1) Literature of Western European classicism.
The birth of the classicist doctrine (from Latin classicus - "a citizen of the highest property class"; later - "exemplary"). The normative character of the poetics of classicism. Absoluteization of the laws of reason; "good taste". Aesthetic examples of ideal nature, human nature, state, perfect mind, which can contribute to the elevation of reality to the ideal.
Rationalistic typification of characters in classicism. Historical abstractness in the interpretation of antiquity, mythology, the external environment, etc. Conventional interpretation of circumstances and the rejection of fantasy. The severity of poetics and its "reasonable requirements" to the principles and norms of creativity. Hierarchy of genres as a reflection of the hierarchy of society in culture. Compliance of style and language with genre requirements.
Classical tragedy in France. Creativity of P. Cornel; his tragicomedy Sid; the originality of the conflict, the plot; image system; moral pathos. Discussion about Sid. Ancient tragedies by J. Racine on mythological subjects ("Iphigenia" and "Phaedra"); their ideological meaning. Rethinking the traditions of Euripides.
J.-B. Molière's theater: everyday comedies (provisions) - "The doctor willy-nilly", "Scapin's tricks", and "high", determined by the comic characters ("Don Juan", "Misanthrope"). The highest achievements of Molière in comedy are Tartuffe, The Miser, The Tradesman in the Nobility, The Imaginary Sick. Comic positions and characters; social and political meaning of Molière's plays.
Classic satire. The fables of J. de La Fontaine; satires by N. Boileau. Boileau's treatise "Poetic Art" as a generalization of classicist poetics.
Masterpieces of classic prose: Maxims by F. La Rochefoucauld, Memoirs by Cardinal de Retz; novels by M. de Lafayette "Princess of Cleves"; "The Adventures of Telemachus" by F Fenelon, "The Tales of My Mother Goose" by Ch. Perrault. Anticipation of the ideas and literary tendencies of the Enlightenment in the "Characters" by J. La Bruyère.
English classicism. Poetry and dramaturgy of J. Dryden. "Comedy of the Restoration" (W. Congreve and others). Mature work of J. Milton. A grandiose attempt to revive the epic in its classical form. The poems "Paradise Lost" and "Paradise Regained"; moral-philosophical and religious-mythological conflicts in Milton's poems. Satire S. Betler, anticipation of educational ideas and genres by D. Defoe and J. Swift.
2) Classicism in the literature of the Russian Enlightenment
Peculiarities of Petrine Baroque. The decline of literature in the Petrine era - with the widespread development of the press, journalism, journalism. The utilitarianism of the literary policy of Peter and his supporters; propaganda and educational functions of literature; occasional nature of literary and other works of art (written “on occasion”). Political relevance and topicality of literary works. The principle of "social order". New genre system. Publicism of the Petrine era (F. Prokopovich); rhetorical and didactic compositions (“An honest mirror of youth”); theater (school drama); songs and cants; travel and histories. The role of translated works, including Russified and adapted to national cultural and historical conditions.
The formation of Russian classicism 1730 - 1750s; difference between Russian classicism and Western European. The role of a poet, a writer as a wise adviser to kings, an educator of power and society. Theorists and practitioners of Russian literary classicism: A. Kantemir, V. Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov, A. Sumarokov. The theory of "three calms". Genres of Russian classicism (ode, tragedy, epic, fable, satire). Literature of classicism as a work of "direct influence" (including on society and on the government). Antiquity as a standard of Europeanism and enlightenment; Russia's desire to find "its own antiquity".
A mixture of baroque and classicist norms and traditions. Folk-comic, Renaissance beginning in Russian classicism. Humorous poems by Lomonosov, Sumarokov. Rabelaisism of the “stepson” of Russian classicism I. Barkov; his non-normative “antiodes”; images of the material-bodily bottom and obscene vocabulary, deliberately violating the “high”, odic style. Barkovian in Russian poetry. Burlesque in Russian classicism (V. Maikov as the author of "heroic-comic" poems).
Comedies of Catherine II (“About time!”, “Deceiver”, etc.). Service functions of literary classicism in Russian society of the 18th century. Didacticism of the prose of Catherine II. Late classicism (G. Derzhavin and his successors). Classical traditions and principles in Russian literature of the first third of the 19th century. Realistic tendencies of classic satire.
