey to our times everything that they thought, what bothered them, what they dreamed about and how they lived. Now we will not be able to imagine life without the "Word ...", without cathedrals, temples, without that oral literature that appeared at that time, but continues to educate us from childhood, instruct us. This is a religion that has hardly changed since the merger of paganism and Christianity. This is folklore that has been with us since childhood, epics about mighty heroes, personifying all the mighty men of pre-Mongolian Rus'. All this is present in our life from a young age with the first bedtime story, with the first candle placed to the icon, in the temple, with the first stories about brownies, mermaids, goblin, with the first acquaintance already at school with "The Word ...", "The Tale temporary years." And when you start to think how many centuries actually passed before you read, heard and saw, you become really joyful for your people, for your past. This shows in everything how erroneously widespread the opinion is that Rus', in the period of feudal fragmentation, was culturally complete. I believe that she really made an invaluable contribution to world culture in general and to the culture of today's Russia in particular. It was a truly culturally rich state, despite all the strife and unrest that at that moment took place in it. Bibliography
1.B.A. Rybakov "Culture of Ancient Rus'" Moscow 1956 .D.S. Likhachev "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the culture of his time "Leningrad 1985. ."The Tale of Igor's Campaign" Moscow: Enlightenment, 1984 .B.A. Rybakov "Ancient Rus': Legends. Epics. Chronicles "Moscow 1963.
The culture of Rus' in the period of fragmentation
For the Russian spiritual culture of the middle of the XII - XIII centuries. the formation of “polycentrism” is characteristic - the appearance of original cultural centers in different regions of Rus'.
Chronicle writing is being further developed. If in the XI - the beginning of the XII century. only Kiev and Novgorod were the centers of chronicle work, then in the subsequent period chronicle writing is carried out in most centers of the formed feudal principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Novgorod, probably also in Smolensk and Polotsk. Despite the "regional" nature of the chronicle, the chroniclers of the XII - the first half of the XIII century. did not become isolated in their narrowly regional events, to one degree or another covering the history of all of Rus'. Of the annalistic texts that have come down to us, the chronicle of the centers of Southern Rus' is most reflected in the Ipatiev Chronicle (end of the 13th century), the North-Eastern - the Laurentian Chronicle (beginning of the 14th century), the Radziwill Chronicle and the chronicle of Pereyaslavl of Suzdal (XIII century).
At the end of the XII century. one of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature in terms of its artistic merit - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" was created. It is dedicated to the aforementioned unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It is no coincidence that it was this campaign that served as the reason for the creation of the work. A number of circumstances - the eclipse of the sun that accompanied the campaign, despite which Igor continued the campaign, the death and capture of the entire army, the prince's escape from captivity - were unique and made a strong impression on his contemporaries (in addition to the Lay, two lengthy annalistic stories are devoted to them).
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" in the form that has come down to us was created, according to scientists, in the autumn of 1188 (at the same time, it is possible that its main text was written as early as 1185, shortly after Igor's escape from captivity, and in 1188 . additions were made to it in connection with the return of brother and son Igor from captivity). Its unknown author, the solution of whose name never ceases to interest researchers and lovers of the Lay (unfortunately, almost all available versions cannot stand up to serious criticism), was, in any case, a resident of Southern Rus', a secular person and belonging to the highest stratum of the ancient Russian nobility - boyars.
The main idea of the Lay is the need for unity in the actions of the Russian princes in the face of external danger. The main evil preventing this is princely feuds and internecine wars. At the same time, the author of the Lay is not a supporter of a single state: he takes the division of Rus' into principalities under the rule of sovereign rulers for granted; his call is directed not to state unification, but to inner peace, to harmony in actions.
Being a work about the events of its time, Lslovo¦ is at the same time a vivid monument of historical thought. The “current” time is compared in it with past events, moreover, of national history (which was rare - usually historical examples in the works of ancient Russian literature were drawn from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). A feature of the historicism of the Lay is an attempt to find in the past the roots of the current troubles of Rus': for this purpose, the author refers to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when the era of princely strife began, which led to the weakening of the country in the face of Polovtsian raids. In his address to history, the author of the Lay makes extensive use of epic motifs.
