Classification of errors.

Russian language.

Content

I. Typical mistakes. Classification
II. Speech errors

Misunderstanding the meaning of the word. Lexical compatibility

The use of synonyms, homonyms, polysemantic words

Verbosity. Lexical incompleteness of the statement. New words

Outdated words. Words of foreign origin

Dialectisms. Colloquial and colloquial words. jargon

Phraseologisms. Cliches and stamps

III. Factual Errors
IV. Logic errors
V. Grammar errors
VI. Syntax errors

I. Typical mistakes. Classification

Communicative literacy is understood as the ability to create texts of different functional and semantic types of speech in the form of different functional styles.
Essays and presentations are the main forms of testing the ability to correctly and consistently express thoughts in accordance with the topic and intent, checking the level of speech training. They are used simultaneously to test spelling and punctuation skills and are evaluated, firstly, from the side of content and structure (sequence of presentation) and, secondly, from the side of language design.
Most of the errors that occur during the performance of students' written work are also typical for writing activities of a different kind, whether it is writing a business paper (statement, order, contract, etc.), preparing a report, article or text material for WEB pages. Therefore, the analysis of errors of this kind is of great importance for daily activities.

The following groups can be distinguished among typical errors:

Speech errors
Violation of the correctness of the transfer of factual material
Logic errors
Grammatical errors
Syntax errors

II. Speech errors

The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotionally expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, compatibility with other words. Since the violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.

The main causes of speech errors:
1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word
2. Lexical compatibility
3. Use of synonyms
4. Use of homonyms
5. Use of ambiguous words
6. Verbosity
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement
8. New words
9. Obsolete words
10. Words of foreign origin
11. Dialectisms
12. Colloquial and colloquial words
13. Professional jargon
14. Phraseologisms
15. Cliches and stamps

1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word.
1.1. The use of a word in an unusual sense.
Example:
The fire got hotter and hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of the word:
Inflame - 1. Heat up to a very high temperature, get hot. 2. (transl.) To become very excited, to become overcome by some strong feeling.
Flare up - start strongly or well, burn evenly.

1.2. The use of significant and functional words without regard to their semantics.
Example:
Thanks to the fire that broke out from the fire, a large area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe forest burned down.
In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb thank and is usually used only in those cases when it refers to the reasons that cause the desired result: thanks to someone's help, support. The error occurs in connection with the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.

1.3. The choice of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).
Example:
We offer a complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases.
If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced by alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to the use of alcoholic beverages.

1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.
Example:
The man leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
Idle and festive are very similar words, the same root. But they have different meanings: festive - an adjective for a holiday (festive dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy with business, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.

2. Lexical compatibility.
When choosing a word, one should take into account not only the meaning that it has in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.
Example:
A good leader should show an example to his subordinates in everything. You can show an example, but not a sample. And a model can be, for example, to follow.
Example:
Their strong friendship, hardened in life's trials, was noticed by many. The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.
To distinguish from a speech error should be a deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, an ordinary miracle ... In this case, we have one of the types of tropes - an oxymoron.
In difficult cases, when it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary.

3. The use of synonyms.
Synonyms enrich the language, make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic coloring. So, the words mistake, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral, commonly used; a hole, an overlay - colloquial; slip - colloquial; blooper - professional slang. The use of one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error.
Example:
Having made a mistake, the director of the plant immediately began to correct it.
When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.
Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express a different degree of manifestation of a sign, action. But, even denoting the same thing, interchangeable in some cases, in others, synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.
Example:
Yesterday I was sad. A synonym for sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences, these synonyms are interchanged. Sadly, I look at our generation ...

4. The use of homonyms.
Due to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.
Example:
The crew is in excellent condition. Is the crew a wagon or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.
Very often, ambiguity leads to the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that match in sound and spelling in separate forms). So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must also pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.

5. The use of polysemantic words.
When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether it is clear exactly the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation. When using polysemantic words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of the word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a segment of speech that is semantically complete, allowing you to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it happens otherwise.
Example:
He's already cracked up. It is not clear: or he began to sing, got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.

7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.
This error is the opposite of verbosity. The incompleteness of the statement consists in the omission of the necessary word in the sentence.
Example:
The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may not have anything superfluous, but this sentence lacks (and not even one) word. Or: "... do not allow on the pages of the press and television statements that can incite ethnic hatred." So it turns out - "page of television".
When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also the scope of distribution. The use of words that have a limited scope (lexical neoplasms, obsolete words, words of foreign origin, professionalism, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.

8. New words.
Unsuccessfully formed neologisms are speech errors.
Example:
And last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on patching after the spring thaw. And only the context helps to understand: "patching" is the repair of pits.

9. Obsolete words.
Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.
Example:
Now the university had an open day. Here the obsolete word now (today, now, at the present time) is completely inappropriate.
Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denoted: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.
Example:
The peasants can not stand their hard life and go to the chief governor of the city. The governor is the head of some area (for example, a province in tsarist Russia, a state in the USA). Therefore, the chief governor is an absurdity, moreover, there could only be one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.