The crisis of classicism and the development of mass democratic literature in 1760 - 1770. The appearance of raznochintsy in Russian literature of the 18th century. The invasion of everyday life in the themes, plots and characters of literary works. Rehabilitation of privacy. The emergence of fiction, destroying the system of classic genres and the emergence of mass culture in Russia. Adventure novels by F. Emin; his imitation of the "New Eloise" by J.-J. Rousseau. "The Handsome Cook" by M. Chulkov. Comic operas by M. Popov ("Anyuta"), A. Ablesimov ("The Miller - a sorcerer, a deceiver and a matchmaker"), M. Matinsky ("St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor"). Lubok stories by M. Komarov (“The Life and Adventures of Vanka Cain”, “The Tale of the Adventure of the English Milord George”) and others. Democratization of noble literature. Passion for folklore and stylization under the folk style (songs by Y. Neledinsky-Meletsky, “Collection of Russian Songs” by N. Lvov; “Russian Fairy Tales” by Levshin. “Peysan” exoticism of Russian classicism and the emergence of the peasant question in Russian literature.
Topic 13. Literature of the Western European and Russian Enlightenment.
"Memorable dates" - M.Yu. Lermontov - 190 years old. Kir Bulychev Igor Vsevolodovich Mozheiko October 18, 1934 - September 5, 2003. From the book of G. Sergeeva "We develop before birth." January. History of Patriotism. January 5, 1920 - June 28, 1996. Stepan Grigoryevich Pisakhov October 25, 1879 - May 3, 1960. http://n-sladkov.ru/index.php. The author of the monument is P.I. Bondarenko.
"Russian literature of the XIX-XX centuries" - Genres and style features of realistic prose. “Russian literature ... has always been the conscience of the people. The new era was defined by contemporaries as "frontier". Modernism in the artistic culture of the turn of the century was a complex phenomenon. Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev. Philosophers and artists called for the inner perfection of man.
"History of Romanticism" - Romanticism. The meaning of romanticism. The ideas of romanticism arose on the basis of dissatisfaction with reality, the crisis of the ideals of classicism. At the beginning of the XIX century. The East is turning into a field of not only scientific, but also artistic research. The history of the origin of the term. Philosophy and aesthetics of romanticism. Teacher of the Russian language and literature Lazakova N. N.
"Calendar of literary dates" - G. Valka. 115 years old - "The Gadfly" (1897) E.-L. 55 years old - "About Tomka" (1957) E. Charushina. September 14 - 75 years since the birth of the Russian poet Alexander Semenovich Kushner (1936). Olga Romanova. Artist O. Vereisky. 55 years of the magazine "Young Technician" (published since September 1956). Illustrations by V. Kurchevsky and N. Serebryakov.
"Literature of the XX century" - The twentieth century ... The problem of the existence of the Union of Writers. Historical events. The problem of periodization of literature. The problem of the method of socialist realism. First Chechen War 1995-1996 Bloodless Revolution from 1991 to 2000 A. Blok "Retribution". Returned Literature. Acute problems in the literature. Periodization of literature of the twentieth century.
"Literature of the Golden Age" - "Domestic Notes". A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development. Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. The development of poetry somewhat subsides. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov.
There are 13 presentations in total in the topic
Among the artistic styles of no small importance is classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and appeared in almost all types of European and Russian art. Often came into conflict with the Baroque, especially at the stage of formation in France.
The age of classicism in each country is different. First of all, it developed in France - back in the 17th century, a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism was already beginning in other states. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundations for its further development.
What is classicism as a direction?
The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means "exemplary". The main principle was manifested in the appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as a norm to which one should aspire. The authors of works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, conciseness, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator sought to find his place for everything, clear and strictly defined.
The main features of classicism
All types of art were characterized by the following features that help to understand what classicism is:
- a rational approach to the image and the exclusion of everything related to sensuality;
- the main purpose of a person is to serve the state;
- strict canons in everything;
- established hierarchy of genres, the mixing of which is unacceptable.
Specification of artistic features
An analysis of individual types of art helps to understand how the “classicism” style was embodied in each of them.
How classicism was realized in literature
In this art form, classicism was defined as a special direction in which the desire to re-educate with a word was clearly expressed. The authors of works of art believed in a happy future, where justice, freedom of all citizens, and equality would prevail. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature certainly required the observance of three unities: action (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit into a day), place (there was no movement in space). J. Moliere, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia) received more recognition in this style.
The development of classicism in Russia
The new artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, in contrast to Western European, relied more on national traditions. It was in this that his originality manifested itself.
Initially, it came to architecture, where it reached its greatest heights. This was due to the construction of a new capital and the growth of Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, suburban noble estates. Special attention deserves the creation of architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoye Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the spit of Vasilyevsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.