In the second half of the XII century. (exact dating is a subject of dispute) another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature, The Word of Daniil the Sharpener, appeared in North-Eastern Rus'. It is written in the form of an appeal to the prince: the author, who comes from the lower strata of the ruling class, who fell into disgrace, is trying to earn the prince's mercy again and prove to the prince his usefulness as a wise adviser. The "Word" is full of aphorisms. In the 20s or in the first half of the 30s of the XIII century. the second edition of this work was created, called "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener". It is addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodich, at that time the prince of Pereyaslavl Zalessky. The author of this edition is a nobleman, a representative of a new category in the ranks of the ruling class. A characteristic feature of "Prayer" is a negative attitude towards the highest nobility - the boyars.
Another outstanding work of ancient Russian literature - "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" - was written in the most difficult days for Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Most likely, it was created at the beginning of 1238 in Kiev, at the court of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who then occupied the Kiev table, after receiving news from North-Eastern Rus' about the invasion of Batu hordes into it and about death in battle with the Tatars on the river. City brother Yaroslav - Yuri.
This work (remaining unfinished) contains a hymn-glorification of the native land, unparalleled in medieval literature, a recollection of its former power (under the princes Vladimir Monomakh, his son Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson Vsevolod the Big Nest) and a discourse on the “illness” - strife, undermined the strength of Rus' after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Like the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the author of The Tale of Perdition refers to the past of his fatherland, trying to understand the causes of its current troubles.
In the genre of the epic, the middle of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century. - the time of the appearance of such epic stories as "Saur Levanidovich", "Sukhman", Novgorod epics about Sadko, cycles of songs about Prince Roman (the prototype of this hero is Prince Roman Mstislavich Galitsky).
Stone construction continues to develop (mainly temple construction, but stone princely palaces also appear) and church painting. In the architecture of the second half of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. there is a combination of local traditions, forms borrowed from Byzantium and elements of the Western European Romanesque style. Of the surviving monuments of architecture of this era, St. George's Cathedral of the St. George's Monastery (first half of the 12th century) and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (end of the 12th century) near Novgorod, in North-Eastern Russia - the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (second half of the 12th century), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1234).
Bibliography
For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.bestreferat.ru were used.
In the XII - XIV centuries. the development of culture took place in the difficult conditions of the feudal fragmentation of Rus'. In the ancient Russian culture of this time, new successes are observed. The peculiarities of the culture of this time include the emergence of local differences in the cultural life of individual lands. In the presence of a common basis, already in the 12th century, dialects with local linguistic features appeared in isolated lands. Local features appear in chronicle writing, architecture and painting. At the same time, the all-Russian principles of culture are preserved. The cities of Kyiv, Chernihiv, Galich, Kholm, and others were important centers of ancient Russian culture in the south.
Despite the feudal fragmentation, the desire for unity was reflected in the literary works of the XII century. In particular, the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" expressed deep concern about the fate of the Russian land, made an ardent appeal to the princes to stop strife, unite and organize a rebuff to the nomads.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, the nature of chronicle writing changes. There are new centers in Chernigov, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky, etc. Family and tribal princely annals, biography of princes are written.
In Zvenigorod and Brest, birch-bark letters were found, as well as in some cities bronze devices for writing on wax tablets, which indicates the development of education. Educated people who knew foreign languages worked in the prince's offices. They prepared the texts of letters, conducted diplomatic correspondence. The texts of the letters of the Galician-Volyn princes written in Latin have been preserved, with a demand to return the cloth from the ship that crashed to the merchants of the city of Vladimir.
The architecture of the region has reached great development. The Assumption Cathedral in the city of Vladimir (1160) has been preserved. It repeats the plan of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. In the cities of Galicia, the construction of churches made of white stone began, various ornaments began to be widely practiced.
Icon painting developed in the Galicia-Volyn lands under the influence of the Kyiv school. The icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria has come down to us by the 13th - 14th centuries. (Lutsk), the icon of Yuri the serpent fighter on a black horse (XIV century).
Many valuable monuments of that time perished. But what we know also speaks of an upsurge in the cultural life of the people.