10. Words of foreign origin.
Now many people are addicted to foreign words, sometimes not even knowing their exact meaning. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.
Example: The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading experts. Limit - set a limit on something, limit. The foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced by the words: goes slower, paused, etc.

11. Dialectisms.
Dialectisms are words or set combinations that are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create the speech characteristics of the characters. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates a lack of knowledge of the norms of the literary language.
Example: A scraper came to me and sat all evening. Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the utterance.

12. Colloquial and colloquial words.
Spoken words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech, mainly in the sphere of everyday communication. Vernacular is a word, grammatical form or turn of predominantly oral speech, used in the literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rude characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple, relaxed speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional), is used in the speech of the whole people.
Example: I have a very thin jacket. Thin (colloquial) - full of holes, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur when the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by the context.

13. Professional jargon.
Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: a typo - a blunder in the speech of journalists; the steering wheel is a steering wheel in the speech of drivers.
But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, hearing and others spoil literary speech.
In terms of the limited use and nature of expression (joking, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargons and are an integral part of jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups of people (slangs of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by socially limited use.
Example: I wanted to invite guests to the holiday, but the shack does not allow. Hibara - home.

14. Phraseologisms.
It must be remembered that phraseological units always have a figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, figurative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.
1). Mistakes in mastering the meaning of phraseological units.
a) There is a danger of taking phraseological units literally, which can be perceived as free combinations of words.
b) Errors may be associated with a change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.
Example:
Khlestakov throws pearls in front of pigs all the time, and everyone believes him. Here, the phraseological unit throwing pearls in front of pigs, which means "it is in vain to talk about something or prove something to someone who is not able to understand it," is used incorrectly - in the meaning of "invent, weave fables."
2). Mistakes in mastering the form of phraseological unit.
a) Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
I'm used to giving myself full reports. Here the form of the number has been changed. There is a phraseological unit to give an account.
Example:
He always sits with his arms folded. Phraseologisms such as folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the perfect participle with the suffix -а (-я).
In some phraseological units, short forms of adjectives are used, replacing them with full forms is erroneous.
b) Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
It's time for you to take control of your mind. Most phraseological units are impenetrable: it is impossible to introduce an additional unit into the phraseological unit.
Example:
Well, at least hit the wall! The omission of a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.
Example:
Everything returns to its own spiral! .. There is a phraseological unit in full circle. Word substitution is not allowed.
3). Changing the lexical compatibility of a phraseological unit.
Example:
These and other questions play an important role in the development of this still young science. There was a mixture of two stable revolutions: plays a role and matters. You could say that questions matter a lot... or questions matter a lot.

15. Cliches and stamps.
Chancery - words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to the official business style, but in other styles of speech they are inappropriate, they are clichés.
Example:
There is a lack of spare parts.
Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Stamps are words, phrases and even whole sentences that appear as new, stylistically expressive speech means, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery.
Example:
A forest of hands went up in the vote.
A variety of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and indefinite meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually universal words are accompanied by stencil pendants: work - everyday, level - high, support - hot. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), literary criticism (an exciting image, angry protest).
Cliches - speech stereotypes, ready-made phrases used as a standard that is easily reproduced in certain conditions and contexts - are constructive units of speech and, despite frequent use, retain their semantics. Cliches are used in official business documents (summit); in the scientific literature (to be proved); in journalism (our own correspondent reports from); in different situations of colloquial everyday speech (Hello! Goodbye! Who is the last one?).

III. Factual Errors

Violation of the requirement for the correct transmission of factual material causes factual errors.
Factual errors are a distortion of the situation depicted in the statement or its individual details, for example: "In the winter forest, the cuckoo crowed loudly." or "The merchants Bobchinsky and Dobchinsky enter."
Factual errors can be detected if the reader of the work knows the factual side of the case and can evaluate each fact from the standpoint of its reliability. The reason for the factual errors is insufficient knowledge of the events described, the poverty of life experience, an incorrect assessment of the actions and characters of the characters.
In the presentation, various kinds of inaccuracies can be attributed to factual errors:
1) errors in the designation of the place and time of the event;
2) in the transfer of a sequence of actions, causal relationships, etc., for example: instead of "Kirovsky Prospekt" - in the work "Kiev Prospect" or "Kirovskiy Settlement".

In writing, factual errors are
1) distortion of the truth of life;
2) inaccurate reproduction of book sources;
3) proper names;
4) dates;
5) places of events,
for example: "Chadsky", "at Nagulny and Razmetny".
Examples of typical factual errors.
"In the image of Onegin, Pushkin opened a gallery of "superfluous people" in Russian literature: Oblomov, Pechorin, Bazarov. An extra person must have two qualities: to reject the ideals of society and not see the meaning of his existence." In the above example, Oblomov and Bazarov clearly fall out of the proposed chain.
"The literature of classicism (Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Fonvizin, Karamzin, etc.) had a great influence on the work of A. S. Griboyedov." There are two mistakes here. First: Fonvizin really "had a great influence" on Woe from Wit, but it is hardly possible to speak of the influence of Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The author confuses facts and genres of fiction. The second factual inaccuracy lies in the fact that Karamzin is a representative of the culture of sentimentalism.