The peak of the architects' activity can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the project of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.
No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schluter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of garden and park art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything is striking in its proportionality and purity of execution.
Literary direction in Russia
The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. Its founders were V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov.
However, the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov made the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is. He developed a system of three calms, which determined the requirements for writing works of art, and created a sample of a solemn message - an ode, which was most popular in the literature of the second half of the 18th century.
The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy "Undergrowth". In addition to the obligatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the following points belong to the features of Russian comedy:
- a clear division of heroes into negative and positive ones and the presence of a reasoner expressing the position of the author;
- the presence of a love triangle;
- the punishment of vice and the triumph of good in the finale.
The works of the era of classicism as a whole have become the most important component in the development of world art.
Changes in the political, cultural, and economic life of Russia posed a number of urgent tasks for literature: it was necessary to realize the changes that had taken place and, having comprehended them, reflect the surrounding reality. The literature of this period not only reproduces new phenomena, but also evaluates them, comparing them with the past, speaking in defense of Peter's conquests. In the 1930s and 1950s, a new direction was formed in literature – Russian classicism . This led to radical changes in the field of literature, which can be called the first steps of Russian classicism: new classicist genres are being created, a literary language and versification are being formed, theoretical treatises are being written substantiating such innovations. The founders of this trend in Russian literature are Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov whose work belongs entirely to the 18th century. All of them were born in the era of Peter the Great; The basis of Russian classicism in literature was the ideology that emerged as a result of the awareness of the strengths of Peter's reforms. Russian classicism was created by a generation of European-educated young writers who defended this ideology.
Word classicism comes from the Latin word classicus, i.e. exemplary. This was the name of ancient literature, which was widely used by the classicists. Classicism was most vividly embodied in the 17th century in France in the works of Corneille, Racine, Molière, and Boileau. The foundation of European classicism is absolutism and advanced philosophical teachings of that time. The aesthetic ideal of classicism becomes a man who has mastered his passions, subordinating the personal to the public. In art, the concept of "duty" in relation to one's state arises, this duty is above all. In a conflict between passion and duty, duty always wins. A person must have high moral principles, then he will prefer the fulfillment of state or public duty to his personal interests.
The main thing in the ideology of classicism is state pathos. The state was declared the highest value. The classicists believed in the possibility of its further improvement. The state in their view was a rationally arranged social organism, where each class performs its duties. A man, from the point of view of the classicists, is an egoist, but he lends himself to education, to the influence of civilization. The key to positive changes in human "nature" is the mind, which the classicists opposed to emotions, "passions". Reason helps to realize "duty" to the state, while "passions" distract from socially useful activities.
Russian classicism was formed under similar conditions of the absolutist power of the emperor, but it arose much later, therefore it has its own differences:
1. Russian classicism is formed in the era of the European Enlightenment, therefore, its main task is to reorganize society based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. Classicist writers were sure that it was possible on reasonable grounds, through proper education, which should organize the state headed by an enlightened monarch, put an end to human "malice", create a perfect society.
2. Russian classicism arises after the death of Peter I, during the period of reaction, and new Russian literature begins not with odes glorifying the deeds of the emperor, but with Cantemir's satires, whose heroes are not ancient heroes, but contemporaries, and Cantemir ridicules not specific human vices, but denounces social shortcomings, fights against reactionaries.
3. The first Russian classicists already knew the enlightening idea of the natural equality of people. But this thesis at that time was not yet embodied in the demand for the equality of all classes before the law. Cantemir, based on the principles of "natural law", called on the nobles to humane treatment of the peasants. Sumarokov pointed to the natural equality of nobles and peasants.
4. The main difference between Russian classicism and European classicism was that he combined the ideas of absolutism with the ideas of the early European Enlightenment. First of all, it is the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to this theory, the state should be headed by a wise "enlightened" monarch, who requires each of the estates and individuals to serve honestly for the benefit of the whole society. For the Russian classicists, Peter the Great was an example of such a ruler. Russian literature begins the process of instructing and educating the autocrat.
He reigns over the people to bliss,
And the common benefit leading to perfection:
The orphan does not cry under his scepter,
The innocent nikovo is not afraid...
... The flatterer does not bow at the feet of the nobleman
The king is a judge equal to all and a father equal to all ...
- wrote A.P. Sumarokov. The king must remember that he is the same person as his subjects, if he cannot establish the proper order, then this is a “vile idol”, “an enemy of the people”.