Thus, Kievan Rus was a country of highly developed culture. Already in the 11th century, it reached the level of the countries of Europe and had two centuries of its statehood. The period of feudal fragmentation in the development of culture was accompanied by the development of local styles in fine and applied arts, architecture and chronicle writing. The conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars, although it slowed down the pace of cultural development, not only did not interrupt it, but partly even enriched it. At the junction of the interaction of Slavic and Turkic culture, new phenomena begin to emerge in language, life, customs, and art, which will manifest themselves especially clearly in the next era.
Cultural processes in the Lithuanian-Polish period of Ukrainian history (mid. XIV - mid. XVII century) Plan
2. The spread of education and the emergence of higher education in Ukraine.
3. New phenomena in folklore and literature. Development of artistic culture
1. Historical conditions for the development and formation of Ukrainian culture. The struggle of Ukrainians against cultural assimilation
In difficult historical conditions, the development of Ukrainian culture took place in a period that chronologically coincides with the Renaissance in Western Europe.
Having become part of the Commonwealth, Ukraine fell into the sphere of stimulating influence of the West. At the same time, the struggle of Ukrainians for the preservation of cultural identity for many centuries to become the main theme of their history, their culture.
In Europe at that time, all ideological disputes and contradictions, in the end, came down to religion. In Ukraine, it was a discussion between the defenders of Orthodoxy and adherents of Catholicism. The role of Orthodoxy in the public life of Ukrainians has grown many times over. In the absence of a state, the church was the only means of social self-expression and national unity. But, the Ukrainian church in this period was going through hard times.
The Grand Dukes of Lithuania, and then the Polish kings, enjoyed the right of patronage. Moreover, they appointed the Kyiv Metropolitan himself. Corruption was the worst offspring of the patronage system. In this state of affairs, the cultural influence of the church was very limited.
Brotherhoods, public organizations of merchants, artisans, and other strata of Ukrainian society, played an important role in supporting Orthodoxy. They appeared in the 15th century. But their role intensified especially in the second half of the 16th century in connection with the intensified oppression of the Orthodox religion in the Commonwealth.
2. The spread of education and the emergence of higher education in Ukraine.
In the field of education, the traditions of Kievan Rus were preserved. Schools existed at large churches and monasteries, as well as on the estates of large magnates. Gradually, the number of schools increased. In the second half of the XVI century. they operated in Lvov, Rovno, Kremenchug, Zabludovo, Vladimir-Volynsky and other places.
With the development of the reform movement in Ukraine, Protestant schools appear. In Goshcha, Belz, Lvov, Berestechka, there were schools of the Lutheran and Calvinist directions - mostly primary, but in some places secondary ones. After the adoption of the Union of Brest in 1596, Uniate schools appeared in a number of cities. The most numerous among non-Orthodox schools were Catholic. From the 70s of the 16th century on the territory of the Commonwealth, the Jesuits launched an active work on the creation of schools.
Thus, at the end of the XVI century. in Ukraine there were a large number of schools that differed in the level of teaching and religious affiliation. They contributed to the development of education. At the same time, Uniate and Catholic schools defended the ideological and political goals of the ruling circles of the Commonwealth. The Ukrainian public understood this. Ukrainian cultural figures took up the organization of national schools that would operate on a national basis, and in terms of content and level of education would meet the needs of the time.
In 1576, a cultural and educational center appeared in Ostrog in Volhynia. Its founder was Prince Ostrozhsky, a representative of an old Ukrainian Orthodox family. An integral part of the cultural and educational center was a school founded no later than 1578. It marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of school education in Ukraine. According to the content of education, the Ostroh school founded the "Slavic-Greek-Latin type" of schools in Ukraine. The first rector of the school was Gerasim Smotrytsky.
