Concept of Karl-Jaspers

"Being and Controversy"

4 periods of world history

1) Promethean era (5000 BC)

Use of fire and guns.

2) the death-Babylonian and Egyptian, Aegean world.

The archaic world of China.

the presence of writing, specific technical rationality.

3) Axial time - spiritual progress (500 BC)

Confucius

The history of the formation of man as world history. Basic religious values ​​are laid down.

4) The technical era. corresponds in importance to the first.

That is, the technical age prepares the future for new great cultures that will lay the foundations of the second axial time.

Concepts are subjective

Turd is a process that takes place between man and nature, in which man regulates and controls the process of metabolism between himself and nature.

In the history of Russia in the XVII century. the end of the Middle Ages. The advanced countries of Europe had already embarked on the path of bourgeois development, while Russia continued to be a feudal country. Serfdom finally took shape (1649), which led to a sharp aggravation of the class struggle, peasant unrest. No wonder the 17th century. called "6untashny". At the beginning of the century, Russia also experienced the years of the "great turmoil", which began with a campaign against Moscow by False Dmitry. The capture of Moscow by the Poles, and then its liberation by the people's militia led by Minin and Prince Pozharsky, the election of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov as the Russian Tsar and the restoration of state power in the form of a class-representative monarchy led to a restructuring of social relations.

The beginning of a new period in Russian history was also a new stage in the history of Russian culture. In the 17th century Russian culture retained all the characteristic features of the feudal culture of the Middle Ages, but new elements are also emerging. However, new trends were clearly identified only towards the end of the century. In many ways, they were associated with the name of Peter I and the reforms he carried out.

Formation begins Russian nation. Folk traditions are generalized, the interconnection of local customs is strengthened. The growth of ties between individual regions of Russia through trade, waste fishing, resettlement, participation in wars, etc. contribute to the interpenetration of various dialects, develops single Russian language. The basis of the Russian national language is the dialect of Moscow and the lands adjoining it from the south. The creation of a single Russian language further contributed to the growth of people's self-awareness as a single Russian nation.

The cultural and historical process of this period is characterized by the beginning of the destruction of the medieval religious worldview. The so-called "secularization" of culture, those. the departure of culture from church traditions and giving it a secular, civil character (secularization) ( Secularization- the process of liberation of all spheres of public and private life from the influence of religion and the church.). This process affected the development education and printing.

The growth of literacy was facilitated by the appearance of handwritten and printed textbooks. IN 1634 the first ABC book by Vasily Burtsev. This Primer was then repeatedly reprinted and sold at affordable prices. In 1648 she left Grammar M. Smotrytsky, and in 1687 - "Reading is convenient"- multiplication table. Handwritten alphabet books, copybooks and manuals on arithmetic were also widely used.

The spread of literacy contributed to an increase in the demand for books. In the sixteenth century Print Yard in Moscow he published 483 books, including secular ones.

Handwritten books continued to appear. Translated books were also published, which since the 70s. 17th century translated in the Ambassadorial order. These were works on both religious and secular themes.

Literacy was taught by "masters" from persons of the clergy, they taught children from the age of 6. After mastering the primer, they moved on to memorizing the book of hours and the psalter. Children of the nobility studied in families, teachers were often foreigners. Many taught their children foreign languages, Latin.

Schools began to be organized, mainly at monasteries. In 1680, in Moscow, at the Printing House on Nikolskaya Street, a school was opened with two classes: in one they studied Slavic languages, in the other - Greek. At first, 30 teachers taught at the school, and five years later - already more than 200. In 1687, the first higher school was also opened on Nikolskaya Street - Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Senior students were transferred to it from the school at the Printing House, which became the preparatory department of the Academy. Those who graduated from the Academy received service ranks.

IN literature 17th century "secularization" also occurred, appears realistic everyday and historical story, where ecclesiastical elements are gradually being lost. Heroes are not saints, but ordinary people, real events are described.

Many works told about the "Time of Troubles": "The Tale" by Abraham Palitsin, "The New Tale of the Glorious Russian State", etc. They discussed the causes of the "great devastation" and at the same time showed the greatness of the Russian people, their patriotism.

In the works of literature of the second half of the XVII century. a new attitude to the human personality appears - an interest in the inner world of a person, recognition of its value, regardless of position in society.

By the 17th century are the first records folklore, works of oral folk art. This had an impact on written literature, there is a mutual convergence of literary and folk languages. The main literary genres remain, as before, chronicles, legends, lives, but they are filled with new content. There were historical stories about the conquest of Siberia by Yermak, about the Azov siege seat of the Cossacks, etc.

The genre of "life" takes on the character of an autobiography. The most talented of them is "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, Written by Himself", which can be called the first memoir in Russian literature. Archpriest Avvakum(1620 - 1682) - one of the largest figures in the period of splitting the Russian church, was also an outstanding writer - wrote more than 80 works. The language of his writings is a combination of Church Slavonic and a living colloquial language. Most of his works were written in the last 15 years of his life, when he was in prison awaiting death (burned in 1682).

New literary genres also appeared, especially in the second half of the 17th century. - satirical works, poetic genre. Fundamentally new in language, plot and character was the poetic "The Tale of Woe of Misfortune", which reflects the relationship between fathers and children. The plot of the story is the tragic fate of a young man (nameless hero), a merchant's son. He wanted to break with the old house-building orders and wished to live according to his own will, but he did not succeed. He fails to obey the Grief, which almost brought him to his death. As a result of his misadventures, the hero goes to the monastery, where Grief cannot overtake him. The plot of this story is intertwined with the biblical story of the prodigal son.

The genre has become new in Russian literature democratic satire.

In satirical works, the orders of the feudal court are denounced with its chicanery, red tape, and venality of judges. These are the satirical stories "About the Shemyakin Court" and "About Yersh Yershovich - the son of Shchetinnikov", written in simple folk language. The last of them was widely distributed and passed down from century to century either in the form of a fairy tale or in rhymed form.

Translated literature also spread, which penetrated into Russia mainly through Poland, as well as the Czech Republic. Translated works were published in the collections "Great Mirror" and "Roman Acts", which included instructive stories, stories. There were also chivalric novels in Russia, the heroes of which were kings, counts, and the highest nobility. Everyday and picaresque short stories, adventurous and adventure stories, humorous stories and anecdotes were also translated. Often, under the influence of Russian folklore, they underwent changes, and they themselves became the property of oral folk art. An example is "The Tale of Bova the King", the source of which was a French chivalric romance.

IN architecture The 17th century, especially in the second half of the century, also reflects the transitional nature of the era. There is a "secularization" of architecture - the rejection of strict church canons, the transition from rigor and simplicity to external elegance, decorativeness. The essence of new searches - "wonderful pattern" how contemporaries themselves defined this style. This term reflects the predilection for an abundance of decorative motifs, up to the borrowing of eastern, and later - western forms.

Russian churches of the 17th century rich in appearance and interior decoration. Gradually, secular motives are intensifying, the differences between temple and civil construction are decreasing. Churches become like secular mansions: aisles, galleries were attached to the main building, and all this was connected by passages, forming an ensemble.

An outstanding monument of architecture of this time is the Moscow Church Christmas in Putinki(construction completed in 1652) The construction of the church cost 500 rubles, at that time a huge amount. At first, the parishioners gave money, but they did not calculate their possibilities, and they twice had to turn to the king for help. The composition of the church was affected by the new that entered at that time into the stone architecture of Rus'. A bell tower was built between the main temple and the chapel - the highest part among the individual buildings that make up the temple, and, as it were, uniting them. The church is decorated with decorative details and stands out for its sharp silhouettes. The church in Putinki is the last of the tent churches in Moscow. In 1652, he ascended the patriarchal throne Nikon O656 - 1694), who banned the construction of hipped temples, setting the traditional five domes as a model. However, tent churches continued to be built far from the capital - Yaroslavl, Kostroma and other cities. In Moscow, the architects used this style in the construction of the bell towers, which replaced belfries. The complex of buildings was built in the traditional style New Jerusalem Monastery- the country residence of Patriarch Nikon.

Along with the old, traditional forms, new ones appear in Russian architecture. Architecture of the second half of the 17th century. it is more decorative, various decorations are used, bright colors, figured bricks, colored tiles both outside and inside the buildings. This magnificent architecture is called Moscow baroque. The characteristic features of this style are the clarity and symmetry of the composition, multi-tiered, meticulous attention to detail, decorative carvings on white stone, facade painting, colored tiles, and the building's emphasized upward aspiration. An example of the Moscow baroque was Church of the Intercession in Fili(1690 - 1693), built by the queen's brother - L.K Naryshkin, as well as the refectory of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the multi-tiered bell tower of the Novodevichy Monastery. Features of this style appeared in the building Printing Yard(1679) and in Sukharev tower(1692 - 1701).