5. The word "enlightened" meant not just an educated person, but a citizen who was helped by knowledge to realize his responsibility to society. "Ignorance" meant not only a lack of knowledge, but also a lack of understanding of one's duty to the state. That is why in Russian classicism of the 30-50s a huge place was given to sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. In almost all of his odes, M.V. speaks about the benefits of the sciences. Lomonosov. The first satire of Kantemir “To your mind. On those who blaspheme the teaching."
6. Russian classicists were close to the struggle of the enlighteners against the church, church ideology. They denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science and its adherents from persecution by the church.
7. The art of Russian classicists is based not only on the works of antiquity, it is quite closely connected with the national tradition and oral folk art, their literature often takes the events of national history as a basis.
8. In the artistic field, the Russian classicists faced very difficult tasks. Russian literature of this period did not know a well-crafted literary language and did not have a definite genre system. Therefore, Russian writers of the second third of the 18th century had to not only create a new literary trend, but also put in order the literary language, the system of versification and master genres unknown in Russia until that time. Each of the authors was a pioneer: Kantemir laid the foundation for Russian satire, Lomonosov legitimized the ode genre, Sumarokov acted as the author of tragedies and comedies.
9. Russian classicists created many theoretical works in the field of genres, literary language and versification. V. K. Trediakovsky wrote a treatise “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poetry” (1735), in which he substantiated the basic principles of the new syllabo-tonic system, and Lomonosov in his “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry” (1739) developed and finalized syllabo-tonic system of versification /41 /. In his discussion “On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language,” Lomonosov reformed the literary language and proposed the doctrine of the “three calms.” Sumarokov in his treatise "Instruction to those who want to be writers" gave a description of the content and style of classic genres.
As a result of such research, a literary movement was created, which had its own program, creative method and a coherent system of genres.
Artistic creativity was considered by the classicists as strict adherence to "reasonable" rules, eternal laws, created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient authors and French literature of the 17th century. According to the classic canons, "correct" and "incorrect" works were distinguished. Even the works of Shakespeare were among the “wrong” ones. Strict rules existed for each genre and required the strictest observance. The genres were distinguished by "purity" and unambiguity. For example, it was not allowed to introduce “touching” episodes into comedy, and comic episodes into tragedy. The classicists developed a strict system of genres. Genres were divided into "high" and "low". The "high" genres included an ode, an epic poem, a laudatory speech. To the "low" - comedy, fable, epigram. True, Lomonosov also offered "medium" genres - tragedy and satire, but tragedy gravitated towards the "high", and satire - to the "low" genres. In the "high" genres, heroes were depicted who could serve as role models - monarchs, generals, etc., the most popular of them was the image of Peter the Great. In the "low" genres, characters were drawn, captured by one or another "passion".
The basis of the creative method of the classicists was rational thinking. The classicists sought to decompose human psychology into its simplest composite forms. In this regard, abstract-generalizing, without individualization, images (a miser, a hypocrite, a dandy, a braggart, a hypocrite, etc.) appear in the literature of classicism. It should be noted that in one character it was strictly forbidden to combine various "passions" and even more so "vices" and "virtues". The intimate, everyday aspects of the life of an ordinary (private) person were not of interest to classic writers. Their heroes, as a rule, are kings, commanders, devoid of typical national features, abstract schemes, carriers of author's ideas.
When creating dramatic works, it was necessary to observe equally strict rules. These rules concerned three unities" - place, time and action. The classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on the stage, so the stage time had to be close to the time that the viewer spends in the theater. The duration of the action could not exceed 24 hours - this is unity of time. Unity of place due to the fact that the theater, divided into a stage and an auditorium, gave the audience the opportunity to see someone else's life. If the action is transferred to another place, then this illusion will be broken. Therefore, it was believed that it was best to play the action in the same, non-removable scenery, much worse, but acceptable, when events developed within the same house, castle or palace. Unity of action required the presence in the play of only one storyline and a minimum number of characters. The strictest observance of the three unities fettered the inspiration of playwrights. However, there was a rational grain in such stage regulation - the desire for a clear organization of a dramatic work, the concentration of the viewer's attention on the characters themselves and their relationships. All this made many theatrical performances of the era of Russian classicism a true art.
Despite the strict regulation of creativity, the works of each of the classicists differed in their individual characteristics. So, Kantemir and Sumarokov attached great importance to civic education. They called on the nobles to fulfill their public duty, denounced self-interest and ignorance. To achieve this goal, Cantemir wrote his satires, and Sumarokov wrote his tragedies, where he subjected the monarchs themselves to severe judgment, appealing to their civic duty and conscience.