Fraternal schools have opened a new page in the history of national education. In 1585, the first fraternal school in Ukraine appeared in Lvov. At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII century. such schools also appear in Rohatyn, Gorodok, Przemysl, Lutsk, Vinnitsa, Nemirov, Kamenets-Podolsky, Kyiv and in other cities and villages (about 30 in total). Fraternal schools resisted Polonization, educating Ukrainian youth in the spirit of patriotism and respect for their people, national history, language, culture, and the faith of their fathers. A significant place was given to the study of the foundations of the Orthodox religion. The main attention was paid to the study of the Slavic and Ukrainian languages. By tradition, they studied Greek and Latin. It was not easy for the Latin language to take root in Ukrainian educational institutions, since everything Catholic and Polish was associated with it. However, knowledge of Latin was the influence of the time: without it it was impossible to enter European culture and science. Latin was then the language of scientists, philosophers, poets, the language of teaching at universities and international communication. And the Ukrainian polemists, who were trained in fraternal schools for qualified, well-founded ideological discussions, had to thoroughly master the language of the enemy.
This led to the emergence and development in Ukraine of Slavic-Greek-Latin schools, whose students studied languages and mastered the program of "seven free sciences". Thus, the work begun in Ostrog was continued by fraternal schools.
In 1632, by merging the Kyiv fraternal school (1615) and the Lavra school (1631), the first higher institution in Ukraine was created, which was called a collegium (colleges in Poland were called educational institutions of a higher type). Calling the new school a collegium, Peter Mogila, her guardian and mentor, proceeded, first of all, from the level of education that she could provide. Thus, an important step was taken in the development of higher education in Ukraine
The educational activity of the Grave was not limited to the founding of the Kyiv Collegium. He headed a circle of Lavra scholars, for 20 years led the book publishing business in Ukraine, founded schools and printing houses in various Ukrainian cities. For the most part, Mogila wrote his works in simple language, trying to convey their content to the broad masses of the people. A new stage in the development of polemical literature is associated with his name.
The Kiev collegium was a higher educational institution of the humanitarian type. However, despite all the efforts of Peter Mohyla and his followers, it never received the status of an academy from the Polish government. And it is not surprising, since she not only taught the youth the higher sciences, but also trained the ideologists of the people's liberation movement, brought up the defenders of national culture and faith.
The first official document that the Kiev Academy received in confirmation of the status of a higher school was a royal charter in 1701.
Lviv University (1661) also played a certain role in the development of education in Ukraine, although this educational institution was founded with the aim of Polonizing the Ukrainian population.
2. New phenomena in folklore and literature. The development of artistic culture.
At the end of the XIV - in the first half of the XVI century. the development of folk art of Ukrainians took place on the basis of ancient Russian folklore traditions, in the conditions of the struggle of the peasantry and the urban population against feudal oppression and foreign invaders. At the same time, new historical and social conditions gave rise to new forms of folklore. For example, ritual poetry was largely freed from cult elements. Tales, proverbs, sayings were created in the folk language.
Despite persecution by the church, folk rituals were preserved: caroling, generosity, the Kupala holiday. The clergy condemned these rituals, but at the same time tried to adapt them to their needs. Stoneflies, mermaid rituals and songs continued to be preserved. Ritual poetry gives rise to social (primarily anti-feudal) motifs and moods.
In the 15th century, the epic poetry of the Ukrainian people appeared - historical songs and thoughts. They were performed by folk singers - kobzars. The emergence of thoughts is associated with the birth of the Cossacks and has its roots in the heroic epic of Kievan Rus. One of the most famous and oldest is “The Duma about the Cossack Golota”. Dumas and historical songs-ballads instilled in the masses a sense of love for the motherland, aroused protest against its enemies and the oppression of the pans, and glorified the heroes of the people. Oral folk art played a big role in the formation and development of the literature of the Ukrainian people.
In the annals of the XIV - the first half of the XVI centuries. the traditions of Kievan Rus continued. Important chronicle works of this period were the “Brief Kiev Chronicle of the XIV - XV centuries.” and the so-called "Lithuanian" or "Western Russian annals". The brief Kiev Chronicle, which used ancient Russian chronicles, also provides valuable information on the history of Ukraine in the 14th-16th centuries, in particular on the struggle against the Crimean Tatars, the Lithuanian-Russian war, describes the actions of Prince K. Ostrozhsky on the battlefields (in particular near Orsha in 1515). The story ends with praise for Ostrozhsky. In separate "Lithuanian" chronicles, facts are given about the "departures" of Ukrainian and Belarusian feudal lords to the Russian state. The idea of Russian chronicles about the unity of the historical process of all East Slavic lands found a response in the Ukrainian lands enslaved by Lithuania and Poland.