An example secular construction was the construction of the Terem Palace in the Moscow Kremlin (1637), made by an artel of Russian craftsmen headed by Bazhen Ogurtsov. The palace was a multi-tiered stepped-pyramidal structure, embodying the greatness of royal power. The decoration of the palace was new - its carved architraves and multicolored tiled belts both outside and inside the building.

New construction was carried out not only in Moscow, but also in other cities. He was famous for his temple buildings commissioned by wealthy merchants. Yaroslavl. Most Yaroslavl churches were larger and more decorated than Moscow ones: the Church of Elijah the Prophet (1647-1656), the Church of St. John Chrysostom (1649-1654). The pinnacle of Yaroslavl architecture is the church John the Baptist in Tolchkovo(1671 - 1687). It is characterized by monumentality, a harmonious combination of 15 golden domes with red brick walls, decorated with blue tiles.

Civil construction is developing: wealthy nobles and merchants build stone houses for themselves. They also show a departure from traditional simplicity and austerity towards richly decorated façades. Such houses are being built both in Moscow and in Yaroslavl, Kaluga, Nizhny Novgorod and other cities. In Moscow, architectural monuments of that time are the chambers of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov on Bersenevskaya embankment and the house of the clerk Ivan Volkov in Kharitonevsky lane.

The Moscow baroque style of the end of the 17th century, its new techniques and forms had an impact on the architecture of the subsequent time.

Painting in the seventeenth century developed unusually rapidly, it, like other types of art, was also affected by the process of "secularization". There is a formation and development of a realistic orientation, there is an interest in the human personality. The household genre is developing, portrait - parsonic(image of persons) painting.

Leading the new direction Simon Fyodorovich Ushakov(1626 ~ 1686) - Russian painter and engraver. The works of Simon Ushakov are parsunas, miniatures, combining traditional painting techniques and innovative searches. They mark the transition from religious to secular art. Ushakov moves from the convention of the image to a more accurate one, trying to give his icon-painting images the character of living faces. On his icons there is a realistic landscape and other images that are not directly related to the plot of the icon.

The most famous work of art by Simon Ushakov "Savior Not Made by Hands", in which the artist, with the help of chiaroscuro, conveys volume, depicts not an abstract saint, but a real person. In 1617 he created an icon "Trinity", in which, unlike the icon of the same name by A. Rublev, it conveys not spiritual beauty, but earthly beauty, depicting angels blooming, full of health.

In the first half of the seventeenth century parsunas were painted in the old icon-painting manner - on boards, with egg paints. So, the parsuns of Tsar Fedor Ivanovich and the governor of Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky. Parsuns are painted on linden boards, in the image there is a three-quarter turn characteristic of the icon, large heads, wide eyes. At the same time, artists strive to depict the real features of the originals as accurately as possible.

In the 80s - 90s of the XVII century. Russian artists create the most significant parsunas: a full-length portrait of Uncle Peter I, L.K. Naryshkin and half-length portrait of the mother of Peter I - N.K Naryshkina. They are characterized by close attention to the inner world of a person, a subtle color scheme.

In painting of the 17th century. noticeable desire for realism, increased interest in the human person.

Until the 17th century in Rus' was not theater. For centuries, the theater was replaced by folk rituals - weddings, holidays, such as seeing off Shrovetide, caroling with the participation of mummers. During these holidays, buffoons- dancers, acrobats, musicians, tightrope walkers, puppeteers, etc. Later, folk theaters of buffoons appeared with their own repertoire.

The real theater appeared in the 17th century. - court and school theater. The emergence of the court theater was caused by the interest of the court nobility in Western culture. This theater appeared in Moscow under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The first performance of the play "Artaxerxes Action" (the story of the biblical Esther) took place on October 17, 1672. The king liked the performance so much that he watched it for ten hours in a row. Other plays based on biblical subjects were also staged.

Initially, the court theater did not have its own premises, scenery and costumes were transferred from place to place. The first performances were staged by pastor Gregory from the German settlement, the actors were also foreigners. Later they began to forcibly attract and train Russian "youths". In 1673, 26 residents of the Novomeshchanskaya Sloboda were assigned to the "comedy business", then their number increased. Their salaries were paid irregularly, but they did not skimp on scenery and costumes. The performances were distinguished by great splendor, sometimes accompanied by playing musical instruments and dancing. After the death of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the court theater was closed, and performances resumed only under Peter I.

In addition to the courtier, in Russia in the 17th century. formed and school theater at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Plays were written by teachers and staged by students on holidays. The plays used both gospel stories and everyday legends. They were written in verse based on monologues. In addition to real faces, allegorical characters were also introduced.

The appearance of court and school theaters expanded the scope of the spiritual life of Russian society.

Summing up the development of Russian culture XVII century, first of all, it should be noted its "secularization", a gradual departure from religious traditions to secular, civil motives. This was expressed in the increased interest in the human personality, the desire for realism in all forms of art - in literature, painting, etc. In XVII V. Russian literature took a big step in its development, new directions appeared. But the final turning point came at the beginning XVIII.

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………….3

I. Enlightenment…………………………………………………………………….4

II. Literature…………………………………………………………………..5

III. Architecture………………………………………………………………..10

IV. Fine Arts………………………………………………….13

V. Music and theater……………………………………………………………….16

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………… 17

LIST OF USED LITERATURE………………………….19

INTRODUCTION

In the 17th century the formation of the all-Russian market begins. With the development of crafts and trade, the growth of cities, the penetration into Russian culture and the widespread dissemination of secular elements in it are connected. This process was called in the literature "secularization" of culture (from the word "worldly" secular).

The secularization of Russian culture was opposed by the church, which saw in it a Western, "Latin" influence. The Moscow rulers of the 17th century, seeking to limit the influence of the West in the person of foreigners arriving in Moscow, forced them to settle away from the Muscovites in the German settlement specially designated for them. However, new ideas and customs penetrated into the established life of Muscovite Rus'. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people who were able to engage in diplomacy, to understand the innovations of military affairs, technology, manufacturing, etc.

Secularization embraced all spheres of the country's cultural life: literature, painting, architecture, etc. The Church's worldview itself was in crisis, expressed in schism. New genres appear in literature, previously unknown styles in architecture and painting,

printing. The personal principle becomes noticeable, which was practically unknown to medieval culture, which dealt not with living people, but with carriers of either good or evil. The development of Russian culture was also influenced by the gradual overcoming of national isolation and the expansion of ties with other countries.

I. ENLIGHTENMENT.

The development of education in the 17th century is evidenced by the work of the printing house, which began to publish more and more civil books. The first of these was Vasily Burtsov's primer, published in 1634. In the middle of the century, the “Grammar” of Melety Smotrytsky saw the light, and at the end - the primer richly decorated with drawings by Karion Istomin.

There are regular schools. In 1665, a school was opened at the Zaikonospassky Monastery in Moscow, which prepared clerks for orders. Her students mastered grammar and Latin. In the school at the Printing House, opened in 1680, over two hundred people studied, the main subject was the Greek language. In 1687, the first higher educational institution was founded in Moscow - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where they taught grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, philosophy and theology. The Academy trained personnel for government and church institutions. The Likhud brothers headed the Academy. Priests and officials were trained here.

In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great successes were achieved in the field of medicine, in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to measure areas, distances, loose bodies, etc. with great accuracy), in observing nature.

Russian explorers made a significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev.

E.P. Khabarov in 1649 compiled a map and studied the lands along the Amur, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofey Pavlovich bear his name. At the very end of the 17th century, the Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov surveyed Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

II. LITERATURE.

At the beginning of the 17th century, literary works reflected the events of the Time of Troubles. Folk songs about Grigory Otrepiev, Marina Mnishek, Princess Xenia Godunova have been preserved. Many works of written literature also tell about the Troubles: “Tales of Avraamy Palitsin”, “Vremennik” by clerk Ivan Timofeev, “New Chronicler”, which recounted the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible until the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.

If the literary heroes of the previous time were in unceasing prayer, their actions were fettered by the divine will, now enterprising and energetic people who are looking for application of strength and abilities in useful undertakings become heroes. The heroes of the literature of the 17th century begin to free themselves from the shackles of the clan, their fate is personified. At the same time, literature took only the first steps in overcoming medieval traditions and has not yet found an alternative to them.

In the literature of the 17th century, two trends were established: the panegyric and the folk accusatory. The largest representative of the first trend was Samuil Emelyanovich Petrovsky-Sitnianovich, a native of Polotsk and therefore called Simeon Polotsky in Moscow. He received his education at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, and then at the Vilna Academy, after which he took the monastic rank.

The emergence of new genres in literature - poetry and dramaturgy - is associated with the name of Polotsky. He was the country's first court poet-odopist, who composed ponderous poems. Polotsky's writings are dominated by panegyric tones that idealized the autocracy and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. He also wrote original plays in Russian, for example, "The Comedy Parable of the Prodigal Son." The author put the traditional content into the new form: the youngest son, in contrast to the eldest, who showed obedience to the parental will, did not want to “destroy youth in his fatherland” and went on a wandering, turned into a prodigal son who drank a lot of grief. He returns to his father's house, convinced of the need to obey his elders.