At the forefront of the development of classicism was Napoleonic France, followed by Germany, England and Italy. Later this direction came to Russia. Classicism in architecture became a kind of expression of rationalistic philosophy and, accordingly, was characterized by a desire for a harmonious, rational order of life.
The emergence of classicism
Although classicism originated in the Renaissance, it began to develop actively in the 17th century, and by the 18th century it was already quite firmly entrenched in European architecture. The concept of classicism was to form all architectural forms in the likeness of antique ones. The architecture of the era of classicism is characterized by a return to such ancient standards as monumentality, rigor, simplicity and harmony.
Classicism in architecture appeared thanks to the bourgeoisie - it became its art and ideology, since it was antiquity that bourgeois society associated with the correct order of things and the structure of the universe. The bourgeoisie opposed itself to the aristocracy of the Renaissance and, as a result, opposed classicism to "decadent art". She attributed such styles in architecture as rococo and baroque to such art - they were considered too intricate, non-strict, non-linear.
Johann Winckelmann, a German art critic, is considered the founder and inspirer of the aesthetics of the classicism style, who is the founder of the history of art as a science, as well as the current ideas about the art of antiquity. The theory of classicism is confirmed and strengthened in his work "Laocoon" by the German critic-educator Gotthold Lessing.
Classicism in the architecture of Western Europe
French classicism developed much later than English. The rapid development of this style was hindered by following the architectural forms of the Renaissance, in particular, the late Gothic baroque, but soon the French architects gave up before the onset of reforms in architecture, paving the way for classicism.
The development of classicism in Germany took place rather undulating: it was characterized either by strict adherence to the architectural forms of antiquity, or by their mixing with the forms of the Baroque style. With all this, German classicism was very similar to classicism in France, so pretty soon the leading role in the spread of this style in Western Europe went to Germany and its architectural school.
Due to the difficult political situation, classicism came to Italy even later, but soon after that, it was Rome that became the international center of classicist architecture. Classicism reached a high level in England as a style of decorating country houses.
Features of classicism in architecture
The main features of the classicism style in architecture are:
- simple and geometric shapes and volumes;
- alternation of horizontal and vertical lines;
- balanced layout of the room;
- restrained proportions;
- symmetrical decoration of the house;
- monumental arched and rectangular structures.
Following the order system of antiquity, elements such as colonnades, rotundas, porticos, reliefs on the wall surface, and statues on the roof are used in the design of houses and plots in the style of classicism. The main color solution for the design of buildings in the style of classicism is light, pastel colors.
Windows in the style of classicism, as a rule, are elongated upwards, rectangular in shape, without flashy decoration. The doors are most often paneled, sometimes decorated with statues in the form of lions, sphinxes, etc. The roof in the house, on the contrary, is of a rather intricate shape, covered with tiles.
The materials most commonly used to create classicist houses are wood, brick, and natural stone. When decorating, gilding, bronze, carving, mother-of-pearl and inlay are used.
Russian classicism
Classicism in the architecture of Russia in the 18th century differs quite significantly from European classicism, since it abandoned French models and followed its own path of development. Although Russian architects relied on the knowledge of Renaissance architects, they still sought to apply traditional techniques and motifs in the architecture of Russian classicism. Unlike European, Russian classicism of the 19th century, and later Russian Empire, used military and patriotic themes in their design (wall decor, stucco, choice of statues) against the backdrop of the war of 1812.
Russian architects Ivan Starov, Matvey Kazakov and Vasily Bazhenov are considered the founders of classicism in Russia. Russian classicism is conditionally divided into three periods:
- early - the period when the features of baroque and rococo were not yet completely ousted from Russian architecture;
- mature - strict imitation of the architecture of antiquity;
- late, or high (Russian Empire) - characterized by the influence of romanticism.
Russian classicism is also distinguished from European by the scale of construction: it was planned to create entire districts and cities in this style, while new classical buildings had to be combined with the old Russian architecture of the city.
A striking example of Russian classicism is the famous Pashkov House, or Pashkov House - now the Russian State Library. The building follows a balanced, U-shaped layout of classicism: it consists of a central building and side wings (wings). The outbuildings are made as a portico with a pediment. On the roof of the house there is a belvedere in the form of a cylinder.
Other examples of buildings in the style of classicism in the architecture of Russia are the Main Admiralty, the Anichkov Palace, the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, St. Sophia Cathedral in Pushkin and others.
You can learn all the secrets of the classicism style in architecture and interior in the following video:
