Basic concepts: military tale, "Kulikov cycle", travel literature, hagiography, Feofan Grek, Andrey Rublev, Dionysius, Russian book printing, "Apostle", book miniature, Chet'i Menei, Domostroy, Stoglav, tent style, "Naryshkin baroque", secularization, secularization , "Moscow - the Third Rome", parsuna, schismatics, Old Believers, Josephites, non-possessors, rhymed poetry, partes singing, songs of the "Razin cycle"
Russian culture of the XIV - XV centuries. The culture of Muscovite Rus' corresponds to a historical period approximately from the 14th to the 17th centuries. It has many faces and reflects all the complex events that took place at that time on Russian soil.
Under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars, the regions of cultural activity are changing. The south (Kyiv and the Dnieper region) gives way to the northeast (North-Eastern Rus' and Moscow), thanks to which Russian culture manages to preserve its originality and fundamental features. The first signs of the beginning of stabilization are found at the end of the 13th century. A special place here belongs to Novgorod and Pskov, who survived the harsh hard times of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and managed not only to preserve, but also to increase the artistic traditions of Rus'.
By the beginning of the XIV century, Novgorod appeared as a major center of trade, a city of high culture. Novgorod identity is manifested in architecture, works of fine art, epics (tales about the merchant and singer Sadko and hero Vasily Buslaev), poetic creativity.
I.E. Grabar, emphasizing the originality of Novgorod art, writes: “One look at the strong, stocky monuments of Veliky Novgorod is enough to understand the ideal of a Novgorodian, a good warrior, not very well-hewn ... but on his own mind ... ... In his architecture, the same as he himself, simple but strong walls, devoid of annoying patterns, which, from his point of view, are “nothing”, powerful silhouettes, energetic masses. The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength. Not always coherent, but always magnificent, because it is strong, majestic, conquering.
Here the epic-short story was born, containing more everyday touches compared to the Kyiv one, as well as buffoon - an epic of a socially accusatory nature with the stamp of rude humor. The creators and performers of epics, as a rule, were buffoons, whose art is associated with the appearance of a puppet theater in the city. The Petrushka Folk Theater, which had been popular with the people for several centuries, was founded in Novgorod. Notable is the theatricalization of the church rite, which demonstrates the reverse influence of secular art on church art. Performances on religious subjects, which were in scenery, costumes, with rich musical accompaniment, were a vivid spectacle and were a success. According to N.A. Berdyaev, such pagan elements constantly played a significant role in the Russian worldview. He emphasized that “in the Russian element, the Dionysian, ecstatic element has always been preserved and is preserved to this day ... The enormous power of Russian choral song and dance is connected with this.”
Znamenny singing reached the highest perfection in Novgorod (a rich tradition of chanting was formed) and the art of bell ringing, which later became an essential feature of Russian music of the 19th and 20th centuries (the bells were reproduced in the operas Boris Godunov by Mussorgsky, The Maid of Pskov and The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh » Rimsky-Korsakov, in the music of Rachmaninoff, Shostakovich).
From the middle of the XIV century, a period of cultural upsurge began in Rus', named by academician D.S. Likhachev Pre-Renaissance, which, however, did not result in the Renaissance as in the West. The full influence of church ideology on spiritual life until the 17th century did not allow our country to follow the Western path of forming humanistic principles. However, one cannot deny the progress towards humanity in Russian Orthodoxy in the 14th century. It was he who played a special role in the formation of the spiritual unity of Rus' under the conditions of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
A huge contribution to the awakening of national self-consciousness and the uprising of the people against foreigners was made by the founder and hegumen of the Holy Trinity Monastery, St. Sergius of Radonezh, who became the spokesman for the Russian ideal of holiness. Compared to pre-Mongolian times, Sergius is a different type of saint, who stood at the origins of the new asceticism of the hermits. He managed to turn personal aspirations for the unity of the Russian land, for an end to unrest, into the religious, moral and political ideal of his era. The legislator of thoughts of the whole people blessed Dmitry Ivanovich for a feat of arms (“Go on the atheists boldly, without hesitation, and you will win”), consecrated the forthcoming erection of soldiers against the oppressors of Rus'. The appearance in the ranks of the Russian militia of two warriors in black schemas (Alexander Peresvet and Andrei Oslyabya, sent by St. Sergius of Radonezh) made an indelible impression on people and strengthened their will to win.
Pointing to the significance of the figure of St. Sergius of Radonezh in the rise of patriotism, historian V.O. Klyuchevsky writes: “the people, accustomed to trembling at the mere name of a Tatar, finally gathered their courage, stood up against the enslavers and not only found the courage to stand up, but also went to look for the Tatar hordes in the open steppe and there fell on the enemies with an indestructible wall, burying them under their own bones of many thousands". After the victory on the Kulikovo field, until the complete overthrow of the Tatar domination, another hundred years had to pass, but the increased sense of one's own strength, achieved as a result of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow, could not be crossed out. Of course, the true flowering of cultural life began after the Battle of Kulikovo.
The educational activities of the monasteries, the buildings of which, as a rule, are monuments of architecture, also contributed to the spiritual consolidation of the Russian people. Unique collections of handwritten and later printed books were kept here, schools of icon painting developed. For example, at the Joseph-Volotsky (Volokolamsk) monastery, founded in 1479 by the preacher Joseph Volotsky, a school was organized. And such monastic educators as the writer Epiphanius the Wise, Saint Theophanes the Greek, the Monk (since 1989 a saint) Andrei Rublev, Monk Daniil Cherny, Saint Dionysius Glushitsky made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian culture.
The history of Russian culture is inseparable from the history of the Russian Orthodox Church. Within it, there were two ideological directions opposite to each other, but focused, in fact, on a common task - opposition to the secularization policy of the state. The final resolution of this long confrontation is not in favor of the church, realized as a result of the church reform of Peter I, by and large, and means the logical and historical completion of the period of culture under consideration. The main stumbling block between Josephism (a trend founded by the hegumen of Volokolamsk, writer Joseph Volotsky (1439 - 1515) and non-acquisitiveness (centered in the Volga region and led by the elder Nil Sorsky (1433 - 1508) was the sphere of state-church relations. This dispute largely predetermined not only the nature of the political struggle, but also the ideological and philosophical essence of the artistic culture of Muscovite Russia.He also carried the germ of the resonant concept of "Moscow - the third Rome."
The postulate of Joseph Volotsky: "sovereign ... a common sovereign for all of us, whom the Lord God arranged the Almighty in his place and planted on the royal throne, court and mercy to betray him both church and monastic and all Orthodox Christianity of all Rus', the land, power and care handed over to him ", - largely explains why the argument was lost by his opponent. In the context of the idea of integrity, the unity of Rus', the line of the Josephites turned out to be the most appropriate and useful in practice. The strengthening of the Moscow autocracy, according to Joseph Volotsky, should be promoted by an economically powerful church (that is, owning land inhabited by peasants, using their labor), which was assessed by contemporaries as money-grubbing. The nonpossessors, in fact, doomed from the very beginning to declare their current heresy, preached the principles of conservative humanism and sought to create a church independent of secular power. The political loss could not overshadow the cultural and moral significance of non-possessiveness, which promoted the ideals of a “pure” spiritual life, free from worldly passions, aimed not at material wealth and hoarding, but at truth, goodness, human dignity and conscience. These precepts have become characteristic features of Russian culture.
In the XIV - XV centuries, the courage and courage of Russian soldiers is sung in a military story filled with the spirit of patriotism - one of the key literary genres (“The Tale of the Capture of the City of Vladimir by Batu”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, “ The legend of the exploits and life of the Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky. The “monuments of the Kulikovo cycle” include the famous “Tales of the Mamai Battle”, created in the first quarter of the 15th century, giving a detailed description of the victory of Dmitry Donskoy over Mamai, as well as the poem “Zadonshchina”, written, as is commonly believed, by Zephanius Ryazanets in 80 - 90 -s. XIV century. The author of the poem took as a model the ancient monument of Kyiv literature "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". It unites two works, between which two centuries have passed, one ideological meaning - a call for the unification of the Russian principalities in order to save the country from enemies. A large chronicle "The Tale of Tokhtamysh's Invasion of Moscow" adjoins this cycle.
An amazing literary phenomenon was "Journey Beyond Three Seas" by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, which testifies to the interest of Russian people in "faraway kingdoms, far away states." The traveler described in detail and colorfully his impressions of distant India of the 15th century 30 years before Vasca de Gama opened the way to this country.
The genre of life (hagiography) is widely used. Its origins are Metropolitan Cyprian ("The Life of Metropolitan Peter"), Pakhomiy Logofet (Pakhomiy Serb; "The Life of Cyril Belozersky"), who influenced the development of the Russian literary language and the spread of Christian ideals. But perhaps the most famous author of the hagiographical genre was the monk writer Epiphanius the Wise (“The Life of Stephen of Perm”, “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh”). It is characterized by an emotionally expressive style of verbal praise, called "word weaving". It is the hagiographers who most fully reveal such a feature of the literature of this period as “abstract psychologism: if earlier the actions of the characters were the subject of description, now their psychology is revealed to the reader (but not the character, which will be discussed only in the 17th century); writers expressively, although quite schematically and straightforwardly, sought to show the individuality of a person, his emotional response to the events of the outside world.
Already by the 90s of the XIV century, Moscow art had all the characteristics of a “grand style”, in which there was no student imitation and provincial narrow-mindedness. Moscow, after long years of rivalry with Novgorod and Tver, is turning into not only the political and spiritual, but also the artistic capital of a large Orthodox state. Her authority is recognized both in the Russian lands and in Constantinople. Contacts are developing with Byzantium, Bulgaria, Serbia. Major spiritual figures, artists, artisans come.
The activity of Theophan the Greek (1340 - 1410) had a significant impact on the formation of the capital style. The personality of this Byzantine icon painter plays a huge role in ancient Russian art. Feofan spent about three decades of his life in Rus', painting churches, decorating manuscripts and creating icons. His pictorial manners fully corresponded to the rise of the national self-consciousness of the people. The artistic perfection and spiritual depth of the images of this author appeared as an inimitable ideal of creativity. People admired Theophan's education, exceptional talent, extraordinary creative daring, which served as an example for Russian icon painters. Epiphanius the Wise calls him "an illustrious sage, a cunning philosopher", with a mind contemplating the lofty and wise, with rational eyes seeing reasonable kindness. The influence of the master on church art of the XIV-XV centuries was very fruitful.
Two main lines of Byzantine spiritual life are embodied in the work of Theophanes the Greek: on the one hand, the classical beginning, expressed in the contemplation of the beauty of the created world, and on the other hand, the aspiration to asceticism, which consists in renunciation of all perishable material. The master developed his own style of painting in line with the expressive style of Byzantine painting of the 14th century, which is distinguished by some sketchiness, dynamism and free drawing. Theophan's Byzantine works have not been preserved; the nature of his writing can be judged from the works created in Rus'. Only a small part of them has come down to us: the painting of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyin Street (in Veliky Novgorod), the icons of the Transfiguration and the Don Mother of God, the icon of the Assumption (on the back of the Don; perhaps not by his brush); from book miniatures - the initials of the Gospel of the Cat. Together with Semyon Cherny and his students, Theophanes the Greek painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399) in the Moscow Kremlin, and together with Prokhor from Gorodets and Andrei Rublev, the Annunciation Cathedral (1405). For the latter, the master and his disciples also completed the deesis tier (the second row of the high iconostasis of the temple). This is the first iconostasis in Rus' with full-length figures. In addition to the listed works, there are other miniatures and icons that cannot be attributed with full confidence to the works of this master. For example, a full-length icon of the apostles Peter and Paul, kept in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as a small icon of the Fourteenth Day. From the miniatures - the design of the Psalter of Ivan the Terrible. Research into possible works by Theophanes the Greek is still ongoing.
The invigorating influence of the icon painter Theophan the Greek was also experienced by the brilliant Andrei Rublev (c. 1360-1370 - 1427), whose art became the pride of our country. The master highly appreciated the expression, psychologism, dynamism of the images of his predecessor, but in his own work he affirmed other, deeply national artistic ideals, combined with the value of the spiritual power and greatness of man. It can be assumed that in the early period of his work he studied and worked in Byzantium and Bulgaria. Monk Andrei communicated with the best people of his time - military commanders, philosophers, publicists, theologians. The icon painter was well acquainted with Epiphanius the Wise. In spirit, Andrei Rublev is a student of Sergius of Radonezh, who throughout his life called for an end to strife in Rus'. It was he who was dedicated to the most famous icon of the creator - "Trinity", reflecting the idea of peace, harmonious harmony, love for one's neighbor. To understand its greatest humanistic value, one should pay attention to the historical context of the birth of this work. Reflecting on the Rublev Trinity, the famous theologian P.A. Florensky writes: “Among the turbulent circumstances of the time, amid strife, internecine strife, general savagery and Tatar raids, amid this deep peace that corrupted Rus', an endless, imperturbable, indestructible world, the “higher world” of the heavenly world, was opened to the spiritual gaze. The enmity and hatred reigning in the valley were opposed by mutual love, flowing in eternal harmony, in eternal silent conversation, in the eternal unity of the heavenly spheres ... this inexpressible facies of mutual inclinations, this pre-eminent silence without a word, this endless humility before each other - we consider creative content Trinity".
The theme of the icon is the Old Testament legend about the hospitality of the forefather Abraham - the reception and treatment of three strangers who came to announce to Abraham and his wife Sarah about the birth of their son Isaac. Christians see in this event a meaning converted into New Testament history. Wanderers are both an indication of the trinity of God, and the incarnation of God the Son and His atoning sacrifice, and the establishment by Christ of the Sacrament of Communion. By the time of Rublev, there was a long and quite uniform pictorial tradition of this biblical episode. But Rublev's icon presented a new image of a familiar plot, which was based on the original iconographic solution - impeccable from the standpoint of theological reading and at the same time clothed in a perfect artistic form. There are no usual narrative details in it, the lively specifics of the episode give way to the sublime image of the eternal council and predestination of Christ's sacrifice. The entire field of the centerpiece is occupied by three figures of Angels, quietly sitting around the table with refreshments; their postures, movements, views become the subject of the dramatic action of the icon, the object of contemplation and theological reflection. Never before has the trinity of the Deity, one in nature, but multiple in person-hypostases, been revealed so convincingly by the means of art. The figures of the Angels are equal in scale, but each is perceived as a free person, who is in absolute unity with the rest. The right hand of the central Angel, traditionally identified with Christ, blesses the cup with the head of a calf standing on the table - the image of the Old Testament sacrifice. The outlines of the bowl are repeated in the form of a space that seems to grow upwards, separating the two side Angels: the silhouette of the central Angel is “reflected” in the borders of the table, outlined by the lower part of their figures. Fine drawing, slight flattening of figures, narrowness of spatial plans contribute to the musical rhythm of such relationships. The artist's brush here is characterized by an ancient sense of proportion, proportions. Rublev very delicately operates with the categories of space and volume, remaining within the given limits of the icon-painting artistic canon. The image of the Rublev Trinity appears as if on the verge of the transition of the flow of time of human life into eternity and, conversely, timeless being into historical reality.
The icon of the Trinity was recognized as an obligatory sample by the resolution of the Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551: “Write icons from ancient translations, as Greek icon painters wrote, and as Ondrey Rublev and other notorious icon painters wrote, and sign the holy trinity, and from your own intention it’s nothing to transform.” Today it is kept in the State Tretyakov Gallery, but once a year on Trinity Day it is transferred to the museum church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi, where the icon participates in the festive divine service and becomes available for worship.
The main works of Andrei Rublev more or less confidently include: the iconostasis and murals of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the murals and iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icon "Our Lady of Vladimir" for the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod, the deesis tier from the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery , murals and iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, murals of the Spassky Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery in Moscow. Many of the works were done jointly with another remarkable artist of the "golden age" of the Russian icon, Daniil Cherny (circa 1350 - 1428).
The legacy of Andrei Rublev is inseparable from the history of Russian culture. Each of his images turns into an object of philosophical, artistic contemplation, it is a perfect harmony, where truth, love and beauty are combined. The charm of Rublev's art is connected, perhaps, not so much with the highest skill, which is beyond doubt, but with the grace and holiness contained in his works.
In the second half of the 15th century, Dionysius (c. 1440-1502), the most important artist of this period, became a special successor to the Rublev traditions. Among his grandiose works are frescoes of the Church of the Nativity of the Theotokos in the Ferapontov Monastery, icons for the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the icon of Our Lady Hodegetria for the Ascension Monastery, hagiographic icons of Metropolitans Peter and Alexei, murals in the Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God in the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery. The spiritual ideals of Dionysius were formed among the scribes and philosophers of that time - Vassian Rylo, Spiridon-Sava, ideological opponents of Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky, which was reflected in his work. The author's works demonstrate an increased interest in the problem of the human personality, its self-construction. If Rublev's attention was on the innermost life, then Dionysius adds an element of external "beautification" to the idea of a person's spiritual path through constant improvement, observation and education of his soul. In his work there is no sharp drama inherent in Theophanes the Greek, there is no philosophical depth of Andrei Rublev here either. A certain deep constraint was set by the desire for ceremonial splendor during the reign of Ivan III, the requirement to glorify the greatness of Moscow statehood. The graceful world of Dionysius is filled with lightness, light, joyful exultation. The masters of the talented painter's circle created the icon of the Intercession of the Mother of God from the Suzdal Intercession Monastery, painted the altar barrier and the altar of the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, the Resurrection Cathedral in Volokolamsk. In the following century, his students continued the work of their teacher with dignity, however, according to most researchers, the name of Dionysius marks the last heyday of Russian painting.
The ideologeme "Moscow is the third Rome". At the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries, the process of unification of Russian lands was completed, Muscovite Rus entered the arena of European political life as a powerful single state. The young autocracy needed not only military and political support, but, first of all, spiritual support. Naturally, the culture of the country is entirely subordinate to the cause of serving the Russian state. The Elder of the Pskov-Caves Monastery, Philosopher, succeeded in clearly and strictly substantiating the idea of autocracy in his “Message to the Astrologers” (circa 1524).
However, the first steps towards the birth of his concept, called "Moscow - the third Rome", so important for understanding the ideology of the Muscovite kingdom, can be found much earlier. In the 15th century, the Moscow chronicle lost its locality and developed the idea of Russian unity. It tended to give Moscow a central place in history. The design of the concept was preceded by the work of the Moscow Metropolitan Zosima "Outline of Paschalia", in which for the first time Moscow is openly and officially declared a reigning city. In the 10s of the 16th century, the Tver monk Spiridon-Savva compiled the "Message on the Monomakh's Crown", which affirms the succession of the power of the Moscow prince from August Caesar, the Roman emperor. On the basis of the “Message”, in turn, the “Legend of the Princes of Vladimir” was created, containing a number of legends about the origin of the Russian Grand Dukes from Augustus and about the acquisition by Vladimir Monomakh of royal regalia from the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. It is also known that Filofey called Moscow the third Rome under the influence of the Bulgarian translation of the Chronicle of Constantine Manasses, who proclaimed Tarnovo "the new Tsargrad".
The cult of the icon of the Mother of God of Vladimir, thanks to which, according to the annals, in 1395 Moscow was miraculously saved from the army of the Tatar Khan Tamerlane, can reasonably be considered the archetypal source of the Philotheus doctrine. There is a clear parallel between the cult of the main Constantinople icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria, who guarded the Byzantine capital, and the cult of the Vladimir icon. The latter protects Moscow, and this means that the patronage of the Mother of God has been transferred to the Russian city, thus it is equal and similar to Constantinople - the second Rome - and has the right to call itself the third Rome.
According to Philotheus, only Moscow retained the true Christian faith, the "first Rome" and the "second Rome" (Constantinople) fell victim to heresies. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) actually coincided with the final overthrow of Tatar domination in Rus' (1480), so both of these events were naturally connected and interpreted as a shift in the center of world holiness. "Two Romes have fallen, a third stands, and there will be no fourth."
Researchers Yu.M. Lotman and B.A. Uspensky emphasize the duality of the idea of "Moscow - the third Rome": the symbol of Byzantium is divided into two symbolic images - Constantinople was understood as the new Jerusalem (holy theocratic city) and at the same time - as the new Rome, the imperial state capital of the world. Both ideas are embodied in the understanding of Moscow as a new Constantinople, on the one hand, and a third Rome, on the other [Ibid.]. Thus, Filofei's concept was intended to form the ideological image of Moscow, to justify the government's actions to create a strong centralized state.
Russian artistic culture of the 16th century. The new political concept was deeply reflected, first of all, in the literature of the 16th century, full of edification and instructiveness. The book culture supporting autocratic power is represented by such works as "Stoglav", "Great Menaion-Chetii", "Domostroy". They laid down a program of cultural stabilization that determined order in all areas of life: spiritual, mundane, brownie.
Each of the twelve volumes of the "Great Menaia-Chetih" (reading by months), written under the guidance of Archbishop Macarius of Novgorod, collected the lives of saints whose memory was celebrated in a certain month. The narration is conducted in hagiographic genre from the standpoint of the highest spiritual meaning, which instructs the reader to abandon "all worldly cares" and think "about the eternal".
Archpriest Sylvester's "Domostroy" contains the rules of private life, house building. This is an ideal model of the Orthodox world in its maximum approximation to a person, his everyday concerns and the little things of life.
"Stoglav" includes the resolutions of the Stoglav church council of 1551 and reflects the clash of different views on the complex problems of church rituals, the spiritual life of man and society. The book contains Ivan the Terrible's calls to defend the Christian faith from "blameless books", from "argans and guselniks", from "icons" who write not "from ancient patterns", but "self-thinking". "Stoglav" consolidates the official ideology and proposes a ban on any innovations of a church and cultural nature.
The talented publicist of the first half of the 16th century, I.S. Peresvetov, who wrote “The Tale of Tsar Constantine”, “The Tale of Mohammed-Saltan”, “Predictions of Philosophers and Latin Doctors about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich”, etc. His formula of royal power is the expression: “A state without a thunderstorm is like a horse without a bridle” .
A special paradoxical world is the writings of Ivan the Terrible himself, on the one hand, preaching God's commandments, and on the other, cursing dissidents on the verge of foul language. Among his literary texts, messages to Prince A.M. Kurbsky, who fled from Moscow to Livonia. In them, the despot tsar tried to prove the necessity of unlimited autocratic power for the prosperity of the Muscovite state.
Analyzing the cultural mechanism of Ivan the Terrible's marginal behavior, Yu.M. Lotman shows that the main reason for the extreme unpredictability of the king is a kind of conscious experiment to implement the theory of permissiveness, the desire to overcome any prohibitions. In the behavior of the king, the scientist points out the following points: a) playing the role of God the Almighty; b) the unpredictable transitions of Ivan the Terrible from holiness to sin and vice versa, arising from the limitlessness of his power); c) playing the role of a holy fool, in which the roles of God, the devil and a sinful person are combined; d) the constant realization of opposite actions: on the one hand, an unlimited ruler, and on the other, a defenseless exile.
In general, according to Yu.M. Lotman, the tsar's actions were based on tyranny, elevated to the state norm. His behavior was not consistent, but a series of unpredictable explosions. However, it is precisely the change of outbursts of cruelty and excesses of repentance that just allows us to speak of their undoubted orderliness. Perhaps the personality is capable of highlighting significant trends in the development of culture, and in the personality of Ivan the Terrible, various aspects of Russian culture are embodied, “realizing itself in the categories of an explosion” [Ibid., p. 269]. This is the specificity and at the same time the drama of her destinies.
It is practically impossible to forbid the development of culture in any historical period, however, the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral had serious consequences for the art that flourished in the 16th century. As L. Lifshits notes, it has turned into a normative system, where only that which is consecrated by tradition, the authority of church and state is valued. Personal spiritual experience was replaced by a sum of knowledge that accurately determines the meaning of all the phenomena of life. The problems of the relationship of the individual with God and the world were translated into the plan of the relationship of the individual with the state. Even moral norms were now considered from the point of view of the public good. From art, according to the art critic, the poetic intonation of calm contemplation is leaving.
A great event in the cultural life of the country in the 16th century was the acquaintance of our compatriots with the achievement of European technical thought - book printing, which became a state monopoly. In 1553, the first printing house was opened in Moscow. The outstanding educator Ivan Fedorov organized the Printing Yard 10 years later. The first Russian dated book, The Apostle, published in 1564, was distinguished by a high design technique. For unknown reasons, Ivan Fedorov left the Moscow state, but the work was continued by his students (Nikifor Tarasiev, Timofey Nevezha, Andronik Timofeev Nevezha).
The development of metropolitan architecture of the late 15th-16th centuries was due to the close cultural ties of Moscow, the rise of which put an end to the separation of the principalities. On this basis, the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal and Pskov-Novgorod architecture are borrowed. Monumental construction was of national importance for the capital. The Kremlin, whose walls were rebuilt during the reign of Ivan III, became a symbol of her power. The Italian engineers Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo and others were invited to rebuild the Kremlin, who managed to preserve the old arrangement of the walls, making them even more majestic. Under their command, the Tainitskaya, Vodovzvodnaya, Spasskaya, and Borovitskaya towers were erected. After the completion of the walls and towers, the Kremlin became one of the best fortresses in all of Europe.
The idea of statehood of that period was also answered by the construction of the new Assumption Cathedral, designed to surpass the Novgorod Sophia in its grandeur and become the main temple of Rus'. The talented architect Fiorovanti managed to combine the beauty of ancient Russian architecture with his Renaissance views. Such features of Vladimir's Assumption Cathedral as five domes, pozakomarnoe covering, arched belt on the facades, promising portals were repeated in Moscow, which still surpassed its original model in majesty.
After the construction of the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin, new buildings were built: the Archangel Cathedral, located on the central square, intended to be the burial place for the Moscow tsars (Italian architect Aleviz Novy); The Annunciation Cathedral, which serves as the home church of the royal family and the grand dukes, is the only one of the main churches of the Moscow Kremlin, created by Russian craftsmen.
In the 16th century, the modification of the Pre-Renaissance (this is how the art critic G.K. Wagner called the monologic-edifying artistic culture of Rus' of this period) was expressed in the appearance of new types of temples - hipped and pillar-shaped. In architecture, the modification was due to the fact that the language of the Renaissance had to convey rather abstract symbolism coming from Christian antiquity. The Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye became the first and, perhaps, the most perfect monument of tent architecture (pillar-like structures with a tent-shaped top structure). In the Kolomna church, a break with the Byzantine tradition is noticeable; an original architectural idea is embodied. It became an emblem of the sacred power of the sovereign, a monumental symbol of the might of the Muscovite state. The birth of a new architectural form, different from the usual five domes, was enthusiastically received by contemporaries. Temples appear that imitate the Kolomna Church (for example, the Church of the Resurrection in the village of Gorodnya near Kolomna).
Another remarkable architectural monument that reflected the main trends in architecture of the 16th century was the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the Moat, better known as St. Basil's Cathedral, erected to commemorate the victory over Kazan. Barma and Postnik, the masters who supervised the construction, managed to achieve unity of elements of different styles and origins: proper Russian, Renaissance and Gothic. Its space-planning solution combines the forms of the tent Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, the Church of the Resurrection in the Kremlin, built by Petrok Maly, and multi-chapel churches such as the cathedral of the Abrahamiev Monastery; in constructive solutions and decor - forms borrowed from the buildings created by the Italians who worked in Moscow, and from the Gothic architecture of their western neighbors.
The erected building became a temple-icon, in the appearance of which the ideas of the inseparability of the Sacred History and the then-created political history of "Moscow - the Third World" were reflected. The powerful correlation of the architecture of St. Basil's Cathedral with abstract concepts demonstrates the strengthening of allegorism, characteristic of that time. A close analogy to this grandiose temple is the wonderful hipped-roof Church of the Transfiguration in the village of Ostrov, near Moscow, built around the same time.
The negative aspects of the resolutions of the Stoglavy Cathedral could not but affect the architecture. The requirement for didactic clarity, forcing architects to resort to analogies, leads to a certain heaviness of forms and complication of compositional principles. The features of aristocracy and grace inherent in the temples of the period of the reign of Vasily III and preserved in the architecture of the thirties of the 16th century are being lost.
Stoglav prevented the organic development of the Russian school of icon painting. Starting from the middle of the 16th century, the official art of Muscovite Rus' was gradually losing its dignity. According to M.V. Alpatov, the template begins to prevail in him, handicraft is intensified. It is not surprising that there is the same essential difference between icons of the 15th century and icons of the 16th century as between Greek originals and Roman copies. In the iconography of the 16th century, the symbolic-allegorical genre with its edification and moralizing is widely spread. The compositions of icons could combine abstract religious ideas and specific images taken from life, which was unacceptable for icon painting of the 15th century. The circle of depicted scenes includes everyday life with its details. This was especially true for icons painted in honor of the new Russian saints. Yes, the life of Rev. Sergius of Radonezh was often depicted not according to the canon, but according to the “self-thinking” of the artist (full-length hagiographic icon of Sergius of Radonezh). The icon "Church Militant" ("Blessed is the army of the heavenly king"), glorifying the apotheosis of the Moscow army led by Ivan the Terrible, clearly demonstrates the ideological and political motives in the painting of the 16th century.
Culture of Muscovite Rus' XIV-XVII centuries
culture Tatar invasion
Together with the decline of Kievan Rus from the middle of the XIII century. in the history of Russian culture, the process of formation and development of the Great Russian people and its spiritual characteristics began. As a result of the complex and contradictory interaction of ethnic, historical, political and cultural factors, a new ethno-cultural complex was formed, the center of which was North-Eastern Rus' and Moscow. Naturally, a new ethno-cultural community emerged - the Great Russians, i.e. a new nationality with specific features of spirituality and mentality. After the Mongol invasion, the policy of the ruling circles of Rus' was aimed at preserving the Russian Orthodox identity in the face of external threats and cultural expansions. This did not lead to the complete isolation of the country; it continued to be influenced by both the East and the West, while maintaining spiritual ties with the Orthodox peoples. Under such conditions, the formation of a proper Russian cultural archetype took place, which was called Muscovite Rus'.
The Mongol-Tatar conquerors inflicted enormous damage on Russian culture, but they could not destroy it, there was not even a synthesis of Russian and Mongolian cultures. Russian culture has retained the centers of its originality and its subsequent development took place on an internal basis. Already at the end of the XIII century. the first signs of the beginning revival of Russian culture are observed, but at the same time the geography of cultural centers has changed. In the history of this period, a special place belongs to Novgorod and Pskov, which survived the Mongol-Tatar pogrom. In these cities, the traditions of ancient Russian writing, painting and architecture have been preserved; they became the largest centers of Russian culture of their time.
In the middle of the XIV century. the period of rise and intensive formation of Russian culture as a national one began. The Mongol-Tatar invasion, which lasted about two and a half centuries (1237-1480), easily destroyed Kievan Rus, weakened by princely strife and strife. In the most detrimental way, the invasion affected the artistic culture of Rus', as it led to the ruin of many cities, the death of the most valuable works of art. Crafts suffered the most, and such as the production of jewelry, products from precious metals, and the technique of cloisonné enamel disappeared altogether. For a whole century - from the middle of the XIII century. until the middle of the 14th century. - stopped stone construction. This circumstance, in turn, had a negative impact on the development of painting, especially fresco painting.
Almost no architectural monuments of this period have been preserved. Construction was concentrated mainly in two areas - in the north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) and in Vladimir land (Moscow and Tver). Mostly small four-pillar one-domed temples without narthexes were built. They notice a departure from the cruciform composition of the pre-Mongolian model, an attraction to classical cubic forms. These buildings are very harmonious, giving the impression of a balanced pyramid. The favorite building material was white stone (limestone) - a legacy of the Vladimir-Suzdal tradition.
The heyday of architecture at the end of the XV century. associated with intensive construction in Moscow. Ivan III invites Italian architects to work, among which Aristotle Fioravanti stands out. Under his leadership, a new Assumption Cathedral was built in the Kremlin - the cathedral church of the metropolitans. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was taken as a model for it. Fioravanti drew up a plan for the construction of new walls and towers. The Kremlin and the walls were built of red brick (they still exist). True, the Kremlin towers did not yet have tents - they were put up later, in the 17th century. The interior layout of the Kremlin was finally formed. The Faceted Chamber for ceremonial receptions, the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of Moscow princes and tsars), the home church for sovereigns - the Annunciation Cathedral and other buildings were built here. One of the most remarkable buildings of the Kremlin is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. It was placed on the site of the ancient church of Ivan Lestvichnik, therefore it was called Ivanovskaya. It was called Great for its extraordinary height - more than 80 m. The bell tower was the tallest building in Rus' for a long time. It was laid at the beginning of the 16th century. simultaneously with the Archangel Cathedral, and was completed only in 1600, under Boris Godunov.
The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semicircle of Kitay-gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected a “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Horse also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.
In painting of the XIV century. the emotional and at the same time picturesque beginning gradually intensified. This style cannot yet be called expressive, but the development took place in this direction. At the same time, Novgorod-Pskov painting tended towards greater external freedom of style, and Moscow towards restraint. Both the temple architecture and the interior were pushing for this. In Novgorod and Pskov, these were cramped, cozy spaces with dim lighting, and in Moscow, well-lit walls rising up.
After long years of rivalry with Novgorod and Tver, Moscow becomes the political and cultural center of Rus', where a common Russian art and Russian culture are gradually formed. The Metropolitan's move to Moscow elevated her even more, as he turned the city into an all-Russian religious center. From the second half of the XIV century. Moscow is the universally recognized capital of the emerging Russian state. The Battle of Kulikovo (1380) testified to the growing potential of the city, the victory in which made it possible to talk about the formation of the modern Russian ethnos and the beginning of a new period in the history of our country. This time becomes a milestone in the development of Russian culture, dividing the periods of national humiliation and a new upsurge.
In Moscow, as the political and religious center of Rus', all types of artistic creativity developed, among which Russian painting experienced especially many changes, primarily icon painting and fresco. Innovations were manifested in the spatial solution of the background and the artist's close interest in the individual. So, on the icon of the beginning and middle of the XIV century. one can still feel the timidity of the people, who are afraid to believe in themselves, do not trust the independent forces of their creativity. It seems that the icon painter does not yet dare to be Russian. The faces on the icons are oblong, Greek, the beards are short, non-Russian. The architecture of churches that make up an inseparable whole with an icon is either Greek or bears the stamp of a transitional stage from Greek to Russian. Church domes are still slightly pointed and have an almost round shape of a Greek dome, while the Russian onion is still in the process of formation. Inside the temples there are Greek upper galleries.
In icons of the 15th and 16th centuries. strikes a complete revolution. Everything in them has definitely become Russified. The Russian icon painter experienced a deep national upsurge, like the whole society. Rus' no longer needed foreign teachers, its path was determined. In icon painting, this was expressed in the change of the Greek face to a broad Russian one, often with a bushy beard. Moreover, not only Russian saints are written this way, but also prophets, apostles, even Christ. The same transformation is visible in the temple architecture, which is depicted on the icons. The feat of national revival glorified both Russian churches, and the Russian folk type, and even Russian folk life. Previously, the Russian people knew Rus' as a place of suffering and humiliation, but now they perceived it in the halo of divine glory. Icons have become an expression of the soul of the people, their spiritual image, they manifested deep philosophical ideas that clearly showed the essence of the idea of catholicity, the key to Russian culture.
Painting reached its peak in Moscow at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. Here, at this time, the Russian national school of painting was finally taking shape, the most prominent representative of which was the Russian artist Andrei Rublev.
The religious concept underlying the work of Andrei Rublev is different from that adopted by Theophan the Greek. It is devoid of the idea of gloomy hopelessness and tragedy. This is a philosophy of goodness and beauty, harmony of the spiritual and material principles. In Christian teaching, Rublev, unlike Feofan, saw not the idea of a merciless punishment of a sinful person, but the idea of love, forgiveness, mercy, and his Savior is not a formidable omnipotent and merciless judge, but a compassionate, loving and all-forgiving God, just and benevolent, who alone can reconcile the opposition of spirit and flesh, heavenly and earthly. His gaze does not frighten him, like the gaze of Feofanov's Pantocrator, but consoles him. Byzantine art did not know such a Christ.
The main monument of Andrei Rublev's creativity in the field of monumental painting are the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, painted together with Daniil Cherny. Outwardly, their depiction of the scene of the Last Judgment seems quite traditional, but in terms of tonality it seems to be a new phenomenon in world painting. The victory of the Russian squads on the Kulikovo field inspired hope for liberation from the Mongol dependence. This explains the light coloring of the Rublyovskaya painting. The most important features of the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral are the faces of the Russian type, as opposed to the traditionally elongated Byzantine ones, as well as the artist's attraction to crowd scenes.
The iconostasis is another special phenomenon of artistic culture that arose during the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. This was a purely Russian invention, since until that time the altar in Russian and Byzantine churches was separated from the parishioners only by a low barrier. Andrey Rublev also became one of the creators of the iconostasis.
An important event in the history of Russian culture of the XVI century. the emergence of the printing press. Typography met the needs of the state and began at the initiative of the government, supported by the church. The first attempts at book printing in Russia date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. The first editions were anonymous, i.e. did not contain the names of publishers, imprint. Currently, there are seven such publications. A new stage in book printing began in 1563, when a printing house in Moscow was set up at the expense of the tsar's treasury. Since then, printing has become a state monopoly. The deacon of one of the Moscow churches Ivan Fedorov and his assistant and colleague Pyotr Mstislavets became the head of the printing house. On March 1, 1564, the Apostle, the first Russian dated printed book, came out of a Moscow printing house. The Book of Hours was published in the same printing house in 1565. The work of Ivan Fedorov was continued by his students Nikifor Tarasiev, Timofey Nevezha and his son Andronik Timofeev Nevezha. Until the end of the XVI century. about twenty books were published, all of ecclesiastical and religious content.
In the XIV-XVI centuries. craft continued to develop. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the XV century. Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon makers developed. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, the creator of the famous Tsar Cannon. It took about 2.5 pounds of non-ferrous metals to make it, its caliber is 89 cm, the barrel length is almost 5.5 m.
So, the culture of Muscovite Rus' in the XIV-XVII centuries. - this is a symbol of prosperity, the beginning of the formation of a single all-Russian culture.
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Consequences of the Time of Troubles
The Time of Troubles ended with great territorial losses for Rus'. Smolensk was lost for many decades; western and a significant part of eastern Karelia captured by the Swedes. Not resigned to national and religious oppression, almost the entire Orthodox population, both Russians and Karelians, left these territories. Rus' lost access to the Gulf of Finland. The Swedes left Novgorod only in 1617, only a few hundred inhabitants remained in the completely devastated city.
The time of troubles led to a deep economic decline. In many districts of the historical center of the state, the size of arable land has decreased by 20 times, and the number of peasants by 4 times. In the western counties (Rzhevsky, Mozhaysky, etc.), cultivated land ranged from 0.05 to 4.8%. The lands in the possessions of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery were “everything ruined to the ground and the peasant women with their wives and children were slaughtered, and the worthy ones were taken to the full ... and five or six dozen peasant women after the Lithuanian devastation were shed and they still do not know how to make bread from ruin and bread.” In a number of areas, and by the 20-40s of the 17th century, the population was still below the level of the 16th century. And in the middle of the 17th century, “living arable land” in the Zamoskovny Territory accounted for no more than half of all lands recorded in cadastral books.
Culture of Russia in the 14th - 17th centuries.
From the 10th century almost half of the European part of Russia became part of the feudal Old Russian state, where an original artistic culture developed with a number of local schools (southwestern, western, Novgorod-Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal), which gained experience in building and beautifying cities, created wonderful monuments of ancient architecture, frescoes, mosaics, iconography. Its development was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led Ancient Rus' to economic and cultural decline and to the isolation of the southwestern lands that became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state. After a period of stagnation in the Old Russian lands located on the territory of Russia from the end of the 13th century. Russian (Great Russian) artistic culture begins to take shape. In its development, more tangibly than in the art of Ancient Rus', the influence of the urban lower classes, which became an important social force in the struggle for deliverance from the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the unification of Russian lands, was manifested.
Leading already in the XIV century. Grand-ducal Moscow synthesizes this struggle from the achievements of local schools and from the 15th century. becomes an important political and cultural center, where the art of Andrei Rublev, imbued with a deep faith in the beauty of a moral feat, and the architecture of the Kremlin proportionate to man in its grandeur are formed. The apotheosis of the ideas of unification and strengthening of the Russian state was embodied in the temples-monuments of the 16th century. With the development of economic and social relations in the XVII century. the isolation of individual regions is finally liquidated, and international relations are expanding, secular features are growing in art. Without going out as a whole almost until the end of the 17th century. outside the framework of religious forms, art reflected the crisis of the official church ideology and gradually lost the integrity of the worldview: direct life observations destroyed the conditional system of church iconography, and the details borrowed from Western European architecture came into conflict with the traditional composition of the Russian church. But this partly prepared the decisive liberation of art from the influence of the church, which took place by the beginning of the 18th century. as a result of the reforms of Peter I.
From the XIV-XVI centuries. several wooden churches have been preserved. The earlier ones are "cage", resembling a hut with a gable roof and outbuildings. Churches of the 16th century - high, octagonal, covered with a tent, and extensions on two or four sides have curved roofs - "barrels". Their slender proportions, contrasts of figured "barrels" and a strict tent, severe chopped walls and carvings of the gallery and porches, their inextricable connection with the surrounding landscape are evidence of the high skill of folk craftsmen - "woodworkers" who worked as artels.
In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. In the conditions of greatly reduced international and interregional relations in the 2nd half of the 13th century and at the beginning of the 14th century. the old schools of painting finally crystallize and new ones are formed.
From the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries. the artistic role of Moscow is enhanced. Feofan Grek, Prokhor from Gorodets, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny worked here. In the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Feofan slightly increased the size of the icons of Christ, the Mother of God and the saints and achieved a clear expressiveness of the silhouette (“deesis rank”). This rank was of great importance for the subsequent development of the Russian high iconostasis.
In the 17th century in Russian art, a new genre appeared for him - a portrait. Until the middle of the XVII century. the authors of the portraits still follow icon-painting principles, and their works differ little from icons. Later, not without the influence of foreigners who worked in Russia, the techniques of Western European painting appeared in the portrait, facial features are accurately fixed, the volume of the figure is revealed, although the interpretation of clothes remains flat, and the image as a whole is frozen and motionless.
The mural painting of the Yaroslavl and Kostroma icon painters, who also worked in Moscow, Rostov, Romanov and Borisoglebskaya Sloboda, Vologda, the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and other cities, is marked by inexhaustible fantasy, interest in the surrounding reality. The craftsmen were able to add interest and decorativeness to multi-figure, full of dynamics, multi-color murals covering the walls and vaults of temples with a picturesque carpet. A number of scenes are formed into narrative cycles with many subtly noticed everyday details and motifs from real landscapes. These murals, like the icons in the Yaroslavl church of Elijah the Prophet and several excellent icons of Semyon Kolmogorodets, are permeated with the optimistic attitude of people who still timidly but joyfully reveal the beauty of earthly life.
The art of the 17th century, predominantly narrative and decorative, strove for literacy and external expressiveness, which was often achieved through a very free interpretation of iconographic scenes and saturating them with everyday details. This, as well as the constant interest of artists in the portrait and in the depiction of real buildings and landscapes, prepared Russian art for the transition to the path of secular development. This transition was impossible, however, without a decisive liberation of art from the influence of the church, without the introduction of the secular principle into the culture, which was carried with it by the reforms of Peter I.
Sculpture occupied a special place in the artistic life of the Russian Middle Ages. The official church treated her negatively as a relic of idolatry, but could not but reckon with her popularity among the people. In those moments of history, when the unification of all the forces of the people was especially important, sculpture gained access to the temple, serving as an effective conductor of current ideas. Therefore, it is dominated by plots that in the popular mind were associated with a heroic or high moral and aesthetic principle.
During the XIV - XVII centuries. Sculpture went through the same general evolution as painting, from a lapidary, generalized treatment of static figures to greater narrative and freedom in conveying movement. Not directly related to the Byzantine tradition, sculpture was freer in embodying the local understanding of the ideals of moral beauty and strength. Echoes of pre-Christian traditions are felt in some local schools. These traditions, although they called for decisive measures on the part of the church to eradicate them, found their direct development in folk sculpture of the 18th-19th centuries.
Thus, in the XIV-XVII centuries. art in Russia developed under the great influence of the church. Churches predominate in architectural monuments, icons dominate in monuments of painting. There was also a strong influence of Byzantine motifs on the development of Rus' during this period. Only a part of the crafts not subject to this influence developed independently. The exit of Russian art from under the influence of the church began only at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries, which gave a powerful impetus to development.
Peter I the Great (Pyotr Alekseevich; May 30, 1672 - January 28, 1725) - the last Tsar of All Russia from the Romanov dynasty (since 1682) and the first All-Russian Emperor (since 1721).
All state activity of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.
The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for warfare, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.
A number of historians, such as V. O. Klyuchevsky, pointed out that the reforms of Peter I were not something fundamentally new, but were only a continuation of those transformations that were carried out during the 17th century. Other historians (for example, Sergei Solovyov), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's transformations.
Historians who have analyzed Peter's reforms hold different views on his personal participation in them. One group believes that Peter did not play the main role (which was attributed to him as king) both in drawing up the program of reforms and in the process of their implementation. Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role of Peter I in carrying out certain reforms.
Culture of the Muscovite Kingdom (14th-17th centuries)
The Mongolian period covers the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. It lasted for about two and a half centuries - from 1243 to 1480. During this period, Russian culture suffered significant losses, which affected primarily crafts. Some of them - the production of jewelry, products from precious metals, the technique of cloisonné enamel - disappeared altogether. Others, due to the simplification of technology, have significantly reduced the level of quality. For a whole century - from the middle of the 13th century to the middle of the 14th century - stone construction almost completely stopped. This circumstance, in turn, had a negative impact on the development of painting, especially on fresco painting.
In the Mongolian period, Novgorod and Pskov, as well as Moscow and Tver, became the main centers of Russian architecture. The main type of building is still cult - the temple and the church. The classical style of the Novgorod temple, which took shape in the second half of the 14th century, preserves the traditions of Russian wooden architecture, it is distinguished by its nationality, festivity and picturesqueness. This is exactly how the Church of Theodore Stratilates on the Creek and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod appear. In the Pskov creations, the marked features are even more intensified. Moscow architecture takes shape in the 15th century and reaches its peak by the end of the century, along with getting rid of the Mongol-Tatar dependence.
Iconography developed most successfully in the Mongolian period. By the 14th century, Russian iconography completes the development of Byzantine painting and becomes quite mature and independent. It develops many original schools - Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow, Tver, Rostov, Vologda, each of which creates outstanding works.
A huge contribution to the development of Russian icon painting was made by Theodan the Greek, who moved to Rus' from Byzantium in the 70s of the 14th century. In Novgorod, he created beautiful frescoes in the Church of the Savior on Ilyin. In Moscow, together with Andrei Rublev and Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the iconostasis of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin. He owns the icons "Our Lady of the Don", "The Holy Apostles Peter and Paul" in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. His works are distinguished by internal tension and drama, vivid expressiveness.
Iconography reached its peak in the work of Andrei Rublev (c. 1360 and - c. 1430). In addition to the above-mentioned participation in the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, he, together with Daniil Cherny, participated in the creation of murals and icons of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow.
The highest achievement of Andrei Rublev's work was the famous "Trinity", written on a plot from the biblical myth of three angels, embodying the trinity of God. The icon captivates with its perfect composition, striking harmony of amazing blue color with pink and green. Some kind of blissful peace emanates from it, an extraordinary purity, a mysterious light.
Andrei Rublev had a huge impact on all subsequent icon painting. His influence was manifested in the work of another outstanding painter - Dionisy, who participated in the painting of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, painted the icons of Metropolitans Peter and Alexy, "The Savior in the Forces", created beautiful frescoes in the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersky Territory.
Thanks to the work of Andrei Rublev, Theophan the Greek, Daniil Cherny, Dionisy and other artists, Russian icon painting has reached unsurpassed heights. In this form of art, Russia is recognized as the same primacy as Egypt - in relief, Ancient Greece - in sculpture, Byzantium - in mosaics. The main theme of the Russian icon is the Mother of God, which has many options: "The Gracious", "Comforter", "Unexpected Joy", etc. In total, there are about 800 names of different types of icons of the Mother of God, revered as the patroness of the Russian people and state.
Along with iconography, literature and social thought also developed in the third period. Here the main theme is patriotism, the idea of uniting Rus' to fight the Mongol-Tatar dominance, the glorification of heroism in this struggle. This is what constitutes the content of the poetic story "Zadonshchina", as well as "Tales of the Battle of Mamaev", dedicated to the Kulikovo victory. Sergius of Radonezh (1321 - 1391), an outstanding church figure and thinker, made a huge contribution to the development of social thought.
The next and last stage in the evolution of ancient Russian culture falls on the 16th - 17th centuries and lasts from 1480 to 1698. During this period, along with the liberation from the Mongol-Tatarism, the formation of a single all-Russian culture also takes place. This became one of the greatest achievements in the development of Russia.
In the 16th century, completely new phenomena arose in Russian culture. Chief among them is printing, followed by radical changes in the whole culture. Russia in this area lagged behind Western Europe by a century. And in 1564, deacon Ivan Fedorov published his first book - "The Apostle". Once in Lvov, he publishes the first Russian primer (1574) - "for the benefit of the Russian people." In total, in the 16th century, 20 books of mostly theological content were published in Moscow.
In the 16th century, there was a sharp rise in the national identity of the Russian people. Russia is developing a political concept of the origin of the Russian state, its place and role in the world. The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir tells, based on legends, the history of the origin of the Russian Grand Dukes from the Roman emperor Augustus and the receipt by Vladimir Monomakh of the royal regalia from the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh.
The idea of Moscow as a “third Rome” arises, formulated by the Pskov elder Philotheus in his letters to Vasily 3 (1510 - 1511), where he, in particular, writes: “two Romes have fallen, a third stands, and there will be no fourth.” According to Philotheus, the center of Christianity consistently moved from the "old" Rome to the "second Rome" - Constantinople, and from there to Moscow. Byzantium betrayed Christianity by agreeing in 1439 to a union with the Catholic Church. Only Moscow remained faithful to Orthodoxy and therefore is the world center of Christianity. Hence the idea of the messianic role of Russia is derived, which, preserving and continuing the true Christian faith, preserving genuine spirituality, thereby saves the world from evil and filth.
In the middle of the 16th century, there was a powerful surge of Russian social thought, which caused the emergence of a new genre in literature - journalism. Russian thought is actively discussing the nature of the emerging state, the role of law and autocratic will, the relationship between "church" and "kingdom", spiritual and secular power. There is a dispute about the nature of autocratic power between Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky. Based on the idea of the divine origin of royal power, Ivan the Terrible claims that he has the right to judge and punish not only for deeds, but also for thoughts.
In general, in the 16th century there was a revival in all areas of life, including artistic culture.
In architecture, one of the main events is the creation of the Moscow Kremlin, which has become one of the most beautiful architectural ensembles in the world. It seems to crown the victory of the Russian people in the liberation struggle and the final assertion of Moscow as the center of Russia. Its ensemble includes three magnificent cathedrals. The first of them - the five-domed Cathedral of the Dormition (1475 - 1479), built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti, served as the place of enthronement to the Grand Duke's throne. He impressed his contemporaries with "majesty, height, lordship, sonority and space." It is distinguished by splendor, severity and restraint.
The second - the three-domed Annunciation Cathedral (1484 - 1489) - an elegant and refined court cathedral with the Church of the Deposition of the Robe (1484 - 1486), is connected to the palace complex, which included a reception hall - the Faceted Chamber (1487 - 1492), built by Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario.
The third - Arkhangelsk Soor (1505 - 1509) - was built using secular elements and served as a grand-princely tomb. The ensemble also includes a tall and impressive pillar-shaped church - the bell tower "Ivan the Great" (1500 - 1508). In addition, the Kremlin was surrounded by new brick walls more than two kilometers long with 18 towers, which became not only reliable fortifications, but also real works of art.
The Moscow Kremlin has become a kind of result of all the previous development of Russian architecture. It absorbed the best achievements of the Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod-Pskov and other schools, and at the same time laid the foundation for the further rise of Russian architecture, for the formation of an all-Russian national architecture.
Among the new phenomena is the tent style, which arose at the beginning of the 16th century, which continues the traditions of Russian wooden architecture and breaks with the Byzantine type of cross-domed church.
The Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1530 - 1532) was a monument of stone tent architecture. The most famous monument of such architecture was the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Moat, also known as St. Basil's Cathedral (1555 - 1561), built by Russian architects Barma and Postnik in memory of the capture of Kazan. Ensemble of the Cathedral of the Intercession of 9 pillar-shaped temples placed on a common base. The central temple is crowned with a large tent, and around it are the onion domes of the other eight temples. The bold and original composition, bright colors and elegance of the domes made the cathedral the rarest masterpiece of world art. Intercession Cathedral has also become a majestic symbol of the unification of Russian lands and principalities into a single state.
Theme: Russian culture IX- XVII centuries.
1. Features of the culture of Ancient Rus'.
The development of ancient Russian culture took place in direct connection with the evolution of East Slavic society, the formation of the state, and the strengthening of ties with neighboring countries. It is connected with the development of society and the state. In the pre-Mongolian period, the culture of Ancient Rus' reached a high level, created the foundations for the cultural development of subsequent eras.
Writing. Chronicles. Literature.
The origin of writing - the brothers Cyril and Methodius (IX century) - Cyrillic .
Literacy spread quite widely, as evidenced by:
Manuscripts on parchment (Ostromir Gospel, Izborniks of 1073 and 1076)
Graffiti (Vladimir Monomakh's inscription on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv)
epigraphy (inscription on the Tmutarakan stone)
birch bark letters (everyday records scratched by the so-called "writers" on pieces of birch bark)
The first book in Rus' - Ostromir Gospel (made by order of the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir during the time of Yaroslav the Wise).
Chronicle.
« The Tale of Bygone Years" - the first decade of the XII century - the monk Nestor of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. This is an all-Russian chronicle code, the text of which includes chronicle codes of the 11th century and other sources. The history of Rus' in the PVL is connected with world history and the history of the Slavs. PVL is the basis for most of the surviving chronicles.
Literature.
oral folk art - epics. Epics of the Kyiv cycle (about the heroes Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich, Dobrynya Nikitich, Prince Vladimir) and the Novgorod cycle (the merchant Sadko).
sermons and teachings - the first literary work - "Word and Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh
Lives of the Saints (hagiography) - "Reading about the life and death of Boris and Gleb" (Nestor)
The heroic epic "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" , written in Kyiv on the occasion of the attack of the Polovtsian Khan Konchak (1185)
journalism - "Word" and "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik (XII - beginning of XIII)
Architecture of Ancient Rus'.
The first stone church is the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv (end of the 10th century)
cross-domed church (Byzantium), in the XII century - single-dome churches
St. Sophia Cathedral (1037, in memory of the defeat of the Pechenegs, 13 domes) and the Golden Gate in Kyiv, St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1052)
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality: XII century - Assumption Cathedral and Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir, Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165)
Art.
mosaic - an image made of colored stones (Our Lady Oranta - Praying in St. Sophia Cathedral)
fresco - painting with water colors on wet plaster (frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv)
icon painting - a work of easel painting with a cult purpose (Angel Golden Hair (Novgorod school))
Applied art.
granulation - decoration of jewelry with grains of metal
engraving - decoration of jewelry with a pattern carved on metal
filigree - jewelry in the form of a patterned mesh of thin twisted wire
2. Russian culture XIII - XV centuries.
XIV- XVcenturies.
The main events of Russian history of the XIV-XV centuries were: the process of unification of Russian lands into a single state and the struggle against the Mongol yoke. Accordingly, the key features of culture were: a) the idea of national revival and state unification; b) the idea of national independence.
Folklore.
· The main theme of the folklore of this period was the struggle against the Mongol invasion and the Horde yoke. In the XIII-XV centuries, genres developed historical song And legends .
· Many folklore works, based on real historical facts, transformed real events in accordance with people's desires. For example, the song about Shchelkan, based on the history of the uprising of 1327 in Tver.
· A special cycle of epics - about Sadko and Vasily Buslaev - developed in Novgorod.
Writing and Literature.
· The most important works of writing remained chronicles, containing both information about natural and historical phenomena, as well as literary works, theological reasoning. Centers of chronicle writing: Novgorod, Tver, Moscow. The Moscow chronicle began under Ivan Kalita. Examples: Trinity Chronicle (1408, Moscow as the center of the unification of Russian lands), Russian Chronograph - world history with brief information on the history of Rus' (mid-15th century).
· The most famous works of literature of the 13th century are “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” and “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, which included the legend of Yevpaty Kolovrat.
At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries, poetic works dedicated to the victory on the Kulikovo field were created "Zadonshchina" And "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle" . “Zadonshchina”, the author is Sofony Ryazanets (“The Tale of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich and his brother Prince Vladimir Andreevich, how they defeated the adversary of their Tsar Mamai”) and “The Tale of the Mamai Battle” are the most perfect works about the Battle of Kulikovo.
· In the XIII-XV centuries, many lives of saints were created in Rus': Alexander Nevsky, Metropolitan Peter, Sergius of Radonezh and others.
· A common genre of medieval Russian literature was the story (“The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”, which tells about the love of a peasant woman and a prince).
· The genre of “Journeys”, that is, descriptions of travels, has also been preserved in Russian literature (“Journey beyond the three seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, the first Russian to visit India).
public thought.
· The XIV-XV centuries were a time of sharp religious disputes in Rus'. Already in the 70s of the XIV century, the heresy of the Strigolniks arose in Novgorod and Pskov.
· Non-possessors, led by Nil Sorsky, believed that it was fitting for monks to subsist on the labor of their own hands, and not on the labor of others. Therefore, they denied the church the right to own villages with peasants. Their opponents, the Josephites, supporters of hegumen Joseph Volotsky, insisted on the right of the church to own land with the peasants so that the church could conduct extensive charity work. At the same time, the non-possessors were relatively tolerant of heretics, believing that they should be admonished as erring, while the Josephites demanded the merciless execution of heretics and considered any doubt in faith unacceptable.
Architecture.
· In the Moscow principality, stone construction began in the second quarter of the 14th century. Moscow Kremlin:
construction of the white-stone Moscow Kremlin (1366 - Dmitry Donskoy, white-stone Kremlin),
· XV century, Ivan III - the construction of the modern Kremlin (of red brick, elements of Italian architecture - "dovetail").
The most famous buildings of the late 15th century were the majestic Assumption Cathedral , built in the Moscow Kremlin under the guidance of the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti and the Annunciation Cathedral, built by Pskov masters.
Art.
In the visual arts of the 13th-15th centuries, the work of two great artists stands out: Theophan the Greek and Andrei Rublev.
· Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked in Novgorod and Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotional tension and color saturation. Theophan's images are harsh, ascetic. Examples: the Church of the Savior on Ilyinka in Novgorod, the Archangel and Annunciation Cathedrals in Moscow.
· A different manner was inherent in Andrei Rublev (last third of the 14th - first third of the 15th century, monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery). Rublev's murals are preserved in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Examples: Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow, Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, Trinity Cathedral (the famous "Trinity"), "Saviour".
· Late XV - early XVI century - Dionysius (icons of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin).
3. Russian culture XVI century.
Major events and characteristic features of cultureXVIcentury.
The main events of Russian history of the 16th century were: the creation of a centralized state and the establishment of despotic rule. Accordingly, the key features of culture were: a) the idea of national unification; b) the idea of the formation of a single nation.
Folklore.
The genre flourished in the 16th century historical song . Historical legends were also widespread. Songs and legends were usually dedicated to the outstanding events of that time - the capture of Kazan, the march to Siberia, wars in the West, or outstanding personalities - Ivan the Terrible, Yermak Timofeevich.
· In the folklore of the 16th century, the plots of the Kyiv epic cycle and events of the more recent past are often mixed.
Writing and typography.
· In the middle of the 16th century, chroniclers prepared a new chronicle code, called the Nikon Chronicle (since one of the lists belonged to Patriarch Nikon in the 17th century). The Nikon chronicle absorbed all the previous chronicle material from the beginning of Rus' to the end of the 50s of the 16th century.
· 1564 - the beginning of book printing in Russia : Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets - "Apostle" (not a single typo, clear print), then "Book of Hours", the first primer (The Printing House was located not far from the Kremlin on Nikolskaya Street, fled from Moscow to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania).
Literature and social thought.
· At the beginning of the 16th century, Elder Philotheus put forward the theory “Moscow is the third Rome”. The first Rome fell, the second Rome - Constantinople - too, the third Rome - Moscow, stands forever, and the fourth Rome will not happen.
· Heyday journalism : petitions to Ivan IV (protected the interests of the nobility, advocating the strengthening of autocratic power), correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and the escaped Prince Andrei Kurbsky (protected the interests of the aristocracy, speaking out against autocratic power). What the authors had in common was that they advocated a strong state and strong royal power. At the same time, the political ideal of Kurbsky was the activity of the Chosen Rada, and for Ivan Peresvetov it was a strong ruler who relied on the nobility.
A general guide to housekeeping, behavior in everyday life has become "Domostroy" written by Sylvester in the middle of the 16th century. "Domostroy" means "housekeeping", so you can find a variety of tips and instructions in it.
· The level of literacy among the population varied. Education was conducted in private schools, which were usually kept by people of the clergy. The first textbooks on grammar ("A Conversation on the Teaching of Literacy") and arithmetic ("Numeral Accounting Wisdom") appear.
Architecture and fine arts.
· From the end of the 15th century, a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture, connected with the completion of the unification of the country. The scale of stone construction increased. A unified Russian architectural style began to take shape, dominated by features of Moscow and Pskov architecture.
Stone construction is developing: the Kremlin ensemble is finally completed (the Faceted Chamber in the Kremlin is the Grand Duke's Palace, here Ivan IV celebrated the capture of Kazan, Peter I celebrated the Poltava victory), the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of the great princes and kings), the bell tower of Ivan the Great (82 meters, in honor of Ivan III).
· Since the 16th century, the tent style in architecture has dominated (came from wooden architecture), the best example is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (on the birth of Ivan IV) - "very wonderful in height and lordship."
· Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) - in memory of the capture of Kazan (October 2, 1552 - Protection of the Virgin), architects Postnik Yakovlev and Barma. There are eight domes around the central tent, none of which repeats the other in form and pattern. The cathedral received its modern color in the 17th century, originally it was white.
· Icon-painting develops, so-called "parsuns" appear - images of people with features of portrait resemblance.
· In the 16th century, the development of handicrafts continued. The Tsar Cannon, cast by Andrey Chokhov at the end of the 16th century, is a testament to the high art of Russian casters.
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4. Russian culture XVII century.
Features of the development of culture in the XVII century.
The 17th century occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. This century is a transitional one from the traditional medieval culture of Moscow Rus' to the culture of the New Age. Most modern researchers believe that the most important cultural transformations of Peter I were prepared by the entire course of the history of Russian culture in the 17th century. The most important feature of Russian culture of the 17th century is the widespread secularization, the gradual destruction of the medieval completely religious consciousness. Secularization affected all aspects of cultural development: education, literature, architecture, and painting. This applies mainly to the urban population, while the culture of the countryside remained completely within the framework of tradition for a long time.
The main events of Russian history of the 17th century were: the transition from medieval history to the history of the New Age, the weakening of the influence of the church. Accordingly, the main feature of culture was the beginning of the secularization of culture, that is, the destruction of medieval religious consciousness and the penetration of secular elements into culture.
Education and writing. Literature.
· The number of literate people is increasing. The clergymen and clerks taught according to church books. But already in the first half of the 17th century, private schools appeared, where they taught not only literacy, but also rhetoric, ancient languages, foreign languages (German) and philosophy. Their teachers were often learned Ukrainian monks. In 1687, the first higher educational institution in Russia was established - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (the Likhud brothers). The academy was modeled after European universities. Teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin.
· Book printing is developing: the first printed primer (Karion Istomin), textbooks, liturgical books, official documents (Cathedral Code). Libraries were created, both public (of the Posolsky Prikaz) and private (Ordina-Nashchokin, Golitsyn).
Fundamentally new genres appeared in the literature of the 17th century: satire , drama , poetry . Satirical stories - about Ersh Ershovich, about Shemyakin's court, where an unjust and mercenary court was denounced. The emergence of Russian poetry and drama is associated with the name of Simeon of Polotsk (teacher of the royal children). The autobiographical genre came to Russian literature thanks to the "Life" of Archpriest Avvakum. Oral folk art - songs about Stepan Razin.
Under Alexei Mikhailovich in Russia was formed theater , in 1672. The theater was created under the influence of the young wife of the Tsar, Natalya Kirillovna. It put on plays on biblical stories, which usually lasted several hours.
Architecture.
· At the end of the 17th century, a new architectural style appeared - Naryshkin (Moscow) baroque. Its distinctive features are the picturesqueness, the complexity of the plan, the combination of red (brickwork) and white (stone carving) colors of the facade. A characteristic example of this style is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, built in 1693 in the Naryshkin estate, Novodevichy Convent.
· Secular buildings: the wooden royal palace in Kolomenskoye, the brick Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, the chambers of Averky Kirillov.
· The Moscow Kremlin ceased to be a defensive structure, in the 17th century the Kremlin towers were decorated with tents, a clock appeared on the Spasskaya Tower.
Art.
In the visual arts of the 17th century, the influence of tradition was stronger than in other areas of culture, which was explained by the control of church authorities over the observance of the icon-painting canon. And, nevertheless, it was in the 17th century that the transformation of icon painting into painting began.
· A school for teaching painting was established at the Armory, a painting workshop - in fact, the Academy of Arts, which was headed by Simon Ushakov.
· Simon Ushakov - the largest artist of the XVII century: "The Savior Not Made by Hands", "Trinity".
In the 17th century, the beginning of portraiture was laid - parsers . Known images of Alexei Mikhailovich, his son Fyodor Alekseevich, Patriarch Nikon, Prince Skopin-Shuisky.
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Theme: Culture of Russia XVIII century.
The development of the culture of the ruling strata of Russian society is characterized by the final triumph of the secular principle, a resolute adherence to European models, and a deep break with traditional folk culture. In the second half of the 18th century, an original national culture of the European type was formed in Russia. The successes of culture reflected the progressive development of the state and society as a whole. The atmosphere of a special noble spirituality formed at that time prepared the rise of Russian national culture in the 19th century.
Enlightenment and science.
- 1701 - School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower (later - the Naval Academy in the Kikin Chambers in St. Petersburg). Later, the Artillery School, the Medical School, and the Engineering School arose.
− For the education of the provincial nobles, 42 "digital schools" were created.
− Education took on a secular character, with mathematics, astronomy, and engineering taking the first place.
− There are new textbooks. "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals" Magnitsky.
- 1700 - the chronology is not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, the beginning of the year is not September 1, but January 1.
- 1702 - the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti" (under Alexei Mikhailovich, a handwritten newspaper "Courants" was published for the needs of the court), edited by Peter I.
− 1708 - transition to civil type.
- 1755 - on the initiative of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov and with the support of Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, Moscow University was created. The charter of the university provided for teaching in Russian (in European universities, teaching was conducted in Latin). The university consisted of philosophical, legal and medical faculties. There was no theological faculty.
- Catherine II - a system of educational and educational institutions was created under the leadership of Ivan Betsky.
- 1764 - Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens.
- Peter I opened the first museum in Russia - the Kunstkamera, where various antiquities, anatomical collections were collected. The Kunstkamera had a rich library.
− 1741 - Vitus Bering's expedition explored the northwestern coast of America and proved that Asia was separated from America.
− A well-known inventor of the time of Peter the Great - Andrey Konstantinovich Nartov.
− 1718 - Peter decided to create the Russian Academy of Sciences, ordered to invite the largest foreign scientists. Academy opened in 1725 year, after the death of the emperor. The creation of the Academy of Sciences attracted European scientists to Russia, including such world-famous mathematicians as L. Euler and D. Bernoulli. German historians G. Bayer worked in Russia and made a significant contribution to the formation of Russian historical science. Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences was headed by Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova.
− Mikhailo Vasilyevich Lomonosov: entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in 1731, from where he was transferred to St. Petersburg University under the Academy of Sciences, and then sent to study in Germany. In 1745 he became the first Russian professor, a member of the Academy of Sciences. Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin wrote about Lomonosov: "He created the first university. It would be better to say that he himself was our first university."
- In the 18th century, historical science achieved significant success. Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev. "Russian History" in 5 volumes.
- The famous self-taught inventor - Ivan Petrovich Kulibin: projects of an elevator, a "self-running carriage", a single-arch bridge across the Neva, a telescope, a microscope, a barometer.
- Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov managed to improve the steam engine, the work of which he met in England. A similar machine was created in England by James Watt only twenty years later.
Literature. public thought.
− The most important trend in Russian and European literature of the middle of the 18th century was classicism . Classicism found expression primarily in poetry: Antioch Kantemir, Vasily Trediakovsky and especially Mikhail Lomonosov and Alexander Sumarokov. Gavrila Derzhavin became the most outstanding Russian poet of the late 18th century who wrote in the style of classicism. Denis Fonvizin's comedies "The Brigadier" and "Undergrowth" also belong to classicism.
− In the second half of the 18th century, the style sentimentalism . The most important genres of this style were the sensitive story and the journey. Nikolai Karamzin "Poor Liza".
− Social thought developed under the influence of the Enlightenment. Nikolai Novikov was a major figure in the Enlightenment. Magazines "Truten", Painter".
− A radical form of educational ideology is represented in the work of Alexander Radishchev. "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" and the ode "Liberty". Radishchev's extreme radicalism prompted Catherine II to call him "a rebel worse than Pugachev."
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Architecture and fine arts. Sculpture. Theater.
− The predominance of civil stone construction over religious construction is characteristic of the Petrine era. The architectural style of the era was "Russian (Petrine) Baroque" with characteristic splendor, solemnity, quirkiness of forms. The largest architects of the era: Domenico Trezzini (Peter's Summer Palace, Peter and Paul Cathedral, the building of 12 colleges in St. Petersburg), Ivan Korobov (Gostiny Dvor in Moscow).
− In the middle of the 18th century, the predominant architectural style was baroque . The largest Russian architect of this time was Bartolomeo Rastrelli. He built the Winter Palace, the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery, the Stroganov Palace in St. Petersburg, the Great Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the Great Palace in Peterhof.
− In the second half of the 18th century classicism . Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov and Ivan Starov. Bazhenov's most famous work is the Pashkov House in Moscow (the old building of the Russian State Library). He also developed the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg. Matvey Kazakov: the buildings of Moscow University, the Senate in Moscow, the Noble Assembly, a number of estates and churches. Ivan Starov - the author of the Tauride Palace and the Trinity Cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg.
- At the beginning of the 18th century, the secular beginning finally triumphed in painting . The main genre of the era is the portrait. Major painters of the era: Ivan Nikitin (portraits of Peter I, Natalia Alekseevna), Andrey Matveev (self-portrait with his wife).
− The second half of the 18th century is the heyday of Russian painting, especially portraiture. The largest portrait painters of the 18th century were Fyodor Rokotov (portrait of Catherine II, Paul I, portrait of Struyskaya), Dmitry Levitsky (portraits of Smolyanka women) and Vladimir Borovikovsky (portrait of Lopukhina).
− Outstanding Master sculptures was Fedot Ivanovich Shubin, who created for the purpose a gallery of sculptural portraits of statesmen and generals of Russia. But the most famous sculpture in Russia was created by the Frenchman Etienne Maurice Falcone, the author of The Bronze Horseman.
− In the first quarter of the 18th century, a public Russian theater . In the second half of the 18th century, the first state theater was opened (the troupe of Fyodor Volkov from Yaroslavl) in St. Petersburg, serf theaters were created on landlord estates (actress Praskovya Zhemchugova-Kovaleva).
Theme: Culture of Russia19th century
Trends in the development of culture: full regulation by the state of the development of all areas of culture, general democratization of culture; while maintaining and deepening the gap between the elite and folk forms of culture, their synthesis was observed.
Enlightenment and science
State policy in the field of education. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created. In 1858, the first women's gymnasium, the Mariinsky, was opened in St. Petersburg.
Derpt, Vilna, Kazan and Kharkov universities were opened; The main pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg (since 1819 - a university); Tsarskoye Selo (Alexandrovsky) Lyceum; Demidov Lyceum in Yaroslavl. The university charter of 1804 gave autonomy to the universities: the rector was elected by the council of professors. The university charter of 1835 completely destroyed autonomy and clearly regulated all aspects of university life, to control which the post of trustee of the educational district was established; tuition fees were high.
In 1830, a circular was issued on the opening of public libraries in all provincial cities of Russia (by the middle of the century, 39 libraries had been opened).
In 1864, the Regulations on Primary Public Schools were approved, which granted public institutions and individuals the right to open primary schools.
1864 Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums. The charter proclaimed the principle of classlessness of secondary education, but established tuition fees. In accordance with the charter, seven-grade gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones (technical schools cannot be enrolled in a university). 1862 girls' grammar schools
children of coachmen, lackeys, laundresses, small shopkeepers
In the years most of the higher women's courses were closed.
Approved in 1882, Provisional Rules on the press strict administrative supervision of newspapers and magazines;
- Geography. Ethnography. and () the islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied. Bellingshausen and () -Antarctica. Information about the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, Alaska, Sakhalin, the coast of Korea and other territories were collected by Russian travelers,. -Maclay, -Tyan-Shansky, who explored the lands of Central and Southeast Asia, the Ussuri Territory, Australia. founded the Russian geological school.
- Mathematics. Non-Euclidean geometry discovered in 1826. He made a great contribution to the study of applied mathematics. conducted research in the field of mathematical physics, analytical and celestial mechanics. laid the foundations of electrochemistry and electrometallurgy - the foundations of metallography. (,),
- Chemistry. Zinin developed a technology for the synthesis of aniline, which was used in the textile industry as a dye fixer. , created the periodic system of chemical elements; and laid the foundations of modern organic chemistry.
- Astronomy. J. Struve created in 1839 in Pulkovo (near St. Petersburg) an exemplary astronomical observatory.
- Medicine. laid the foundations of military field surgery, applied ether anesthesia and antiseptics, introduced a fixed plaster bandage, his atlas of Topographic Anatomy gained world fame. developed the theory of blood transfusion.
- Biology. studied the phenomenon of photosynthesis and proved the applicability of the law of conservation of energy to the organic world. laid the foundations of evolutionary paleontology. The founder of the Russian physiological school made a great contribution to the development of microbiology, pathology, anatomy and surgery. founded the first bacteriological station in Russia. V.V. Dokuchaev created modern genetic soil science.
- Technique. Jacobi - electric motor; discovered galvanoplasty, Schilling created the first electromagnetic telegraph, connecting St. Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Cherepanovs built the first railway and a machine for it with steam traction. April 25, 1895 Popov demonstrated a radio. Yablochkov created an arc light bulb, and invented an incandescent lamp. The possibility of creating aircraft was investigated,.
- Humanitarian sciences. History of the State of Karamzin. - History of Russia since ancient times in 29 volumes. founded Russian medieval studies - Slavic studies. - A course of lectures on Russian history. and engaged in the study of world history.
At the beginning of the XIX century. national folklore is born. In 1804, K. Danilov published the first Russian collection of folklore, Ancient Russian Poems. The Society of Lovers of Russian Literature, established in 1811 at Moscow University. Domestic philology was developed in the works, etc.
The establishment in 1831 at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences of the Demidov Prizes, which were issued in 1832-65, became a symbol of recognition of the important social role of science. for the best published works on science, technology, art and were considered the most honorable scientific award in Russia.
Literature.
Distinctive features: high humanistic ideals, extraordinary political sharpness, citizenship, propaganda of liberation ideas and the search for social justice.
Patriotic moods and the theme of the war of 1812 were reflected in a number of fables, in poetry and prose, and by other authors.
Despite the relatively short period of time, the literature of this period differs variety of styles:
- Styles: Classicism can be traced in the odes and, in the early works of and. Sentimentalism. His characteristic features (sentimental idealization of reality, sensitivity, attention to the personality of a person, his inner world, emotional experiences) were most clearly manifested in his work. Romanticism. Passive-contemplative romanticism has become. In the work of Marlinsky, a civil, revolutionary direction of romanticism was manifested, characterized by a call to fight for the liberation of the people from serfdom. Romanticism influenced the early work of I.
- Realism. Formation and flourishing of Russian realism in the first half of the 19th century. associated with creativity (Woe from Wit), (Eugene Onegin, Captain's daughter, History of the village of Goryukhina, etc.), (On the death of a poet, Hero of our time), (Dead souls, Inspector General, collection of short stories Mirgorod). An outstanding realist poet is (Who lives well in Rus', Lament of children). In the 40-50s of the XIX century. famous writers began their creative journey, whose work reached its peak in the second half of the century (, -Shchedrin,).
The development of dramaturgy is connected with creativity and.
Shchedrin became one of the greatest masters satirical genre. Outstanding writers, A. Pechersky (), and others became widely known.
- Literary magazines. “Domestic Notes”, “Contemporary”, “Russian Word” (democratic ideas). A great merit in the development of the democratic trend in Russian journalism belongs to I. The magazines "Moskvityanin" and "Library for Reading", the newspaper "Northern Bee" united representatives of the conservative direction. Their publishers (and; and, as well) defended the idea of the benevolence of autocracy and fought against the democratic trend in literature.
Painting. Sculpture
- Genres: Portrait. Romanticism is inherent in the portraits of artists (portrait), (Lacemaker, Portrait of a son), (Self-portrait, portrait of a poet). , and N. N. Ge. Historicalgenre. (Bronze Serpent), (Last Day of Pompeii). (Appearance of Christ to the people) works by Surikov, Repin, Ge,. household genre(genre painting) became. (Harvest, Sleeping shepherd). (Major's courtship, Fresh cavalier. Landscapes:, Repin and many other artists. Battle painting- traveller.
- Splint. They turned to the lubok. A series of lubok caricatures ridiculing Napoleon and his army became widespread.
- Sculpture. , a monument to Minin and Pozharsky, a monument to Lomonosov in Arkhangelsk; created 21 medallions depicting scenes of the Patriotic War of 1812; on the portals of the colonnade of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, the sculptor installed statues of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly. sculptural groups on the Anichkov Bridge in St. Petersburg (famous horses), a monument to the fabulist in the Summer Garden and a statue of Emperor Nicholas I in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.
Samples eclecticism are the temple-monument to the Heroes of Plevna, created by a Russian architect,; composition Millennium of Russia in Novgorod, erected according to the project with the participation. Opekushin also owns a monument in Moscow. , created a series of sculptures on national, historical and biblical themes (Ivan the Terrible, Yermak, Nestor the chronicler, Yaroslav the Wise, Christ before the court of the people).
IN 1856. was the beginning of the collection, which became the basis of the future Tretyakov Picture Gallery.
Realism . Wanderers. In November 1863, 14 graduates of the Academy (and others) left it and created the Artel of Artists in St. Petersburg. In 1870, on the initiative in St. Petersburg, the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions was created. The partnership united N. N. Ge and others. The Wanderers sought to bring art closer to the people. To this end, they organized exhibitions in provincial towns. The partnership went:, A. M. and others.
Architecture
Creation of large architectural ensembles: ensembles of the Palace and Senate squares of the architect; Manege Square, created by architects (University building) and (Manezh building); the Exchange Ensemble on the spit of Vasilevsky Island by architect J. Thomas de Thomon; The Alexander Garden near the Kremlin Wall and the ensemble of Theater Square, created by O. and Bove, etc.
Empire. The largest masters of the Empire style in Russia were (Kazan Cathedral and the Mining Institute in St. Petersburg), (Admiralty building), (Palace and Senate Square, Mikhailovsky Palace), and.
Eclecticism. This direction is characterized by an arbitrary combination of elements of different styles (sometimes it is also called stylelessness or multi-style). St. Isaac's Cathedral architect A. Montferrand, Cathedral of Christ the Savior -. A variety of eclecticism is the pseudo-Russian style, (Old Russian architecture, carving, embroidery). The most famous buildings of this style include: Teremok in Abramtsevo near Moscow (architect); the buildings of the Historical Museum (and), the City Duma () and the Upper Trading Rows - now GUM () in Moscow.
Theater
- Smallin Moscow (1824) was the greatest master of romanticism. The actor became the founder of realism. He wrote about Herzen: He created the truth on the Russian stage, he was the first to become non-theatrical in the theater. P. Sadovsky, S. Shumsky, as well as actors M. Ermolova, A. Sumbatov-Yuzhin, who were beginning at that time, shone on the stage of the Maly Theater.
- Alexandrinskyin Petersburg (1832) realistic traditions were developed by a remarkable actor. P. Strepetova and K. Varlamov glorified the Alexandrinsky Theater with their art Until the completion of the restructuring of the Bolshoi Petrovsky Theater in 1836, operas, vaudeville and ballet performances were also staged on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater.
In the 60-70s. private theaters and theater circles began to appear, the development of which was facilitated by the abolition in 1882 of the monopoly of state (imperial) theaters. The Society of Art and Literature, founded in 1888 in Moscow by an opera singer and artist, was very famous, mainly engaged in stage activities (staged plays by W. Shakespeare). One of its leaders was the future director. The Music and Drama School was established under the Society.
In addition to dramatic productions, ballet and opera were also very popular, in the development of which the Bolshoi and Mariininsky Theaters, as well as the Russian Private Opera, founded by a well-known businessman and patron of the arts, played an important role.
Music
In the 19th century secular professional music continued to develop. Alyabiev, - Russian urban romance. (Life for the Tsar) and fairy-tale-epic genre (Ruslan and Lyudmila) A patriotic song that became the national anthem of Russia after the collapse of the USSR.
The development of musical criticism (.) In 1859, the composer created the Russian Musical Society in St. Petersburg. 1866 the Moscow Conservatory was opened. 1862 Free music school
- mighty bunch. The Balakirev circle was formed in the late 50s and early 60s, it included wonderful composers, and -Korsakov. The composers of the Mighty Handful studied and popularized Russian folk music, encouraged the creation of national music, and made an invaluable contribution to the development of democratic and national traditions in Russian musical culture. The rebellious people became the protagonist of operas and Khovanshchina; in the operas Scheherazade by Rimsky-Korsakov and the Polovtsian Dances of Borodin, songs and melodies of different peoples of the Russian Empire are used.
Realistic and democratic tendencies in Russian music were also developed by the greatest composer of the era, who created outstanding examples of opera (Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades, Iolanthe), ballet (Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty), symphonic and chamber music (more than a hundred romances).
Culture of the first halfXXcentury
Education
At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX century. the literacy rate increased from 1897 (21%) to 1917 (31%) by 1.5 times. Increased number gymnasiums And real schools, whose graduates could again enter technical universities without an exam. A network has arisen higher primary schools, giving the opportunity to enter the secondary school . The system developed professional- mountain, river, railway, factory And commercial schools .
Development of teacher education. By 1914, there were 47 teachers' institutes and over 170 teachers' seminaries (schools) in Russia. In 1905, the autonomy of universities was restored, the election of rectors and deans, etc. book business. The largest publishing companies, such as the partnership of M. Wolf, publishing house and others produced folk book series.
The science
The science. Significant progress was made by the founder of aerodynamics ; mathematician ; who made the most important discoveries in the field of physics ; geochemist and biochemist who laid the foundations of modern ecology ; physiologist, Nobel laureate (1904) ; immunologist, also awarded the Nobel Prize (1908) ; father of astronautics and etc.
heyday religious and philosophical direction. In the collections Problems of Idealism (1902), Milestones (1909), works , combined the development of ideas and about the new religious consciousness.
historical science developed in the work , -Sylvansky, -Danilevsky,. Methods of historical research were improved, new topics were raised, and historiography became an independent branch of history.
Literature. Style directions.
Realism. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. preserved critical realism - , . Widely known Maxim Gorky (), Mamin-Sibiryak and etc.
Modernism. Thesis about the intrinsic value of art, combined with the ideas of Russian thinkers And D. Merezhkovsky about the religious meaning of creativity, gave rise to the proper Russian symbolism . His theorist in the mid-1890s. spoke . Bryusov, along with other symbolists ( , A. Bely (),),
Such a mythopoetic perception led to the rise of poetry, which made it possible define the beginning of the 20th century. How silver age of Russian poetry, which came after the long dominance of social prose.
Another modernist trend - acmeism was a reaction to symbolism. , M. Tsvetaeva who created a new lyric poetry returned from the world of symbols to earthly man, but not to his social problems, but to the world of human feelings.
avant-garde. In the 1910s From the idea of the intrinsic value of artistic creativity, the idea of its self-sufficiency has grown. The apologetics of subjectivism, the denial of traditional culture, activism were expressed in the activities of supporters of the art of the future - futurists .V. Khlebnikov, D. Burliuk, I. Severyanin, in 1912 made a manifesto A slap in the face of public taste, where they called on the basis of absolute freedom to create not art, to create reality.
In the Russian painting and graphics before new trends emerged in the literature.
Realism. On the one hand, at the turn of the century, the traditions of the academic school were preserved, primarily in paintings . The Association of Traveling Exhibitions continued to operate (A. M. and, and etc.).
Modernism. On the other hand, already in the 1880s. in Russian painting, new trends arose based on the appeal of artists to historical subjects. So, , KA. Korovin, founder of Russian or decorative impressionism, and who has gone from academism to modernity. In the canvases of the symbolist artist the emphasis has already been placed on fantastic fiction and innuendo.
In the late 1890s Art Nouveau in Russian fine arts openly declared its principles. In 1898, a society of artists was created World of Art published a magazine of the same name. Its members , K. Somov, to which Serov and Korovin adjoined, proclaimed the autonomy of art, the primacy for creativity of the problem of beauty. Formally, not considering themselves symbolists, they stood on the positions of transforming reality with the help of pictorial and graphic symbols and metaphors.
The creativity of artists - followers -Musatov who created the society Blue Rose (, -Vodkin) and worked on the symbolist theory of painting.
avant-garde. The emergence in 1910 of the society Jack of Diamonds (,), and then - donkey tail (, D. Burliuk) marked the transition of the renewal leadership to the Russian avant-garde, which art critics called the Russian explosion. Larionov and Goncharova developed Russian cubism - cubo-futurism.
Simultaneously developed expressionism, whose followers also made a leap into non-objectivity. Abstract art theorist ; founder Suprematism K. Malevich; creator analytical painting ; household symbolist , each in their own way asserted the dominance of creativity over forms, creating new worlds in their works.
IN architecture, where, unlike literature and painting, in the second half of the XIX century. there was no single style, in the 90s. 19th century took shape as a leading new style modern. The father of Russian modern became . Built in the same style , .Developed and neoclassicism, as in combination with modern (, ), and in pure form ( , ).
In development sculptures neoclassical style at work , combined with modernism in impressionist sculptures (monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg), (monument in Moscow). In the multifaceted work of the universalist artist antique plastic was combined with modern and folklore motifs.
In music the same trends emerged. Developed the traditions of Tchaikovsky and the Mighty Handful Rimsky-Korsakov and. Perfected the classical musical principles of the innovative composer and brilliant pianist . At the same time looking for new forms , , in whose work the phenomena of musical symbolism, impressionism and expressionism are palpable.
Theatrical art.
Drama Theater. In 1898 , creator of the new acting system, and -Danchenko founded with the help Moscow Art Theater, which became the center of innovative experiments. In 1904 created Drama Theater Petersburg, where plays by Chekhov, Gorky, Ibsen were also staged. Directors made their contribution to the development of the new Russian theater V. Meyerhold and V. Vakhtangov.
Development operatic art appeared not only in new productions Bolshoi and Mariinsky, but also in the creation of provincial and private opera houses. Operas created by entrepreneurs gained great fame. (1885) and (1904). Domestic vocal school flourished in the performing arts , .
Ballet. Along with the development of classical ballet in the work of the choreographer M. Petipa. Modern productions M. Fokina and Stravinsky's ballets were designed by world art artists Benois, Bakst, Korovin. Danced in academic and innovative performances A. Pavlova, V. Nijinsky and a whole galaxy of dancers who have gained worldwide fame.
Cinema appeared in Russia immediately after its invention and began to develop rapidly, becoming the most massive form of art. By 1914, St. 4 thousand electric theaters and illusions. Russian cinema, where he put pictures Y. Protazanov, actors played I. Mozzhukhin, V. Kholodnaya, A. Koonen has gained worldwide recognition.
Culture of the 20-30sXIXcentury
Since the mid-1920s, it has gained particular importance ideologization all areas of cultural development. intensified authoritarian-bureaucratic style leadership of science, literature, art. The bodies of sectoral management of culture were created - Soyuzkino (1930), the All-Union Committee for Radio and Broadcasting (1933), the All-Union Committee for Higher Education (1936), the All-Union Committee for Art (1936), etc.
In 1928, an all-Union cult campaign for literacy was announced (the number of the cultural army was about 1 million people). Volunteer teachers taught free literacy to more than 34 million people. Since 1930, the country has introduced universal compulsory primary education In 1939, the task of transition to universal secondary education (ten-year plan) was set. Since 1938, compulsory study of the Russian language was introduced in all national schools, and since 1940, the teaching of foreign languages in secondary schools.
The science
In 1927, for this, a All-Union Association of Science and Technology Workers for the Promotion of Socialist Construction. By 1933, the Academy was subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars, its composition changed significantly, a number of its members, prominent scientists, were repressed.
Natural and technical sciences There were scientific schools of academicians (production of synthetic rubber), (geological exploration of oil). The scientific developments of V.I. Vernadsky, physiologist ; physicists And , mathematicians And , biologists And , Arctic exploration . Conducted research in the field of nuclear physics. In 1933, the Reactive Research Institute was established (in 1936, Europe's largest cyclotron was put into operation). In 1928, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after V.I. (VASKhNIL), headed by .
Humanitarian sciences were to be freed from bourgeois ideology. Marxism-Leninism was proclaimed the only correct ideology.
Centralization and bureaucratization of the party-state management of artistic culture. Soviet literature and art were subordinated to the tasks of socialist construction in the USSR. In accordance with the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of 01.01.01 " On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations"All previously existing literary associations (Proletkult, RAPP, etc.) were liquidated, the creative intelligentsia united in the Unions of Soviet Architects, Composers (1932), Writers, Artists (1934).
Literature. Created in 1934, the Union of Soviet Writers became the organ for carrying out the Party's policy in literature. Formally, it was headed by M. Gorky, but the practical work was carried out by the board headed by the first secretary, a cadre party worker.
Most of the works of writers of various ranks were devoted to revolution, civil war or socialist construction. Appeal to these topics led to the creation of a number of significant works, in particular, returned in 1928 from emigration M. Gorky, M. Sholokhova(Quiet Don), N. Ostrovsky(How the steel was tempered), etc. The problems of production with varying degrees of talent were revealed M. Shaginyan, V. Kataev, F. Gladkov.
The development of the international situation, the approach of a new war, Stalin's desire to put Soviet statehood on a historical foundation, the thesis about the need to form socialist patriotism led in the second half of the 30s. to increase the value historical novel in which they worked - (Peter the First), (The cabal of saints) Y. Tynyanov(Death of Vazir-Mukhtar), V. Shishkov(Emelyan Pugachev), V. Jan(Genghis Khan).
Prominent writers of that time M. Zoshchenko, I. Ilf and E. Petrov worked in the genre satire; S. Marshak, A. Gaidar, K. Chukovsky, S. Mikhalkov create art for children. At the same time, even in the conditions of general ideologization, a number of writers and especially poets were outside the revolutionary pathos and production enthusiasm. These were primarily M. Tsvetaeva, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, B. Pasternak and etc.
4.4. Painting and sculpture. In the visual arts, there was also a process of unification and unification under party control. In 1934 the Union of Soviet Artists was created. In painting during the years of the first five-year plans, the revolutionary theme remained the main one: -Vodkin Death of the Commissioner A. Deineka Defense of Petrograd B. Ioganson Interrogation of a communist, etc. In these works, as well as in the works I. Grabar, I. Grekov, P. Korin the pathos of the era, historical and patriotic motives were realized in a highly artistic form.
In 1932, the last exhibition of avant-garde artists was held, headed by Malevich and Filonov, later their works disappeared from museum expositions for a long time. In sculpture, monumentalism is relevant - V. Mukhina Worker and collective farmer
Architecture and urban planning. In 1932, the Union of Soviet Architects arose. Vesnin brothers(Palace of Culture ZIL, Dneproges) , and others continued to develop the ideas of constructivism and functionalism. In the years construction of the Mausoleum building (architect A. Shchusev), dome of the Moscow Planetarium (1928, span height 28 m). The House of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Moscow Hotel, the Moscow-Volga Canal, the Moscow Metro was being built (the first stage was launched in 1935).
Music. In 1932 was founded Union of Soviet Composers. During these years, Soviet composers created works of various genres - the opera Quiet Don I. Dzerzhinsky, ballets Flames of Paris and the Fountain of Bakhchisarai B. Astafieva, ballet Romeo and Juliet and cantata Alexander Nevsky S. Prokofieva. During these years composers worked A. Khachaturian, D. Shostakovich. Among the authors of mass song, operetta and film music - V. Lebedev-Kumach, T. Khrennikov, I. Dunaevsky and etc.
Theater The theater also saw the establishment of the principles of socialist realism. In accordance with them, Soviet dramaturgy presented performances about revolutionary events, about the life and everyday life of a Soviet person (plays Sun. Vishnevsky An optimistic tragedy; A. Korneychuk Platon Krechet; N. Pogodina Man with a gun, etc.). A rarity was such productions as the Days of the Turbins based on the play . However, the classical repertoire was preserved and developed. The works of W. Shakespeare were widely staged at the Moscow Maly Theater, the Moscow Art Theater, and others.
Actors of the older generation worked in the theater ( I. Moskvin, A. Yablochkina, V. Kachalov, O. Knipper-Chekhova), as well as a new one, formed in the post-October period ( V. Schukin, A. Tarasova, N. Mordvinov and others).
Cinema. In the 30s. cinematography has undergone significant changes, including the advent of sound films. Directors S. Yutkevich(Counter), S. Gerasimova(Seven brave, Komsomolsk), Vasiliev brothers(Chapaev), I. Kheifits and L. Zarkhi Member of the Baltic). G. Aleksandrova (Volga-Volga, Circus, Funny guys); historical films S. Eisenstein(Alexander Nevskiy), V. Petrova(Peter the First), V. Pudovkin and M. Doller(Suvorov), as well as films G. Kozintseva and etc.
5.1. The struggle against formalism in art. The ideas of class art led to the struggle against the so-called formalism in the work of some writers, artists, composers. Everything that did not fit into the narrow framework of socialist realism was declared formalism. The struggle was reduced to the persecution of cultural and art workers, during which D. Shostakovich