Polotsky is known not only as a poet and playwright, but also as a publicist. He is a supporter of autocracy. Only it, in his opinion, is able to successfully solve foreign policy problems. The autocrat, however, must select his assistants, guided not by their breed, but by a rationalistic principle: knowledge, moral authority, merit.

The assessment of autocracy as the best political system found the most complete justification in the writings of Krizhanich. Croatian Yuri Krizhanich, who arrived in Russia in 1659 and wrote a number of treatises, among which the most important "Politics", preferred "self-rule", because only with him he associated fair rule, which ensured the country peace and consent of the people, as well as the opportunity without delay fix mistakes. But only a wise king can provide order and harmony. Krizhanich advocated the unification of the Slavic peoples. Krizhanich, like Polotsky, did not condemn the serf system, but stipulated that the appetites of the landowners should be limited. With immoderate hardships, the peasant's economy will fall into decay, and he will lose his capacity for taxation. Hence the conviction of both thinkers in the need to establish a moderate level of feudal exploitation.

The accusatory literature of the people is represented by "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself." Avvakum is a talented polemical writer, the founder of the biographical genre. If the heroes of hagiographic literature are endowed with mythical virtues and act as impeccable ascetics, then in the "Life" Avvakum Petrovich looks like a real person with advantages and disadvantages. "Life" is an action-packed polemical essay, its author, using the example of his own life, full of suffering and dramatic collisions, tells about fanatical devotion to the ideas of ancient piety. In all the actions of the leader of the Old Believers, one can clearly see his rejection of novelty, science and everything that came from Western Europe. The language of the "Life" is simple, dynamic, designed for a wide audience, which the author intends to win over to his side. Avvakum contributed to the enrichment of the literary language with elements of live folk speech.

The theme of "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" is the fate of a young man who did not heed his parents' advice and paid for it with poverty. The ordeal of the hero ends with the fact that he finds himself in a monastery cell. Unlike the previous time, the cell no longer touches the hero, life in it is tantamount to suicide. The story reveals the image of a man, his inner world and tragic experiences.

The "Tale of Savva Grudtsyn" features real historical figures and a certain geographical environment, which creates the appearance of the authenticity of the story told. The heroes of the story are the rich merchants Grudtsyn-Usov, who traded in the cities of the Volga and Kama. The plot is based on the adventures of the merchant's son Savva Grudtsyn, who was sent by his father on trading business to Sol Kama: the dissolute son indulged in debauchery, sold his soul to the devil, then became a soldier, participated in the Smolensk campaign, freed himself from the devil with the help of the Kazan icon of the Mother of God and ended up in a monastery where he ended his life.

Noteworthy are satirical works with parodies of a wrong court, the dissolute life of monks, the lack of rights of a common man, etc. The story of the Shemyakina Court tells about a conflict between two brothers, one of whom was rich and the other poor. The rich man gave his brother a horse and a sleigh to take firewood out of the forest, but regretted giving the harness. The poor man tied the sleigh to the tail of the horse, the tail broke off, and the rich man, through the court, demanded from his brother the return of the horse with the tail. During the trial, the poor man pointedly showed a bundle from his bosom to Judge Shemyaka, making it clear that a rich promise awaited him. This determined the behavior of Shemyaka - he decided the case in favor of the poor. In fact, it turned out that a simple stone was wrapped in a scarf. The expression "Shemyakin Court" has become a household word for characterizing the venality and unscrupulousness of judges.

"The Tale of Ersh Ershovich" also parodies the judicial procedures provided for by the Code of 1649. The heroes of the story are the fish of Lake Rostov: here are the fish-gentlemen Sturgeon, Beluga and White fish, the son of the boyar Lesh, the bailiffs Okun and Burbot, the witness Herring, the judge Catfish mustachioed, clerk Vyun and other representatives of the fish kingdom. It was not possible for the small fish Ruff to win the trial against the son of the boyar Bream, Ruff was found guilty by the court. The story ends with the words: "Ruff spat in the eyes of the judges and accumulated in brushwood: only that Ruff was seen."

The story "Kalyazinsky petition" ridicules the life of the monks of the Kalyazinsky monastery, famous for its dissolute life. The monastic brethren are concerned not with prayers, but with the availability of beer and wine in abundance. The dream of the monks was to have such an archimandrite, "who would be with us much lying down to drink wine and beer, and not go to church, and not torment us."

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed work on history. The Kiev monk Innokenty Gizel compiled a "Synopsis" (review), which in a popular form contained a story about the joint history of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian history.

III. ARCHITECTURE.

The architectural structures of the 17th century are distinguished by great picturesqueness. They are asymmetrical both within a single building and in an ensemble. However, in this apparent disorder of architectural volumes there is both integrity and unity. Buildings of the 17th century are multicolored and decorative. Architects were especially fond of decorating the windows of buildings with intricate, unlike each other platbands. In the 17th century, multi-colored "solar tiles" - tiles and decorations made of carved stone and brick - became widespread. Such an abundance of decorations located on the walls of one building was called "stone pattern", "wonderful pattern".

These features are well traced in the Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the Kremlin, in the stone chambers of the Moscow, Pskov, Kostroma boyars of the 17th century that have come down to us, in the New Jerusalem Monastery built near Moscow by Patriarch Nikon. The famous temples of Yaroslavl are close to them in style - the church of Elijah the Prophet and ensembles in Korovniki and Tolchkovo. As an example of the most famous buildings in Moscow of the 17th century, we can name the Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, the Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki.

The decorative beginning, which marked the secularization of art, was also reflected in the construction or reconstruction of fortifications. By the middle of the century, the fortresses had lost their military significance, and the hipped roof, first on Spasskaya and then on other towers of the Moscow Kremlin, gave way to magnificent tents that emphasized the calm grandeur and solemn power of the heart of the Russian capital.

In Rostov the Great, in the form of a Kremlin, the residence of the disgraced but powerful Metropolitan Jonah was built. This Kremlin was not a fortress, and its walls were purely decorative. The walls of large Russian monasteries (Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Spaso-Efimiev Monastery in Suzdal, Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery near Vologda, Moscow monasteries), following the general fashion, were also decorated with decorative details.

The development of ancient Russian stone architecture ended with the folding of the style, which was called "Naryshkin" (after the names of the main customers), or Moscow, baroque. Gate churches, the refectory and the bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent, the Church of the Intercession in Fili, churches and palaces in Sergiev Posad, Nizhny Novgorod, Zvenigorod and others were built in this style.

The Moscow baroque is characterized by a combination of red and white colors in the decoration of buildings. The number of storeys of buildings, the use of columns and capitals as decorative ornaments are clearly traced. The interior decoration of the buildings is distinguished by splendor and richness: a multi-tiered iconostasis, a bed for the owner of the building, carved frames of arches. Finally, in almost all the buildings of the "Naryshkin" Baroque, you can see decorative shells in the cornices of buildings, which were first erected in the 16th century by Italian craftsmen when decorating the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The appearance of the Moscow baroque, which had common features with the architecture of the West, testified that Russian architecture, despite its originality, developed within the framework of a common European culture.

In the 17th century, wooden architecture flourished. Among the outstanding monuments of wooden architecture of the 17th century is the intricate and luxurious royal palace in Kolomenskoye, called by contemporaries the eighth wonder of the world. This palace had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows and windows. It was built by Russian craftsmen Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov and existed until the middle of the 18th century, when it was dismantled under Catherine II due to dilapidation. The complex was a combination of large and small log cabins and included the mansions of the king, queen, princes and princesses connected by passages, as well as various outbuildings. The palace was crowned with roofs of various shapes, painted in bright colors: tent, barrel and vat. Outside, it was decorated with gilded carvings.

In the wooden cult architecture, tent churches prevailed, but along with them, tiered churches became widespread: several successively smaller octagonal buildings were installed on the quadrangle (Ascension Church in Torzhok). Strict proportions gave even a small temple monumentality.

Civil construction in the 17th century was not distinguished by a variety of types of structures. Commercial and industrial buildings are represented by gostiny yards in Kitay-gorod in Moscow (1661–1665) and in Arkhangelsk (1668–1684), as well as Khamovny dvor in Moscow. Gostiny Dvor in Arkhangelsk, built under the supervision of Dmitry Startsev, stretched 400 meters along the Northern Dvina, it was surrounded by high stone walls with combat towers. More than two hundred commercial premises were located inside the Gostiny Dvor.

Civil architecture was in search of new ways of designing public buildings. Residential buildings were laid as the basis, which were given more monumental forms. An example is the Sukharev Tower by architect Mikhail Choglokov, erected for the Sukharev Streltsy Regiment, which showed loyalty to Peter during his conflict with Sophia. Above the massive first tier, traditionally a basement, there are two tiers of the ward building, crowned with a tower with the state emblem at the top. A wide front staircase led to the second tier. Public buildings in Moscow, also built at the end of the century, include the buildings of the Zemsky order in the Kremlin (1683), as well as the Mint.