During this period, new church literary works also appeared: epistles, "words", lives of saints, etc. A remarkable literary monument of that era was the Kiev-Pechersk Paterikon. Along with the life of monks and stories about various miracles in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, it contained many facts from public life, as well as about the life of monks. Of great importance were also the collections of the lives of the saints Cheti-Minei (XV century).
Simultaneously with the ideas of humanism, the Reformation came to Ukraine from the West. Under his influence, the literary and popular language converged, and attempts were made to make the Bible accessible to the general public. For this purpose, the books of Holy Scripture were translated into the vernacular. For example, the Peresopnitsky gospel. A number of copies of this Gospel have come down to us, decorated with headpieces, initials, miniatures, and ornaments in the Renaissance style.
Along with religious literature, secular literature begins to develop. A vivid evidence of this is the collection "Izmaragd", which contained about a hundred works written in the "word" genre on moral and everyday topics: about book wisdom, about respect for teachers, about integrity and sins, as well as about rich and poor. In the XV century. there are also translated stories about Alexander the Great (Alexandria), about the Trojan War and others. These works reveal the exploits, courage and courage of the heroes, and at the same time fully depict the reality of that time, the views of different sectors of society on modern or political phenomena and events.
In the second half of the 16th century, phenomena characteristic of Renaissance literature appeared in Ukrainian literature: - the formation and development of new genres: polemical journalism, versification, memoir-historical prose, school dramaturgy.
In 1574, in Lvov, Ivan Fedorov published The Apostle, the first book of Ukrainian printing. A deep imprint in Ukrainian literature was left by the works of representatives of polemical literature G. Smotrytsky, S. Zizania, H. Filaret, M. Smotrytsky, Z. Kopystensky.
The pinnacle of polemical literature was the work of I. Vishensky, who branded the betrayal of renegade bishops, criticized the entire political and state system of the Commonwealth, in defense of the rights and human dignity of the common people.
Religious controversy with Catholicism, Uniatism, Protestantism is reflected in the literature of the second half of the 17th century. (L. Baranovich, I. Galyatovsky, F. Safonovich, V. Yasinsky and others). Oratory - preaching prose found its further development in the work of K. Stavrovetsky, the author of the "Teaching Gospel" (1619), Daniil Korsunsky at the end of the 16th century. described his journey to the "holy places" ("Book of conversation about the way of Jerusalem").
From the second half of the XVI century. new forms of historical prose gained popularity (testament of V. Zagorovsky, 1577; recollection of the Moscow events of 1612 by B. Balyka; Ostrozhskaya 1500 - 1636; Lvovskaya (1498 - 1649); Khmelnitskaya (1636 - 1650) ; Gustynskaya (20s of the 17th century) chronicles, etc.).
From the middle of the XVI century. originates Ukrainian book versification.
At the end of the XVI century. - the beginning of the 17th century. dramaturgy is born in the form of recitations and dialogues intended for performance in fraternal schools: “At Christmas ...” by P. Berynda (Lvov, 1616), etc.
The liberation war of the Ukrainian people in the middle of the 17th century ideologically and aesthetically reoriented Ukrainian literature, brought it closer to Russian literature. Literature began to free itself from religious ideology. Actual problems of social and political life began to be posed and solved in works of art.
At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XVI centuries. in the work of artists there was a closer connection with the life and interests of the masses. In the art of this time, interest in man, his spiritual world, as well as in nature increased. Ukrainian artists creatively developed the traditions of the art of past centuries, enriched their skills, assimilating the achievements of artists from other countries, in particular, the influence of the Western European Renaissance can be traced. Iconography flourishes, preserved mainly in the Western Ukrainian lands (Przemysl, Lvov, etc.). Icons arranged in a certain order formed a separate composition - the iconostasis. Over time, the structure of the iconostasis became more complex; it became an integral part of the interior of the temple.
In Ukrainian icon painting of the XV - XVI centuries. the influence of the Moscow school is manifested (“Archangel Gabriel” from the village of Dalyava, Lviv region of the 15th century). Sometimes the Gothic influences of Western Europe are felt (“Peter and Vasily” from the village of Lesyatichi, Lviv region of the 15th century).
Miniatures of handwritten works have a high artistic value: "The Life of Boris and Gleb", and "The Radzivilov Chronicle".
The beginning of printing contributed to the further development of the art of book design. In the artistic culture of the second half of the XVI - first half of the XVII centuries. there were significant changes in content and form, new genres of art (including secular ones) developed. A painted and sculptural portrait appeared (“Portrait of K. Kornyakt”, early 17th century), a tombstone of K. Ostrozhsky in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, 1579. F. Senkovich, N. Petrakhnovich, S. Korunka were outstanding artists of this time.
Thanks to printing, engraving became one of the leading types of graphics. Engravings (mainly on wood) illustrated books published in Ukrainian printing houses.
In the architecture of the period under review in Ukraine, the traditions of ancient Russian architecture continued to develop and improve. The architecture of this period acquires a fortified character, it is characterized by severity and grandeur, the limitation of decorative ornaments. Fortifications, ditches and ramparts were erected around the cities. The layout of the streets was radial (Lutsk, Medzhybizh) and radial - ring (Vladimir - Volynsky, Putivl), some cities had an irregular layout (Kyiv, Nizhyn).
The compositional center of the city was formed: - the main market square with the town hall, which had a high tower and a cathedral. Both wooden and stone architecture developed. In the first half of the XVI century. in architecture, a new form of castles appears - castles-palaces, in which living quarters were located along the inner perimeter of the palace. They built open two-story arcades - galleries with large windows; and the outer walls of the castles were defensive in nature and had loopholes (the castle in Berezhany, Ternopil region, mid-XVI century).
Monasteries were built - fortresses.
In connection with the development of crafts and trade, old and new cities grew, and in them public buildings - town halls, houses of craft shops, new types of two - three-story residential buildings: on the ground floor there were shops, various workshops, on the upper floors - living quarters.
In the western lands of Ukraine, which were in closer relations with Western Europe, the architecture of residential buildings increasingly manifested the forms of the Italian Renaissance in a peculiar local interpretation (for example, the house of Kornyakt, architect P. Barbon, 1572 - 1582, Lviv). In religious construction, temples spread, the walls of which, built of white stone or brick, did not have decorations (the Church of the Intercession in Lutsk); centric, so-called churches - rotundas (village Gotryani near Uzhgorod); three-nave churches with 1, 3, 5 domes (Epiphany Church in Ostrog).
New trends are emerging in iconic architecture. The main customers for the construction are the gentry, urban and rural communities, whose tastes and aesthetic ideals influenced church architecture. The relationship with the advanced humanistic culture of Western Europe also affected. All these trends were reflected in the construction of domeless temples. The completed type of church-fortress is the Church of the Intercession in Sutkivtsy (XV century).
After the liberation war of the Ukrainian people, a new stage in the development of architecture began. The influx of population to the Dnieper and Slobozhanshchina caused the rapid development of old cities (Kyiv, Chernihiv, Pereyaslav) and the emergence of new ones (Kharkov, Sumy, Akhtyrka, Lebedin, Poltava).
In the XV-XVI centuries. a new kind of heroic epos appeared - thoughts, kobzar art, instrumental music-making among bandura players developed.
In the Kiev-Mohyla Collegium (since 1701 - the Academy), musical notation was studied, choral singing and playing musical instruments were widespread, there was a choir and a symphony orchestra. There were also choirs in Chernigov, Kharkov and Pereyaslav collegiums.
During this period, Jesuit school theaters appeared in Ukraine (Lvov, Lutsk, Vinnitsa, etc.). They staged dramas written in Latin, and later in Polish.
Thus, despite the difficult political conditions, heavy social oppression and religious oppression, the culture of the Ukrainian people continued to develop. She, relying on ancient Russian traditions, achieved success in many areas.