IV. Logic errors

Violation of the sequence (logic) of the presentation leads to the appearance of logical errors.
Logical errors consist in violation of the rules of logical thinking. This type of error includes the following shortcomings in the content of the work:
1) violation of the sequence of statements;
2) lack of connection between parts and sentences;
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought;
4) fragmentation of one micro-theme by another micro-theme;
5) disproportion of parts of the statement;
6) lack of necessary parts;
7) rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the task for the presentation);
8) unjustified substitution of the person from whom the narration is being conducted (for example, first from the first, then from the third person).

V. Grammar errors

Grammatical errors are non-compliance with the norms of word and form formation, the norms of syntactic connection between words in a phrase and sentence.

Grammar errors can be of two types:
1. Word-building.
The structure of the word is broken: "ruthlessness", "immortality", "instead", "publicism".
2. Morphological.
Errors associated with non-normative formation of word forms.
These types of errors include:
a) errors in the formation of noun forms: “clothes”, “Englishmen”, “two banners”, “on the bridge”, “Grinev lived underage”, “He was not afraid of dangers and risks”, “A big swing was built in the yard”.
b) errors in the formation of adjective forms: "One brother was richer than the other", "This book is more interesting."
c) errors in the formation of pronouns: "I went to him", "their house".
d) errors in the formation of the verb: "He never made a mistake", "Mom always makes guests happy", "Going out to the middle of the room, he spoke", "A smiling child was sitting in the far corner."
e) incorrect construction of a specific pair, most often a paired imperfective verb: "My brother and I saw off all the extra branches, put the Christmas tree in the middle of the room and decorate it."

VI. Syntax errors

Syntax errors consist in the incorrect construction of phrases, in violation of the structure of simple, complicated and complex sentences.

Errors in the structure of phrases:
1. Violation of agreement with the main word in gender, number and case of the dependent word, expressed by an adjective, participle, ordinal number, pronoun: "This summer I was in the steppe Trans-Volga."
2. Violation of control.
Mistakes in unpredictable management (wrong choice of preposition): "If you touch a birch on a hot day, you will feel a cool trunk."
3. The wrong choice of case with the right preposition: "He looked like a deadly tired person."
4. Skipping a preposition: "Having had a hasty lunch, sat at the helm, drove (?) the field."
5. The use of an extra preposition "Thirst for fame."
6. Omission of the dependent component of the phrase: "Get back into the hot cabin, again turn the steering wheel shiny from the palms, (?) drive."

Errors in the structure and meaning of the sentence:
1. Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: "But neither youth nor summer is eternal", "The sun had already set when we returned."
2. Lack of semantic completeness of the sentence, violation of its boundaries: "Once during the war years. A shell hit a poplar."
3. Syntactic ambiguity: "Their (girls) dream came true, they (fishermen) returned."
4. Violation of the aspectual correlation of verbs in the composition of the sentence: "Grinev sees how Pugachev got into the carriage."

Errors in a simple two-part sentence:
Subject:
- Pronominal duplication of the subject: "Children sitting on an old boat overturned with a keel, they are waiting for their father."
- Violation of the agreement between the subject and the pronoun that replaces the subject in another sentence: "Apparently, there is a storm on the sea, so it is full of dangers."
Predicate:
- Errors in the construction of the predicate: "Everyone was happy."
- Violation of the agreement of the predicate in gender and number with the subject, expressed collective noun, quantitative-nominal phrase, interrogative and indefinite pronoun: "I stayed at home with my mother", "A sheaf of sun rays entered the room."
- Pronominal duplication of the addition: "Many books can be read several times."
Definition:
- Incorrect use of an inconsistent definition: "A lamp and my portrait from the kindergarten hang on the right."
- A heap of coordinated and inconsistent definitions related to one member of the sentence: "The vast, wonderful world of the life of our country and our peers is revealed in millions of books."
- Wrong choice of the morphological form of the circumstance: "I am learning my lessons on the table" (at the table).

Errors in a one-part sentence:
1. The use of two-piece structures in place of one-piece structures.
2. The use of a participle in an impersonal sentence: "When I saw the dog, I felt sorry for her."

Proposals with homogeneous members:
1. The use of different parts of speech as homogeneous members of the sentence: "I like the room because it is light, large, clean."
2. The inclusion in a series of homogeneous members of words denoting heterogeneous concepts: "When it is spring and a clear day, the sun illuminates my whole room."
3. Incorrect use of coordinating conjunctions to connect homogeneous members: "The boy was big-headed, but serious."
4. Incorrect attachment of logically heterogeneous secondary members to one main member: "There are books in the closet, newspapers and glassware are on the shelves."
5. Errors in matching homogeneous subjects with the predicate: "Anxiety and longing froze in her eyes."
6. Violations in the field of homogeneous predicates:
a) the use of different types of predicates as homogeneous: "The sea after the storm is calm, gentle and plays with the rays of the sun";
b) violation of the uniform design of compound nominal predicates: the use of different case forms of the nominal part of homogeneous compound nominal predicates: "Their father was an experienced fisherman and a brave sailor"; addition to homogeneous verbal predicates of an addition, which is controlled by only one of the predicates: "Everyone is very much waiting and worried about the soldiers"; the use of short and full forms of adjectives and participles in the nominal part: "My room has recently been renovated: whitewashed and painted."
7. Combining members and parts of different proposals as homogeneous: "Mushrooms, berries grow under a birch, snowdrops bloom in spring." "The children were waiting for their father and when his boat would appear."

Sentences with introductory words and introductory constructions:
1. Wrong choice of introductory word: "The girls peered tensely into the distance of the sea: probably a boat will appear on the horizon."
2. The use of such an introductory word that leads to ambiguity: "According to the fishermen, there was a storm last night, and now it's calm."
3. The use of an introductory sentence as an independent one: "The book is a source of knowledge. As many say."

Proposals with separate members:
1. Violation of word order in sentences with participial turnover.
- Separation of participial turnover from the word being defined: "But a misfortune happened to the tree again: its branches were cut off, located low."
- The inclusion of the word being defined in the composition of the participial turnover: "The girls have a fixed look at the sea."
2. Violation of the rules for constructing participial turnover.
- Construction of the participle turnover according to the model of the subordinate clause: "The picture shows a girl who has just got up."
- The use of the participial turnover instead of the participle: "And each time, returning back, we sat down under the poplar and rested."
3. Errors in sentences with isolated circumstances, expressed by a participial turnover: "Resting in an armchair, the picture" March "is hanging in front of me.

Ways of transmitting direct speech. Direct and indirect speech:
1. A combination of direct speech and the words of the author: "Before the war, my father told me:" Take care of the tree and went to the front.
2. The use of direct speech without the words of the author: "The girls saw the boat:" Dad!
3. Mixing direct indirect speech: "Grandfather said that in childhood they had such a law: on birthdays, we gave only what was done with our own hands."
4. Mistakes when introducing quotes: "K. Paustovsky said that" A person who loves and knows how to read is a happy person.

Complex sentences:
1. Violation of the logical and grammatical connection between parts of a compound sentence: "My father did not forget this story for a long time, but he died."
2. The use of a pronoun in the second part of a compound sentence, leading to ambiguity: "May hopes come true, and they will return."
3. Errors in the use of compound unions:
a) connecting - to connect parts of a compound sentence in the absence of adversarial relations between them: "Yesterday there was a storm, and today everything was calm around."
b) adversative - to connect parts of a compound sentence in the absence of adversarial relations between them: "A birch grows in our yard, but buds swell on it too";
c) double and repeating: "It's not like a bird has landed on the water, or the wreckage of a broken boat is floating on the sea";
d) unjustified repetition of unions: "And suddenly the girls saw a small black dot, and they had hope";
e) an unsuccessful choice of alliances: "Mitrasha was ten years old with a ponytail, but her sister was older."

Complex sentences:
1. Inconsistency of the type of the subordinate clause with the meaning of the main one: "But they will still wait for their father, since the fishermen must definitely wait on the shore."
2. Using composition and subordination to connect parts in a complex sentence: "If a person does not play sports, and he is aging quickly."
3. Weighting structures by "stringing" subordinate clauses: "The sail appeared in the sea as happy news that everything is in order with the fishermen and that the girls will soon be able to hug their parents, who were delayed at sea because there was a strong storm."
4. Omission of the necessary index word: "Mom always scolds me that I scatter my things."
5. Unjustified use of a demonstrative word: "I have such an assumption that the fishermen were delayed by a storm."
6. Incorrect use of unions and allied words with their correct choice:
a) the use of unions and allied words in the middle of a subordinate clause: "There is a TV in the room on the bedside table, after school I watch entertainment programs";
b) violation of the agreement of the allied word in the subordinate clause with the replaced or attributive word in the main sentence: "On two shelves - fiction, which I use in preparing for lessons."
7. The use of the same type of subordinate clauses in sequential submission: "Walking along the shore, I saw two girls who were sitting on an overturned boat, which was lying on the shore with a keel."
8. Using a subordinate clause as an independent one: "Girls are worried about their relatives. Therefore, they look so sadly into the distance."

Associative compound sentence:
1. Violation of the unity of the constructions of homogeneous parts as part of a non-union complex sentence: "The picture shows: early morning, the sun is just rising."
2. Decomposition of parts of an allied complex sentence into independent sentences: "The girls are dressed simply. They are wearing summer calico dresses. The elder has a scarf on her head."
3. Simultaneous use of non-union and allied communication: "The clothes on the girls are simple: the older one with a scarf on her head, in a blue skirt and a gray jacket, the younger one without a scarf, in a purple dress and a dark blue jacket."

A complex sentence with different types of connection:
1. Violation of the order of the parts of the sentence: "The waves are still foaming, but they calm down near the coast; the closer to the horizon, the darker the sea; and therefore the girls have hope that their father will return."
2. Use of pronouns that lead to ambiguity: "We see that the girl's bed is not made, and she confirms that the girl just got up."

Assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities of students in the Russian language(Classification of logical, speech, factual errors)

Grade- this is a violation of the requirement of correctness of speech, a violation of the norms of the literary language. We say about her: you can’t say that, it’s wrong.

defect- this is a violation of the recommendations associated with the concept of good speech. We evaluate a defect from the standpoint of “worse or better” said or written. In other words, a defect is a minor mistake, a roughness of speech. You could say that, but it's better to say otherwise.

Language errors(grammatical) are associated with a violation of the structure of a language unit: these are incorrect word formation, violation of control links or agreement in a phrase, errors in the structure of a sentence (31%). All violations of grammatical norms are grammatical errors.

Speech errors do not contain structural disorders (69%). They arise as a result of incorrect or unsuccessful use of words or syntactic constructions.

Grammatical errors- this is a violation of the norms of word and form formation, the norms of the syntactic connection between words in a phrase and sentence. To detect a grammatical error, context is not required, just one word, phrase, sentence is enough. A grammatical error can be made in both written and oral speech. These are non-linguistic errors associated with an incorrect presentation of facts (their substitution), as well as their exaggeration or understatement (actual defect).

Factual Errors- these are errors with violations of the information reliability and accuracy of the material presented in the source text (background facts): facts of the biography of the author or hero of the text, dates, surnames and authorship of the named works.

Classification of logical, speech, factual errors

Classification of errors corrected and taken into account when evaluating a student's work

Grammatical errors(G) - these are errors in the structure of a language unit: words, phrases or sentences, i.e. violation of any grammatical norm - word-formation, morphological, syntactic.

Speech errors (P)- these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a language unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, that is, a violation of lexical norms. These are pleonasm, tautology, speech cliches, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-distinguishing of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, ambiguity not eliminated by the context.

Logical errors (L).Logical errors are associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within a single sentence, judgment, and at the level of the whole text.

Factual Errors(F) - a kind of non-linguistic errors, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about the actual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge)

Ethical errors(Uh) - Violation of the system of values ​​and rules of ethics:statements that degrade human dignity, expressing an arrogant and cynical attitude towards the human person, hostility, manifestations of verbal aggression, slang words and turns.

SPELLING, PUNCTATION, GRAPHIC ERRORS

errors are taken into account

• on the learned rules;
• non-rough (two non-rough ones count as one):

• in exceptions to the rules;
• in writing a capital letter in compound proper names;
• in cases of separate and continuous spelling, not with adjectives and participles acting as a predicate;
• in writing and and s after prefixes;
• in difficult cases of distinction not and neither (Where did he go! Wherever he turned, no one could give him an answer. Nobody else…; none other than…; nothing else…; nothing more than… and etc.);
• in cases where one punctuation mark is replaced by another;
• in the omission of one of the combined punctuation marks or in violation of their sequence;

• recurring (counts as one mistake repeatin the same word or in the root of cognate words);
• the same type ( the first three errors of the same type are counted as one error,

each nextsuch an error is taken into account asindependent):

errors per rule, if the conditions for choosing the correct spelling are contained in the grammatical (in the army, in the grove; prick, fight) and phonetic (pie, cricket) features of the given word.

Not considered the sameerrors on such a rule, in which, in order to find out the correct spelling of one word, it is required to choose another (reference) word or its form (water - water, mouth - mouth, sad - sad, sharp - sharp).

The concept of similar errors does not apply to punctuation errors.

Errors (two or more) in one unchecked word are counted as one error.

When testing literacy (K7-K8) errors are not taken into account

• spelling:

• in the transfer of words;
• e/e letters after consonants in foreign words ( racket, plein air ) and after vowels in proper names ( Marietta);
• uppercase / lowercase letters

• in names associated with religion: M (m) carnival, R (r) identity, B (b) og.
• with the figurative use of proper names (Oblomovs and Oblomovs).
• in proper names of non-Russian origin; spelling of surnames with first parts don, van, sept... ( Don Pedro and Don Quixote).

• continuous / hyphen / separate spelling

• in compound nouns without a connecting vowel (mostly borrowings), not regulated by rules and not included in the minimum dictionary (lend-lease, kebab, know-how, papier-mâché, tumbleweed, walk-city paperweight, but beef stroganoff, head waiter, sedan chair, price list);
• to rules that are not included in the school curriculum (for example, the rule of continuous / separate spelling of adverbial units / adverbs with a prefix / preposition, for example:to spill, to scold behind the eyes, to match, on the run, in installments, to back down, to a curiosity, to the touch, in the wings, to put on the butt(cf. current spellingindiscriminately, scattered);

• punctuation errors:

• a dash in an incomplete sentence;
• isolation of inconsistent definitions related to common nouns;
• commas with restrictive-excretory revolutions;
• distinguishing between homonymous particles and interjections and, accordingly, not highlighting or highlighting them with commas;
• in the transfer of author's punctuation;

• graphic errors(means of writing a language, fixing the relationship between the letters in writing and the sounds of oral speech); various techniques for reducing words, the use of spaces between words, various underlining and font selections;
• typos and misprints:

Distortion of the sound image of the word ( murmuring instead of working, memlya instead of earth); .

Omissions of letters (the whole novel costs on this conflict;

Permutations of letters (new names products) ;

Replacing some alphabetic characters with others (legendary Battle of the Ice);

Adding extra letters ( in any, yes the most difficult conditions).

Syntax errors

The syntax of business speech has its own essential features that distinguish it from the syntax of colloquial speech. This is determined, first of all, by the presence in the document language of a set of ready-made syntactic constructions for expressing standard actions and circumstances.

Syntax - a section of linguistics, the subject of which is phrases and complete sentences in the structure of the text.

The main syntactic error that can be found in a document or business paper is the penetration of elements, models and structures from colloquial speech into business speech.

Incorrect use of fixed phrases. Repeatedly repeated administrative and production situations are reflected in a limited set of speech formulas.

For example: an order is issued, official salaries are set, control is assigned to someone or carried out, a reprimand is announced, a censure is issued, etc.

Standard turns of speech acquire a stable character, in their role they approach phraseological units. For example, we can write: allow a violation, mistake, miscalculation, but we cannot write: allow a defect, marriage, breakdown, theft. Or: you can reduce the price of goods and products, but you can not reduce the cost of production – cost can be reduced.

There are frequent errors in the use of the following phrases.

Errors that violate the stability of phrases in official business speech can be made in documents in a large number, so the compiler of the document should refer to the dictionary as often as possible and clarify the compatibility of certain words.

Important to remember

A control word is a word that dictates the use of a certain prepositional case form of the word following it.

Incorrect use of case and preposition after control words

When preparing a document, one often has to deal with the issue of syntactic control - choosing the proper form and the right preposition. Compilers of official documents often make incorrect use of the case. The most common mistake is to use a noun in the genitive case instead of other cases. For example, the word leadership requires after itself not the genitive, but the instrumental case:

Incorrect use of case or preposition after the control word is most often observed in documents in the case of the use of words that are close in meaning. So, the word concern should be used in combination with the form of the instrumental case of a noun without a preposition: concern for business. But under the influence of words close to it in meaning, which are used in combination with prepositions about and for (concern for parents, concern for children), the word concern is often mistakenly used in combination with the same prepositions.

Mixing prepositional-case constructions is one of the most common speech errors. Document writers need to know the correct case after certain words. Differences of prepositional-case constructions after words that are similar in meaning:

Incorrect word agreement. In Russian, there are difficulties associated with solving the question of how to agree on the members of a sentence in gender, number and case. How to write:

"The majority voted against"? Is it grammatical agreement? Or agree on the meaning: "The majority voted against." Or how to say correctly: "our director of the enterprise Kulikova" or "our director of the enterprise Kulikova"?

Agreement rules. 1. If the subject is used with the words majority, minority, many, row, suit, many, many, several, then the predicate is put in the singular if it is an inanimate noun or if the predicate is next to the previously indicated words. For example: "A number of project proposals are not supported by the necessary calculations" (a number of proposals are an inanimate noun) or "The majority voted against" (the predicate is next to the word "majority").

If the predicate is significantly removed from the subject, but the author wants to emphasize the animation of the main noun, then the plural form is used: "Most of the participants in the All-Russian Conference on Ecology voted against" (noun participants – animated and it is significantly removed from the word majority).

• 2. If the definition refers to a noun that has an application, then it agrees with the main word of the combination. The main word in such combinations usually comes first. For example: a new laboratory car; a unique museum-apartment; renowned female surgeon.
• 3. If the definition refers to a combination of a personal name and an application, the definition usually agrees with the nearest noun. For example: your plant manager Ivanova N.P.; our foreman Petrova-, senior engineer Yakovleva; Serov's new laboratory assistant.

A deviation from this rule is observed in cases where the definition is expressed by a participle. For example: Associate Professor Sidorova, Deputy Dean for Research, who spoke at the meeting; who took part in the development of the project, senior researcher Alekseeva.

• 4. If the definition refers to a combination of a noun with the numerals two, three, four, then it is usually put in the genitive case when it refers to masculine words, and in the nominative case when it refers to feminine words. For example: two personnel workers (genitive case); three young specialists (genitive case); two new employees (nominative).
• 5. If we are talking about coordinating a geographical name with generic names, then, in contrast to the general literary use in the language of documents, usually the names of cities, villages, villages, stations, etc. do not change and do not agree with the generic names. For example: in the city of Tula; in the village of Pushkino; on the Volga river; at Lugovaya station.

Incorrect word order in a sentence. As you know, in Russian there is a free word order in a sentence. This means that the members of the proposal do not have their permanent place. Their mutual arrangement depends on the type of sentence and on the desire of the speaker or writer to emphasize the semantic significance of a particular word. However, it should be remembered that the freedom of word order in a sentence is relative. An unjustified or ill-conceived change in word order is perceived as a mistake. In official business speech, due to the violation of the correct word order, it is difficult to establish who (or What) is the subject of the action.

In this case, the subject of the action is the plant, so the word factory should be at the beginning of the sentence.

Important to remember

In the language of the document, only direct word order (first subject, then predicate) provides adequate understanding of the sentence.

In Russian written speech, the informational role of word order increases towards the end of the phrase, and any rearrangement of words changes the meaning of the sentence.

Let's look at three examples.

• 1. All shortcomings should be eliminated as soon as possible.
• 2. All shortcomings should be eliminated in the nearest future.
• 3. In the near future, all shortcomings should be eliminated.

The first sentence refers to the time during which the shortcomings must be eliminated; the second states what must be eliminated; the third indicates what should be done in the near future. A certain word order allows you to change the semantic accents.

Sometimes the broken word order creates the possibility of double interpretation, which is unacceptable in the language of documents.

In the left sentence, it is not clear what the words at the end of the year refer to. Maybe prices are adjusted at the end of the year or the payment fund is determined at the end of the year. The phrase at the end of the year must be moved, and then the sentence will have only one meaning.

Violation of the specifics of the use of adverbial phrases. Business written speech is characterized by the use of adverbial phrases, which make this speech more compact. The adverbial turnover serves as a means of conveying an action that occurs simultaneously or in connection with another action. A prerequisite for the use of participial phrases is that two actions, one of which is expressed by a verb-predicate, and the other by a participle, must be carried out by the same person (or refer to the same person). However, compilers of business papers often make mistakes in the use of adverbial phrases.

Important to remember

In a sentence with a participial turnover, there must be a single subject of action in the nominative case.

Errors in the use of adverbial phrases can be corrected by replacing sentences with adverbial phrases with sentences with circumstances, expressed combinations of words or complex sentences with adverbial clauses, and also using verb-predicates not in the passive, but in the active voice.

In the left sentence, the main condition for the use of the adverbial phrase is violated: here the actions expressed by the verb-predicate and the adverbial phrase do not belong to a single subject.

Ignorance of the structure of a complex sentence. Quite often, drafters of documents unnecessarily complicate the text, which makes it difficult to understand the main idea. Documents appear saturated with complex sentences with the same type of subordinate clauses, long enumerations, intricately constructed plug-in constructions, and extended quotations. We know that the specifics of the document require close attention to the details of the presentation, but not always and not all the details are appropriate in the text. Therefore, unnecessarily complicated syntactic constructions should be simplified. This can be done in various ways.

Ways to simplify complex syntactic constructions.

1. Breaking down a complex text into separate phrases that are simple in composition and construction.

2. Replacing the subordinate clause with synonymous with private and adverbial phrases.

The participial phrase can follow or precede the word being defined. The most common in business speech is the location of the participial turnover after the word being defined. Moreover, attention should be paid to the fact that it is not allowed to combine participial and adverbial phrases with subordinate clauses as homogeneous syntactic members.

3. Replacing the subordinate clause with synonymous constructions with verbal nouns. The active use of these constructions helps to simplify the syntax of a business text.

So, we have considered the most typical lexical, morphological and syntactic errors that affect the style and content of the document.

Error classification

Grammatical errors (G)- these are errors in the structure of a language unit: words, phrases or sentences, i.e. violation of any grammatical norm - word-formation, morphological, syntactic.

No. p / p

Error type Examples

Wrong word formation. Erroneous formation of forms of a noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb (personal forms of verbs, real and passive participles, gerunds).

nobility ness, miracle technology, according to d cherk, above laugh; more interesting, prettier; With five hundred rubles; juggled both hands, theirs pathos, around his there is nothing; How many moral principles we have lost because of the loss of spirituality; them moves feeling of compassion; streams of water, stackable down, startled the author of the text; above onto the stage, the singers bowed.

Violation of the norms of coordination

I am familiar with a group of guys, seriously captivating imisya jazz.

Violation of the norms of management

Need to make nature more beautiful. Everyone marveled at him by force.

Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate or the way the predicate is expressed

The main thing that I now want to pay attention to is the artistic side of the work. He wrote a book that epic. Everyone was happy and happy funny.

Errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members

A country loved And was proud poet.

In my essay, I wanted to say about the meaning of sport and why I love it.

Errors in the construction of sentences with adverbial turnover

Reading the text, there is such a feeling of empathy.

Errors in constructing a sentence with participial turnover

The narrow path was covered failing snow under your feet.

Errors in the construction of a complex sentence

This book taught me to appreciate and respect friends, which I read as a child.

It seemed to the man That that this is a dream.

Violation of supply boundaries

He was not accepted into the basketball team. Because he was short.

Violation of the types of temporal correlation of verb forms

freezes for a moment the heart and suddenly will knock again.

Skipping a sentence member (ellipsis)

At the meeting there was accepted (?) spend Saturday.

Errors associated with the use of particles: detaching a particle from the component of the sentence to which it refers

It would be nice if the picture was would artist's signature. In the text Total two problems emerge.

Speech errors (P)- these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a language unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, that is, a violation of lexical norms. These are pleonasm, tautology, speech cliches, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-distinguishing of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, ambiguity not eliminated by the context.

No. p / p

Error type Examples

The use of a word in an unusual sense

We were shocked great acting by the actors. Thanks to fire, the forest burned down.

Unjustified use of dialect and colloquial words

These people always succeed cheat others. Oblomov did nothing and spent whole days played the fool.

Bad use of pronouns

The text was written by V. Belov. He refers to the artistic style; I immediately had a picture in his imagination.

The use of words of a different stylistic coloring; mixing vocabulary from different eras; inappropriate use of stationery, expressive, emotionally colored words, outdated vocabulary, jargon, inappropriate use of phraseological units

By idea the author, the hero wins; Molchalin works Famusov's secretary; In the novel by A.S. Pushkin take place lyrical digressions; Author every now and then resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications. If I were there, then for such an attitude towards my mother, I would cupcake V gnawed would give; Zoshchenko don't put your finger in your mouth just to make the reader laugh.

Indistinguishability of shades of meaning introduced into the word by prefix and suffix

In such cases I I glance to the dictionary.

Non-distinguishing of paronyms, synonymous words; errors in the use of antonyms when constructing an antithesis; destruction of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit in an unsuccessfully organized context

Were accepted spectacular measures; The name of this poet familiar in many countries; The third part of the text is not cheerful, but also not a major motive makes us think; the record hasn't said its word yet last word.

Violation of lexical compatibility

Use of superfluous words, including pleonasm

Young youth; Very beautiful.

The use of words near or close to the same root (tautology)

In that the story is being told about real events.

Unjustified repetition of a word

Hero story does not think about his act. Hero does not even understand the depth of what he did.

Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions

When the writer came to the editor accepted by the editor-in-chief. When they talked, the writer went to the hotel.

Use of superfluous words, lexical redundancy

Then about to make you smile, about it our bookstore will take care.

Logical errors (L). Logical errors are associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within a single sentence, judgment, and at the level of the whole text.

No. p / p

Error type Examples

Comparison (opposition) of two logically heterogeneous (different in volume and content) concepts in a sentence, text

At the lesson were present director, librarian, and Anna Petrovna Ivanova And Zoya Ivanovna Petrova; He leaned back on the battery; Behind good study and parenting parents students received letters of thanks from the school administration.

Violation of causal relationships

In recent years so many done to modernize education, but teachers work in the old way, because issues of modernization of education are being addressed weakly.

Skipping a link in an explanation, a "logical leap".

It is hardly possible to block the flow of people through our yard. [?] And how you want the yard to be an ornament of both the school and the village.

Rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the task for the essay or presentation)

It's time to return this word to its true meaning! Honor... But how to do it?

Unjustified substitution of the person from whom the narration is being conducted (for example, first from the first, then from the third person)

Comparison of logically disparate concepts

Syntax encyclopedia articles is excellent from other scientific articles.

Composition-text errors

Unsuccessful start

The text begins with a sentence containing an indication of the previous context, which is absent in the text itself, by the presence of demonstrative word forms in the first sentence, for example: In this text, the author ...

Mistakesin the main part

a) Convergence of relatively distant thoughts in one sentence.

b) Lack of consistency in presentation; incoherence and violation of the order of sentences.

c) The use of sentences of different types in structure, leading to difficulty in understanding the meaning.

Unfortunate ending

Duplication of the conclusion, unjustified repetition of the thought expressed earlier.

Factual Errors (F) - a kind of non-linguistic errors, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about the actual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge)

No. p / p

Error type Examples

Bazarov was a nihilist and therefore killed an old woman with an ax; Lensky returned to his estate from England; Happiness for Oblomov was loneliness and indifference.

Inaccuracy in the quote. Lack of reference to the author of the quote. Misnamed citation author.

The book means a lot to me, because even Lenin said: “ Live and learn!»

Ignorance of historical and other facts, including temporary displacement.

Great Patriotic War of 1812; The capital of the USA is New York.

Inaccuracies in the names, surnames, nicknames of literary heroes.

Distortions in the names of literary works, their genres, an error in indicating the author.

Turgen b ev; "Taras And Bulba"; V Turgenev's stories"Crime and Punishment".