IV. ART.

The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The greatest artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his well-known icon "The Savior Not Made by Hands", new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective.

The trend towards a realistic depiction of a person and the secularization of icon painting, characteristic of the school of Simon Ushakov, is closely connected with the spread in Russia of portraiture of the “parsuna” (person), depicting real characters, for example, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky. However, the technique of artists was still similar to icon painting, i.e. wrote on the boards with egg paints. At the end of the 17th century, the first parsunas appeared, painted in oil on canvas, anticipating the heyday of Russian portrait art in the 18th century.

Painting belonged to that kind of art where the influence of traditions was preserved to the greatest extent and where the new appeared less than in literature and architecture. This is explained by the fact that the fine arts of the 17th century are represented mainly by iconography, which was under the close supervision of the state and the church. In the patriarchal and royal letters of 1668 and 1669. painters were instructed to adhere to long-established traditions. The Old Believers were especially zealous in defending antiquity, who considered any deviations in the image to be sacrilegious.

The Kremlin Armory exercised control over the activities of the painters. Established in the 15th century as a keeper of the royal family's jewels and a workshop for the production of weapons, in the 17th century it became the artistic center of the country. The best artists from all over the country, as well as foreign craftsmen, were attracted to the Armory. It carried out work for the royal court: they painted icons, parsunas (portraits), decorated manuscripts, made banners, tents, carts, furniture, utensils, toys for princes. Among the artists of the Armory, a division of labor developed: some of them developed the composition of the icon, others painted faces, others painted clothes, and others specialized in depicting plants and animals.

In addition to icons, artists painted the walls of temples, in particular the Archangel Cathedral. The walls of the lower tier of the cathedral and the pillars were decorated with images of buried princes and kings.

For 30 years, artistic activity in the Russian state was headed by Simon Ushakov. He acted as an artist, an organizer of the country's painters who worked in the Armory, as well as a theorist of a new direction in painting. A characteristic feature of Ushakov's work is a keen interest in depicting a human face.

In the early works, the face under Ushakov's brush differed little from the traditional one: a thin flat face, a straight thin nose, dark circles under the eyes. Gradually he overcame the severity of expression, the ascetic face acquired living features. The desire to humanize the face of Christ is most clearly expressed by Ushakov in the famous icon "The Savior Not Made by Hands."

His other icon is widely known - "Planting the tree of the Russian state." At the origins of the tree is Ivan Kalita and Metropolitan Peter. Medallions depicting the heirs of Kalita are fixed on the branches of the tree. On the left side of the tree stands Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, on the right - his wife and two princes. It was a picturesque panegyric of the Romanovs, who allegedly formed a single tree with the Rurikovichs.

Ushakov's statements about art and its purpose differed significantly from the traditional ones. Art should be close to nature, pleasing to the eye with bright colors, and not gloomy, depicting saints as skinny and swarthy. The evaluation of an icon should be based on an aesthetic principle, it should be beautiful. Ushakov created a painting school. His followers were Georgy Zinoviev, Ivan Maksimov, Tikhon Filatiev. Iosif Vladimirov developed views on icon painting close to those of Simon Ushakov.

In the 17th century, two secular genres were born: portraiture and landscape. Both genres, however, have not yet overcome the manner of writing inherent in iconography. Portrait painting is represented by a few parsuns. In parsunas, even those made by Ushakov, there is no three-dimensionality of the image, the desire to achieve similarity with the original was combined with a flat interpretation. Such, for example, are the parsers of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his son Fyodor Alekseevich. The landscape also has not yet become an object of independent depiction, it performed an auxiliary function in the icon, it was the background: next to the face of the saint, the artist painted trees, a forest with birds and animals, flowers, etc.

V. MUSIC AND THEATER.

By the 17th century, Russian musical culture had stable centuries-old traditions. Like other areas of folk art, it was nameless. There were local singing schools with their own peculiarities of "chants". But everywhere dominated the choral polyphony, so characteristic of Russian folk music. Folk songs were rich in genre diversity, melodiousness, and deep expressiveness, conveying the most diverse psychological states of a person with great power. Features of folk choral creativity were perceived to a large extent by church music.

The folk theater enjoyed great popularity, as in previous times. Buffoons roamed all over Russia. The people loved the traditional Petrushka theater with its cheerful and well-aimed performances against the rich, priests, unrighteous judges. The government and church authorities persecuted buffoonery for their cheerful and bold humor, exposing the vices of those in power.

The beginning of the secularization of culture is evidenced by the appearance at the court of Alexei Mikhailovich of the first Russian theater in 1672. The initiator of its creation was the boyar Artamon Matveev, who was widely educated at that time. The theater was organized in order to celebrate the birth of Tsarevich Peter in a new way. The theater director was Pastor Gregory. The repertoire of the theater consisted of plays written on the basis of biblical stories. The theater troupe (60 people) was originally recruited from the inhabitants of the German Slaboda, they were exclusively men and youths.

Cut off from folk art and intended for a narrow circle of the feudal nobility, Pastor Gregory's theater left no serious traces in the history of Russian theatrical culture.

CONCLUSION.

Determining the main content and direction of the historical and cultural process of medieval Russia, we can say with good reason that this culture was rooted in folk art and had the main nutrient medium of its development in it. In the conditions of a feudal society, serfdom, Russia discovered remarkable wealth of the creative forces of the people in culture. These forces also nourished the culture of the ruling classes, who used it in a modified form for their own class purposes.

The culture of the people is imbued with a bright sense of optimism, it is life-affirming in its spirit. Boundless selfless love for the native land, the beauty of labor and military feat, high moral nobility, firm faith in the victory of good over evil, justice over untruth and deceit, and at the same time deep poetry, inexhaustible humor, apt selection of typical life phenomena, their soundness and accuracy estimates - all this is characteristic of the works of folk art of the feudal era. To one degree or another, in various forms, these wonderful qualities of folk art

paved the way not only in literature, but in architecture and painting.

The development of Russian culture of the 17th century reflected the features and contradictions characteristic of this time. They were determined, ultimately, by the socio-political and economic processes that took place in Rus'. The feudal mode of production, with its inherent conservatism in the development of productive forces, the dominance of a closed subsistence economy, poorly developed exchange, and traditions to preserve the political system of feudal fragmentation, also slowed down the development of culture, the formation of local traditions and features.

Undoubtedly, the development of Russian culture was greatly influenced by the dominance of the religious worldview. The church played a certain role both in the spread of literacy and in the development of architecture and painting. But at the same time, the church jealously guarded its dogmas and was hostile to new phenomena in culture, being a brake on the development of sciences, technical knowledge, literature, and art.

Nevertheless, Russian culture did not develop in isolation from world culture, being enriched by its achievements and contributing to its development. The cultural achievements of the seventeenth century have entered the circle of enduring artistic values ​​of our country, they are part of our

national wealth, glory and greatness of our people.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE.

1. Kirillov, V.V. History of Russia: textbook / V.V. Kirillov. – M.: Yurayt-Izdat, 2007. – 661s.

ISBN 978-5-94879-739-7

Pavlenko N.I., Andreev I.L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. 3rd edition. - M .: "Higher School", 2004. - p. 233-234

Kirillov V.V. History of Russia: textbook. – M.: Yurayt-Izdat, 2007. – p. 176

Russian culture of the 17th century

Russian culture of the 17th century

In the 17th century, the history of medieval culture came to an end and elements of the culture of the New Age were born, which is characterized by the process of comprehensive “secularization”. In science, this manifested itself mainly in the growth of interest in the generalization of practical experience; in literature - in the formation of a democratic secular direction; in architecture - in the convergence of the appearance of religious and civil buildings on the basis of "wonderful patterns"; in painting - in the gradual destruction of iconographic canons and the emergence of realistic tendencies.

Literature and education. In the 17th century secular literature became a noticeable phenomenon of Russian culture. There was a further genre differentiation. The transformation of the hagiographical genre ended with the emergence of a life story (biographical story). The growth of literacy attracted provincial nobles, servicemen and townspeople into the circle of readers. This led to the emergence of a household story, which, in an entertaining way, referring to everyday life, made an attempt to penetrate the psychology of the heroes, to move away from the medieval pattern that divided the characters into ideal heroes and absolute villains. The main theme of such works is the clash of the young and older generations, questions of morality, a person with his personal experiences. The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn, and The Tale of Frol Skobeev were very popular.

Full of social conflicts of the XVII century. brought to life democratic satire. Satirical stories were created among the townspeople, clerks, lower clergy. The development of the genre is closely connected with folklore. In the 17th century under the influence of Polish syllabic versification, Russian rhymed poetry arose, the founder of which was S. Polotsky, who published the Primer, the Rhymed Psalter, two large handwritten collections Rhymologion and Vertograd multicolored. The work of S. Polotsky was continued by his students Karion Istomin and Sylvester Medvedev.

Dramaturgy occupies a special place among the new genres. The first theatrical performances took place in 1672 in the court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, where plays based on ancient and biblical subjects were staged. The founder of Russian drama was S. Polotsky: "The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son" and "The Tragedy of Nebuchadnezzar the King." The author was concerned about serious moral, political and philosophical problems. In 1675, a ballet was staged for the first time on the stage of the Russian theater.

The complication of city life, the growth of the state apparatus, the development of international relations made new demands on education. Literacy rate in the 17th century increased significantly and in various strata amounted to: among the landowners - 65%; merchants - 96%; townspeople - about 40%; peasants - 15%; archers, gunners, Cossacks - 1%.

Literacy was most often taught in the family. Corporal punishment was recognized as one of the main methods of pedagogy. The essay on pedagogy “Citizenship of Children's Customs” is very indicative - a set of rules that determined all aspects of children's lives: behavior at school, at the table and when meeting people; clothing and even facial expressions. Books of religious content remained the main teaching aids, but several secular publications were also published. So, in 1633, Burtsev’s primer was published, in 1679, Polotsky’s textbook, and in 1694, Istomin’s, which were wider in content than their titles and included articles on dogma and pedagogy, dictionaries, etc. They were used in educational process and "alphabet books" - dictionaries of foreign words, introducing philosophical concepts, containing brief information on national history, about ancient philosophers and writers, geographical materials. These were reference manuals that provided already in elementary school an acquaintance with a fairly wide range of problems.

Secondary schools appeared in Moscow, including private ones, where foreign languages ​​and some other subjects were studied. In 1621, an all-estate Lutheran school was opened in the German Quarter, in which Russian boys also studied. From the 1640s the private school of the boyar F. Rtishchev began to work for young nobles, where they were taught Greek and Latin, rhetoric and philosophy. In 1664, a public school was opened to train clerks of the Order of Secret Affairs. In 1687, the first higher educational institution in Russia, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was opened in Moscow to train the higher clergy and civil service officials. The first teachers in it were the Likhud brothers, Greeks who graduated from the University of Padua in Italy. The composition of the students was heterogeneous. Representatives of different classes studied here. The Academy played an important role in the development of education at the end of the 17th - the first half of the 18th centuries.

Formation of knowledge and rationalistic outlook. In the 17th century they were able to solve many practical problems in mathematics, which were put forward by the practice of describing lands, trading activities, as well as military affairs. According to the instructions in the Book of Sosh Writing, areas were measured, square and cube roots were taken, and equations with several unknowns were solved.

A major monument of scientific knowledge of the XVII century. is the “Charter of military, cannon and other matters related to military science”, compiled by Onisim Mikhailov (Radyshevsky) in 1621. The text contains information about the organization of the army, the use of artillery and its device, and the methods of warfare. It contains a lot of practical information from various fields of knowledge - geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry. The "Ustav" is imbued with the idea of ​​the old concrete, experimental, rationalistic approach to the study of various phenomena. The "Charter" contains a number of information from mathematics, a table of measures is given, attention is paid to questions of dynamics, an goniometer is described, some observations are made on the difference in the specific gravity of metals - iron and lead (although the concept itself has not yet been formulated).

Medical knowledge was also predominantly of a narrowly practical nature and was largely based on centuries-old folk experience in the treatment of diseases. Translations of foreign medical books and "herbalists" were widely used. When translating, Russian terminology was developed. The Apothecary Order in Moscow concentrated skilled craftsmen who knew how to make medicines and had broad knowledge for that time in the field of chemistry, botany and pharmacopeia. These were Tikhon Ananin, Ivan Venediktov, Vasily Shilov and others. The same order trained new masters in the manufacture of medicines, as well as doctors.

Throughout the 17th century interest in general questions of biology developed. The first writings on issues of agricultural technology also penetrated into Russia. The attention of the Russian people began to turn to the rich concrete materials of works in the field of zoology and anatomy. In the middle of the XVII century. works began to penetrate into Russia, introducing the heliocentric system of Copernicus. The very appearance in Russia of works expounding this system is very significant for the 17th century. It testifies to the interest that arose in the problems of a rational explanation of the world order in the 17th century. The progressive development of astronomical knowledge is also evidenced by the fact that in the 17th century. various astronomical instruments began to be increasingly purchased and used in Russia.

Geographical knowledge has been greatly developed. The advance of Russian explorers to Siberia, their exploration of rivers and sea coasts, enriched geography with discoveries of exceptional significance. Several maps were drawn; as early as the beginning of the 17th century. an unpreserved map of the entire Russian state was made. Important geographical material was obtained during the exploration of Siberia by the expeditions of Stadukhin, Rebrov, Poyarkov, Dezhnev, Khabarov, Atlasov and others. and others. In 1667, in Tobolsk, the Jura stolnik and governor P. P. Godunov drew up a drawing of the Siberian lands with a corresponding description. Five years later, a new drawing of Siberia was drawn up. Information about the geography of foreign countries has expanded significantly. This information was collected by Russian embassies abroad and summarized in "article lists". Much attention was then attracted by the countries of the Far East - Mongolia and China.

Art culture. As before, wooden architecture remained the most common in Rus'. A remarkable secular building was the unpreserved palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye, representing a picturesque composition of large and small log cabins-cages connected by passages, with high roofs, keel-shaped "barrels" of roofs and tents. The fabulous splendor of the palace was enhanced by gilded carvings and bright coloring. Cult wooden buildings, with a small number of basic types, are unusually diverse in their composition.

Klet temples were widespread, representing a rectangular frame (cage), covered with a gable roof, crowned with a dome with a cross; tented, the basis of the design of which was an octagon on a cruciform base or on a quadrangle, covered with a tent; tiered - a special type of high-rise composition, representing the growth of decreasing quadruplets and octagonal; many-domed - one of the most famous monuments of this group is the Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi.

Stone construction, interrupted by the “troubles” of the early 17th century, resumed only in the 1920s. At this time, the restoration of the Moscow Kremlin was carried out. The architects B. Ogurtsov and H. Galovey erected a tent over the Spasskaya Tower. Civil architecture markedly influenced religious buildings. In the temples of the 20-30s. some new features appeared: fragmentation of elements, as in the Church of the Intercession in Rubtsovo; unusually rich decor, as in the church of Zosima and Savvaty in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Even more noticeable is the departure from tradition in three-tented churches, for example, in the Assumption Church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich, popularly nicknamed “Divnaya”. New features led to the formation in the second quarter of the XVII century. pictorial style with asymmetrical grouping of masses. Usually it is a five-domed pillarless temple, the main cube of which is surrounded by chapels, porches, stairs and porches, with obligatory finishing details: barrel-shaped columns, arches with a hanging weight, typesetting brick window frames, etc. It was in the township churches that the secular beginning, which contemporaries called "pattern". Such are the Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putniki, the Trinity in Nikitniki, the Yaroslavl churches of Elijah the Prophet, John Chrysostom in Korovniki.

In the 90s. 17th century in Russian architecture, a new style was established, conventionally referred to as "Naryshkin" or "Moscow Baroque". Its main compositional principles are tieredness, centricity, symmetry and balance of masses: the lower tier is square or rectangular, on it is an octagon, above it is a second, larger volume and, finally, the final drum with a head. The tiered composition achieved the effect of vertical movement, inherent in the pillar-like and hipped buildings of previous times. The decorative decoration made of carved white stone looked extraordinarily expressive against the red background of brick walls. Windows, often oval or octagonal, were framed by small columns with ornate gables; above the cornices were placed the so-called "cockscombs" - stripes of carved decorative elements. Examples of this style: the Church of the Intercession in Fili, the Church of the Savior in the village of Ubory, near Moscow. Decorative forms of the “Moscow Baroque” were also used in five-domed churches: the Assumption Cathedral in Ryazan, the Moscow Church of the Resurrection in Kadashi. In the architecture of the XVII century. in the struggle between old traditions and new trends, new artistic views were developed, genetically related to folk art. At the same time, the style of Western European architecture was being creatively mastered.

In painting, the process of secularization was particularly active. The first half of the century was marked by a struggle between two pictorial trends inherited from the previous era. One - the “Godunov school” - gravitated towards the monumental traditions of the past and was an attempt to revive the fading spirit of great art by following the ancient canon orthodoxly (the icons “It is worthy to eat” and “Simeon the Stylite”; the iconostasis of the Kremlin Church of the Deposition of the Robe). Another direction - the "Stroganov school" - was a more lively stream in the painting of the first half of the 17th century. Stroganov icons for the first time in Russian art, as if on an equal footing with the religious and symbolic function, carried an enhanced aesthetic principle: virtuoso drawing, fine detail, rich ornamentation, polychrome coloring. An outstanding master of the "Stroganov school" was P. Chirin, whose icons are characterized by a special softness of color, the plasticity of elongated figures and the elegance of poses.

The traditional icon-painting techniques of innovative artists were gradually replaced by more realistic ones. This process was vividly reflected in the work of S. Ushakov. If his early works were made in the Old Russian icon-painting manner (two icons of Our Lady of Vladimir), then in the late 50s. icons appeared, painted taking into account knowledge of the anatomical structure of the face and using chiaroscuro (“Great Bishop”, “Savior Not Made by Hands”, etc.) In the 60s - 70s. the artist created a number of works in a mixed style - the faces are made in a new chiaroscuro manner, and everything else is in the old, close to the "Stroganov" style. Such are the icons "Tree of the State of Moscow", "Trinity", etc. Realist tendencies in Ushakov's later works noticeably intensified.

The features of the art of the future were most clearly manifested in the parsun. This first purely secular genre originated at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, and was further developed in the second half of the century in the portraits of Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, the young Tsarevich Peter. The best parsuns, such as portraits of the steward V.F. Lyutkin, uncle and mother of Peter I - L.K. and N.K. Naryshkin, were written at the end of the century. They have already outlined the features of the Russian portrait of the coming century - attention to the inner world of the person being portrayed, poetization of the image, subtle coloring. In just a few decades, the new genre has come a long way - from semi-iconic parsing to quite realistic images. Fresco, 17th century experiencing the last rise, can only conditionally be attributed to monumental painting. There is almost no correlation of pictorial surfaces with architectural ones, the images are crushed, permeated with intricate ornamentation, hagiographic compositions have acquired the character of genre paintings, replete with folklore elements.

Culture of Russia in the 18th century

Culturology - Lectures on Culturology

Culture of Russia in the 18th century

Reforms of Peter I and their general cultural significance. Turn of the XVII - XVIII centuries. is the beginning of a new stage in the history of Russia. Its content was the disintegration of the feudal mode of production and the ripening in the bowels of the feudal economy of the capitalist way of life, as well as the formation of the Russian nation on the basis of the Great Russian people. Changes in the socio-economic sphere formed the basis for changes in its features. The main content of the cultural process was the formation and development of Russian national culture.

Early 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which were prepared by the gradually accumulated socio-economic changes. The reforms affected almost all spheres of society: church, economy, administrative apparatus, army, navy, culture. The content of the reforms in the most general sense were two important points: a decisive shift from the Middle Ages to the New Age and the Europeanization of all areas of life. As a result of the transformations, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed, since the centralization of state administration, bureaucratization, a regular army, the inclusion of the church in state structures are integral signs of absolutism.

Peter's transformations were of a dual nature: on the one hand, they contributed to the economic and political rise of the state, the development of Russia's external economic and cultural relations with Western countries (especially with Poland, Germany, Italy, Holland); on the other hand, the bias towards the social ideals of the West took place without the necessary understanding of the cultural characteristics of Western and Eastern patterns of development. The culture has become Western in its outward expression, representation and pretension, but has remained ineradicably Eastern in essence.

The plan to "Westernize" Russian culture, to instill in it the values ​​of the Western world, was based on violence. The assimilation of European civilization happened hastily and passively. The people did not accept the new European innovations at all, they remained alien to them. The "tops" perceived them superficially and even dogmatically, without rethinking. The reforms of Peter I split the society and led to the formation of two different ways - "soil" and "civilization" - in the terminology of V. Klyuchevsky. "Soil" is a way of life, the main features of which were formed in the conditions of the Muscovite kingdom. The bulk of the population was associated with him. Here dominated collectivism, the amazing principle of social justice, anti-proprietary sentiments. Soil developed the richest traditions of folk culture, cultivated its own systems of rituals that ensured the continuity and vitality of traditions. "Civilization" is a way of life of the Western type. It was expressed by the professional intelligentsia and entrepreneurs associated with industrial production. There was a big gap between "soil" and "civilization". "Soil" spoke Russian, "civilization" spoke French. Practically within the framework of one country, two societies coexisted, possessing different values, ideals, gravitating towards different ways of development.

One of the first acts of Peter, which is an essential part of all his reforms, was the creation of an empire, a fundamentally different state structure, in which the most important, sacred service to state interests becomes mandatory for all subjects and for the autocrat.

The very first were the reforms of the army. They touched on the method of recruiting privates: the admission of those who wish, "volunteers" and the recruitment of peasants into the army. While studying, the soldiers not only acquired the necessary military skills, they were instilled with a sense of responsibility, fidelity to duty, initiative, and observance of not sticky, but conscious discipline. Peter developed and introduced statutes and an oath. As E. Anisimov rightly notes, Suvorov, Kutuzov, Lermontov, and Leo Tolstoy subsequently took such an oath. In addition to the reorganization of the army, Russia owes it to Peter the creation of the fleet.

Other reforms affected industry, and Peter achieved almost complete centralization of the economy. The state monopolized in the field of industry a new branch of iron ore mining, the development of metallurgical production. New industrial territories appeared, spreading to the Urals and beyond, their management was entirely in the hands of the state. Light industry also developed - the production of canvas, ropes, and then cloth and other previously imported goods, manufactories were created. Trade, too, gradually became the sphere of state activity, and not the subject of private enterprise. Like many other things, these actions caused consequences not only of a positive nature. The state monopoly on trade in many goods reduced the private initiative of merchants, and ruined others altogether, slowing down the development of the merchant class in Russia for many years. However, this helped replenish the state treasury, which, in turn, made it possible to develop science, education, build cities and maintain an exemplary army.

Peter undertook the territorial division of Russia into provinces, which made it possible to “concentrate administrative, judicial, and, most importantly, financial power in the hands of the representative of the tsar - a high-ranking official, such as the governor” (Anisimov Evg. Time of Peter's reforms. - L., 1989. C 147). Over time, the Senate was created to manage the provinces and for the most complete and prompt implementation of autocracy, which existed until 1917. The development of a bureaucratic system, which sought to accurately determine the place of each in the state machine and his duties, culminated in the Table of Ranks. Peter likened the state to an army, introducing in it a hierarchical system of relations and even taking an oath. The new form of administrative division of Russia contributed to the efficiency in solving many problems on the territory of a huge state.

In 1721, a radical church reform was carried out, which eliminated the autonomy of the church and completely subordinated it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Theological College was established to manage the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod. In 1722, to oversee the activities of the Synod, Peter I appointed a chief prosecutor (I.V. Boldin) from among the officers close to him. Thus, Peter I completely subordinated the Church to his power.

Academician A. Panchenko in a series of his studies, including in the book Russian Culture on the Eve of the Petrine Reforms, showed that the main content of Petrine modernization was the secularization of culture (i.e., “secularization”), which destroyed the specific semantic integrity of ancient Russian culture. Ancient Russian culture was religiously integral and semantically unified, since the synthetic religious worldview connected all the layers and components of culture into an indivisible “all-unity”. Russian religious schism of the 17th century. divided the national religious consciousness in two and polarized Russian culture along religious lines (“Old Believers” and “Nikonians”). Peter's transformations made the socio-cultural split of Rus' even more rigid, irreconcilable and irreversible, and most importantly - multidimensional, developing simultaneously in several directions.

Being a logical continuation of the dramatic processes of the Russian religious schism of the 17th century, the period of Peter's reforms, imbued with the pathos of secularization, divided the previously unified Russian culture into proper "culture" and proper "faith", i.e., in fact, into two different basic cultures: secular (secular ) and religious (spiritual). “Like any communal structure, ancient Russian civilization could not withstand the slightest violation of age-old traditions that appealed to the public consent of society in the distant past: any, even private, modernization led to the disintegration of the “unanimity” of society on a number of fundamental issues, to the growth of disagreements and conflicts, to extreme polarization of public opinion and the inevitable split ”(Kondakov I.V. Culture of Russia. M., 1999. P. 159).

In essence, the recognition of religiosity itself as an optional, optional component of culture, the unambiguous separation of secular power from the church, and the subordination of the church to the state were explosive factors in the dynamics of Russian culture. At the same time, the religious part of Russian culture actually went to the periphery of national historical development and lost a number of previously irreplaceable semantic and regulatory functions (although for the majority of the Russian population it remained the basis of life, it was the only and familiar one), and the newly formed secular, secular culture, on the contrary, it acquired new and varied functions and took root in the center of official, state cultural and social life (although it was the culture of an educated minority, the noble elite).

The church reform carried out by Peter I, displacing the traditionally understood holiness and sacral values ​​of the Orthodox civilization of Holy Rus' from public life, but objectively not having the opportunity (as well as the desire) to remove religiosity itself from the life and Russian culture as such, thereby contributed to the sacralization of the most important secular institutions and cultural phenomena that have replaced the religious cult. This led, on the one hand, to the alienation of secular power from religion, on the other hand, to the generation and spread in the mass consciousness of a new and specific phenomenon for Russian culture - “Secular holiness” (Academician A. Panchenko), which consisted in extrapolating the attributes of a cult holiness to non-religious objects and phenomena.

It was at this time that the peculiarity of the “religious energy of the Russian soul”, which was so characteristic of Russian culture in the future, began to take shape, to switch and be directed towards goals that “are no longer religious” (N. Berdyaev), i.e. towards social, scientific, artistic goals , political, etc., which clearly declared itself already in the enthusiasm of Russian socio-political and cultural figures of the 18th century. freemasonry and non-confessional mysticism (A. Sumarokov, M. Shcherbatov, I. Elagin, I. Lopukhin, I. Turgenev, V. Maikov, N. Novikov and others).

Subsequently, the “religious energy” of Russian culture was especially sharply manifested in the atheistic and materialistic fanaticism of the Raznochinskaya intelligentsia of the second half of the 19th century, in their passion for natural science, politics, technology - often fetishized and considered in isolation from the whole culture as a kind of “religious religion”, or a religion that develops in isolation from its own substratum. In the same quasi-religious vein, the political extremism of Russian radicals, which began in the 18th century, should be considered. from theoretical assumptions (A. Radishchev), and by the 70s. 19th century turned into a terrorist movement.

With the change in the place of religion in the picture of the world, the relationship between other parts and components of culture, its forms and categories has also changed. So, in the concept of the world, approved by Peter I, "beauty" is replaced by "benefit"; the priority of the word, verbal etiquette, traditional for Ancient Rus', fades into the background before the authority of the thing, material production, natural and technical sciences; the civil script introduced by Peter, opposing Church Slavonic, finally separated secular literacy from religious and secular, non-religious culture as a whole from spiritual; the manuscript was superseded by the newspaper.

The inevitable "decline of literature" under Peter was compensated by the informativeness of verbal works; new genres and styles were born in art (for example, the genre of travel, "stories", cantes, etc.); the apotheosis of the thing liberated the plot of literary and artistic works. The reality of the world began to be described and interpreted outside of correlation with the age-old ideals of religion and traditional ethics and aesthetics; life and everyday experience has become a constant subject of reflection in literature and art.

Fundamentally new phenomena, inconceivable within the framework of traditional Russian culture, were - as a result of Peter's reforms - libraries and a public theater, the Kunstkamera (the first museum, a collection of public rarities) and the Academy of Sciences, parks and park sculpture, palace and park architecture.

Russian culture of the XVIII century. began to be imbued with the principle of historicism: history henceforth appears as a memory, as an artificial "resurrection" of the past (for the purposes of education, edification, for the sake of understanding, analyzing the experience gained or repulsing from the past), as a "lesson" to the present; at the same time, the orientation of Russian culture to the future, its appeal to the ideas and attitudes of development, is also born. Hence the development in the XVIII century. professional scientific interest in the study of national history - the formation of national history as a science (V. Tatishchev, M. Lomonosov, G. Miller, M. Shcherbatov, I. Boltin, etc.) and the experience of artistic comprehension in poetry, prose and dramaturgy (A. Sumarokov, M. Kheraskov, Ya. Knyazhnin, N. Karamzin and others).

History of Russia IX–XVIII centuries. Moryakov Vladimir Ivanovich

1. Russian culture in the 17th century

17th century became a turning point in the development of Russian culture. Stormy events associated with deep social conflicts, changes in socio-economic life, expansion of ties with Western European countries and the penetration into Russia of elements of scientific knowledge and culture of these countries determined the development of Russian culture and the changes that took place in it.

In the second third of the XVII century. in Russia begins the development of a new culture. It was characterized by a secular character, openness, i.e. readiness and desire for active communication with other cultures, attention to the human personality and acceleration of the pace of development. In it, one can detect the beginning changes in attitudes towards life in general and towards the surrounding nature, the state, society, and the place of man in it in particular.

The complication of people's lives and activities, primarily in cities, where the development of crafts and trade was based on the individual experience, energy, knowledge of people who remained at the empirical level, required the development of education, the transformation of accumulated knowledge into science. This was inevitably connected with the loosening of religious ideas. The new culture freed man from the fetters of church authoritarianism, traditions, and illusions of the correctness of only religious solutions to those tasks that life set that fettered his desire for progressive changes in material and spiritual life. The new culture, as opposed to the traditional medieval one, raised a person to truly spiritual freedom, since turning to God was nothing more than an illusion of spiritual freedom, a rejection of one's own personality, one's own worldview and thinking. All medieval institutions, including the church, directed their efforts towards the conservation of the traditional way of life, social relations and way of life. “We are supposed to,” Archpriest Avvakum wrote, “lay it like that forever and ever.” Avvakum urged not to be arrogant, but to be afraid, and likened a person to dirt, since he is not Christ.

Therefore, an important moment in the formation of a new culture was the process of secularization (“worldly” - secular), a departure from religious canons and dogmas. Of considerable importance in this was the penetration into Russia of scientific knowledge and elements of secular European culture. The Church actively opposed this, mercilessly fought against "Latinism", but was powerless to stop the progressive progressive development of the country, culture, which needed to strengthen economic and cultural ties with the countries of Europe.

The formation of a new culture was also helped by the fact that it turned out to be necessary for absolutism to fight against the church hierarchy, for ideological justification and for the implementation of urgent socio-economic, political and cultural transformations in the country. The support of the new culture by absolutism, its intervention in the process of cultural development helped the formation and establishment of the new culture, turning it into a system. On the other hand, the intervention of absolutism in the development of culture led to the fact that it developed one-sidedly, only as a "noble culture", largely alien to the peasantry and townspeople. This slowed down the emerging in the XVII century. the development of urban township culture in particular and folk culture in general.

Thus, the formation and development of a new culture was prepared by the entire course of the country's historical and cultural development. It was an objective process. As B. I. Krasnobaev, a well-known specialist in the history of Russian culture, noted, it was the main features of the new culture - its secular nature and "openness" as a system that were absent in traditional culture based on religiosity and tendencies to withdraw into itself - that led traditional culture to a crisis. in the conditions of the new time.

Development in the 17th century urban life, crafts, trade, manufactories, the state apparatus and relations with foreign countries required knowledgeable and educated people, which stimulated the development of literacy and education. In 1672, the first bookstore opened in Moscow. Alphabet of V. Burtsev with a circulation of 2400 copies. and the price of 1 kopeck. (a very high price for the 17th century) sold out in one day. In the 1940s, the boyar F. M. Rtishchev set up a school for young noblemen, and several more private schools arose.

Compared to the 16th century the number of literate people increased significantly, but on the whole they were not enough, and even the state apparatus was in need of educated people. By the end of the XVII century. in Moscow, 24% of the total adult male population was literate. Women in the wealthy strata of society remained practically illiterate. In the middle of the XVII century. The German diplomatic mission conducted a kind of sociological study of the inhabitants of Moscow, who belonged to different classes, in order to determine the level of literacy. 1000 people from each class were interviewed, and it turned out that the most literate were merchants (96%), 65% of the literate were among the nobles, 40% among the townspeople, 15% among the peasants, 1% among the archers.

In the 17th century 483 titles of books were published: 85% - liturgical, 15% - textbooks. In 1683, for the first time in Russia, a multiplication table appeared - “Convenient Counting”. Only in Moscow in the 17th century. There were about 30 secondary schools. The most famous were the schools at the Moscow Chudov Monastery, at the Mint, at the Moscow Printing House, and in 1665 a school was opened in the Zaikonospassky Monastery (it was the first state school where officials were trained for state institutions).

In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened in Moscow, headed by the Greek brothers Likhuds. It was the first higher educational institution for people "of every rank, rank and age", where the clergy and officials were trained. The structure of the academy consisted of three classes. In the lower one, "Slavic book writing" and "Greek book writing" were studied. Grammar and Latin were taught in the middle class, and rhetoric, dialectics, logic, and physics were taught in the higher class.

In the field of science, there was a process of generalization of previously accumulated knowledge. There are written manuals and textbooks summarizing both scientific and accumulated industrial experience. In the 1650s, the first textbook on geometry was published - "The Book of Coil Writing". In 1621, the archer Anisim Mikhailov compiled the "Charter of military, cannon and other matters related to military science", where he collected all the knowledge on military affairs, including a manual for the manufacture of explosives. In the 70s, master Simeon from Totma compiled a "Guide on how to start making new pipes in a new place" (on installing brine-lifting pipes in salt mines). In 1696, Bishop Athanasius of Kholmogory compiled a "Healer" where he indicated all the diseases he knew and how to treat them. At the end of the XVII century. the clerk of the Aptekarsky order, Ivan Venediktov, compiled the Pharmacopoeia, where he described all the medicines known to him.

In 1614, a telescope appeared in Russia, brought from Holland. At the end of the century, the works of Copernicus and other astronomers penetrated into Russia. In the field of geography, a huge number of maps are being compiled both for individual parts of the country and for the whole country as a whole. In 1626, the "Big Drawing" was drawn up, that is, a summary map of the Russian state (it has not survived to this day). In 1627, an appendix to this map was compiled - “The Book of a Large Drawing”, where information was given about Russian cities, indicating the distance between them. In 1640, the "Painting of Siberian Cities and Ostrog" was compiled, in 1672 - "Drawing of the Siberian Land" and in 1701 - "Drawing Book of Siberia" (Atlas) by Remezov.

Russian explorers made a great contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. Semyon Dezhnev with his expedition as early as 1648 reached the strait between Asia and North America. In the next year, 1649, Erofey Khabarov studied the lands along the Amur and made a map. At the end of the XVII century. Siberian Cossack VV Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

The development of Russia increased interest in history and put on the agenda the issue of creating a work on the history of the Russian state. It was necessary to systematically collect historical materials, which from 1657 to 1659 was the work of the Zapisny Prikaz. An attempt to collect a wide range of historical sources was made by the clerk F. Griboyedov, the typographical "referencer" (editor) Polikarpov and the author of "Scythian History" Andrei Lyzlov. In 1674, the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, Innocent Gizel, created a "Synopsis" (description), which outlined the history of Rus' from ancient times, with an emphasis on the regularity of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

In the 17th century they knew how to extract cubic and square roots, solve equations, measure areas. The need for the manufacture of medicines and the development of artillery led to the fact that the properties of many substances became known. The work of Andrei Vesalius on the structure of the human body was translated into Russian.

In the 17th century in the spiritual life the personal principle increased. Attention to the human personality is growing, which is most reflected in socio-political thought and literature. In socio-political writings, an attempt was made to comprehend the events of the beginning of the century and find out the causes of the upheavals. This was done in the form of historical writings about the Troubles. These include the “Vremennik” by deacon Ivan Timofeev, “The Tale” by the cellar of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Avraamy Palitsyn, “Another Tale” by Prince Katyrev-Rostovsky and “The New Chronicler”, which reflected the official ideology of the autocracy. The authors of these works had a sharply negative attitude towards popular uprisings and saw the cause of the Troubles in the suppression of the Rurik dynasty and the weakening of power. They mainly attributed the role of the determining force in the events and destinies of people to “providence”, but they already made, albeit timid, attempts to explain this or that phenomenon through the actions of the reigning personality, its character, and psychology.

In the second half of the XVII century. the substantiation of the principles of absolutism was clearly manifested in the works of Yuri Krizhanich "The Thoughts are Political" and Simeon Polotsky's "Rhymologion".

The story-driven historical narrative of a journalistic nature actively supplanted the traditional chronicle. Chronicle as a type of historical work in the 17th century. finally faded into the past.

The genre originality of literature is changing. Some traditional genres of Russian medieval literature disappeared: teaching, prayer, some genres were transformed into new ones. Lives became like autobiographical stories (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”, written by himself; “The Tale of Ulyana Osoryana” - a Murom noblewoman who participated in the militia of Minin and Pozharsky). The genre of travels has completely passed into the genre of travelers' notes. Here it is necessary to single out two works by Nikolai Spafariy devoted to the description of China - "Description of the first part of the Universe, called Asia and in which the Chinese state stands", "The Legend of the Great Amur River". Vanyukov's work "Description of the new land, that is, the Siberian state" was the most detailed description of Siberia in Europe.

In the 17th century syllabic versification appears in Russia. Its founder Simeon Polotsky wrote "Rhymology" and a collection of love lyrics "Multicolored Vertograd".

A large amount of translated foreign literature speaks of the strengthening of cultural ties with Europe: the French chivalric novel The Tale of Bova the King; the French courtly novel The Story of the Brave Knight Peter and the Beautiful Princess Magilena; Czech story about Vasily Zlatovlas; a collection of anecdotes and sayings of ancient philosophers "Apothegmata"; the story "About Yeruslan Lazarevich", which goes back to Firdousi's poem "Shahnameh".

Changes in social life predetermined the beginning of a new stage in the development of literature, characterized by a number of new features. These include, first of all, the emergence of satirical stories: “On the Shemyakina Court”, “The Tale of Yersh Ershovich”, “Service to the Tavern”, “The ABC of the Naked and Poor Man”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, etc. These works were created among the townspeople, they contained a protest against the ruling order, both secular gentlemen and the clergy were ridiculed. The literature of the 17th century, especially democratic literature, was characterized by close attention to the human personality. This was connected with the emergence of a new hero - a fictional character. If earlier in literature the heroes were historical figures who belonged to the top of society, now they portrayed princes, merchants, and ordinary townspeople.

The tastes of the townspeople were clearly manifested in architecture and painting. Secularization in architecture was expressed primarily in a departure from medieval rigor and simplicity, in the striving for external picturesqueness, elegance, and decor. Merchants and posad communities increasingly became customers for the construction of churches, which played an important role in the secularization of church architecture. It was in the "posad" churches that the secular beginning, the tastes and moods of the democratic strata of the population manifested themselves. Such temples include the Moscow churches of the Trinity in Nikitniki (1628-1636), the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki (1649-1652), the Yaroslavl Church of Elijah the Prophet (1647-1650). These buildings are decorated with numerous decorative details, their upper parts were finished with special splendor. Tiles were used to decorate churches.

The Church stubbornly opposed the secularization of religious architecture, the penetration of the secular principle into it. In the 1950s, Patriarch Nikon forbade the construction of tent churches, putting forward the traditional five-domed style instead, a style of strict monumentalism. The most striking examples of this style are the ensembles of the New Jerusalem monasteries near Moscow and the Iversky monasteries in Valdai.

Architectural style of the 17th century. it is distinguished by a huge amount of decorative decoration - “wonderful pattern”. In this style, the Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye was built, and it was built without a single nail; it had 200 rooms and 3,000 windows and windows. From the hipped churches of the first half of the 17th century. one can single out the Church of the Intercession in Medvedkovo (built at the personal expense of Prince Pozharsky to commemorate the liberation of Moscow from the invaders); Assumption Church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich, which is popularly called the Marvelous Church (1628), and the Church of Zosima and Savvaty in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.

In the last decade of the 17th century largely under the influence of strengthening cultural ties with Ukraine and Belarus, the style of Moscow (or "Naryshkin") baroque spread in Russian architecture. The characteristic features of this style were clarity, symmetry of the composition, aspiration upwards, multi-tiered, decorative processing of buildings. A remarkable monument of this style is the Moscow Church of the Intercession in Fili (1690-1693), built by the uncle of Peter I, L. K. Naryshkin.

The idea of ​​an “order” composition of a building, organized spaces and volumes, along with lush decorative finishes, entered Russian architecture. appeared in the 17th century. large secular buildings, made in the form of a single "block", not divided into equal volumes. In Moscow, civil buildings have been preserved: the chambers of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov on Bersenevskaya Embankment and the chambers of the Duma clerk Ivan Volkov in Bolshoi Kharitonievsky Lane. The large refectories of the Simonov, Trinity-Sergius, Novodevichy monasteries were built in the same style.

The process of secularization also affected painting. The main thing here was the formation and development of realistic tendencies, the desire to convey the beauty of earthly existence. Within the framework of church painting, the everyday genre, the parsuna and the portrait developed. The parsuna was close to the icon in terms of writing technique. As in icon painting, tempera paint and boards were used. But at the same time, the parsuna was a transition from a cult image to a portrait. The parsuns depicted specific people, not saints, most often they were noble people: boyars, governors, royal entourage. This genre already had its own laws: a certain angle of the character, the presence of regalia. Parsunas of V.K. Naryshkin, steward Godunov, Skopin-Shuisky are known.

At the head of the new direction was Simon Ushakov. Ushakov Semyon (Pimen) Fedorovich came from townspeople. He created icons, parsuns, miniatures, frescoes, maps, plans, supervised icon painters who painted the Kremlin cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber in Moscow, and had his own workshop. Simon Ushakov believed that painting, like a mirror, should reflect reality, and therefore the work does not need to be explained to the viewer in words. He tried to create a theoretical guide for artists on how to paint the human body (“A Word to the Lovers of Icon Painting”, “The Alphabet of Art”). One of his most outstanding works was The Savior Not Made by Hands. His "Spas" depicts a living, spiritualized face of a real person. One of the first attempts to theoretically substantiate the principles of this trend was also a treatise by Iosif Vladimirov.

The new direction also affected the painting of temples. Examples of this are the murals of the Trinity in Nikitniki and Yaroslavl churches, the churches of Elijah the Prophet and Nikola Mokry in Yaroslavl, which were painted by Gury Nikitin and Sila Savin, who led the artel of Kostroma artists. In the paintings of Nikitin and Savin there were a lot of everyday scenes, they were distinguished by bright colors and rich ornaments.

At the end of the XVII century. painters are moving from parsuna to painting portraits with paints on canvas (portraits of Prince B. I. Repnin, steward G. P. Godunov, L. K. Naryshkin). The portraits were still far from perfect, since their authors, not knowing anatomy, did not always respect the proportions of the human body. The portrait genre in painting reaches its peak in the second half of the 18th century.

4. The Great Troubles of the 16th–17th centuries as the era of the struggle between the old Russian Horde dynasty and the new pro-Western Romanov dynasty The end of the Russian Horde in the 17th century