The reign of Catherine II. Biography of Empress Catherine II the Great - key events, people, intrigues

Empress of All Russia (June 28, 1762 - November 6, 1796). Her reign is one of the most remarkable in Russian history; and its dark and bright sides had an enormous influence on subsequent events, especially on the mental and cultural development of the country. The wife of Peter III, nee Princess of Anhalt-Zerbt (born April 24, 1729), was naturally gifted with a great mind and strong character; on the contrary, her husband was a weak man, ill-bred. Not sharing his pleasures, Catherine devoted herself to reading and soon moved from novels to historical and philosophical books. An elected circle formed around her, in which Catherine's greatest confidence was first enjoyed by Saltykov, and then by Stanislav Poniatowski, later the King of Poland. Her relationship with Empress Elizabeth was not particularly cordial: when Catherine had a son, Pavel, the Empress took the child to her and rarely allowed her mother to see him. On December 25, 1761, Elizabeth died; with the accession to the throne of Peter III, the situation of Catherine became even worse. The coup on June 28, 1762 elevated Catherine to the throne (see Peter III). The harsh school of life and a huge natural mind helped Catherine herself to get out of a very difficult situation, and to bring Russia out of it. The treasury was empty; the monopoly crushed trade and industry; factory peasants and serfs were agitated by rumors of freedom, now and then renewed; peasants from the western border fled to Poland. Under such circumstances, Catherine came to the throne, the rights to which belonged to her son. But she understood that this son would become a toy of parties on the throne, like Peter II. The Regency was a fragile business. The fate of Menshikov, Biron, Anna Leopoldovna was in everyone's mind.

Catherine's penetrating gaze was equally attentive to the phenomena of life both at home and abroad. Having learned, two months after her accession to the throne, that the famous French Encyclopedia was condemned by the Parisian parliament for godlessness and its continuation was prohibited, Catherine suggested to Voltaire and Diderot that they publish the encyclopedia in Riga. This proposal alone won over the best minds to the side of Catherine, who then gave direction to public opinion throughout Europe. In the autumn of 1762, Catherine was crowned and spent the winter in Moscow. In the summer of 1764, Lieutenant Mirovich decided to enthrone John Antonovich, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich of Braunschweig, who was kept in the Shlisselburg fortress. The plan failed - Ivan Antonovich, during an attempt to free him, was shot dead by one of the guard soldiers; Mirovich was executed by a court verdict. In 1764, Prince Vyazemsky, sent to pacify the peasants assigned to the factories, was ordered to investigate the question of the benefits of free labor over hired labor. The same question was proposed to the newly founded Economic Society (see Free Economic Society and Serfdom). First of all, it was necessary to resolve the issue of the monastery peasants, which had taken on a particularly acute character even under Elizabeth. At the beginning of her reign, Elizabeth returned the estates to monasteries and churches, but in 1757 she, along with the dignitaries surrounding her, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to transfer the management of church property to secular hands. Peter III ordered the fulfillment of Elizabeth's plan and the transfer of management of church property to the college of economy. Inventories of monastic property were made, under Peter III, extremely rudely. Upon the accession of Catherine II to the throne, the bishops filed complaints with her and asked for the return of management of church property to them. Catherine, on the advice of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, satisfied their desire, canceled the collegium of economy, but did not abandon her intention, but only postponed its execution; she then ordered that the 1757 commission resume its studies. It was ordered to make new inventories of monastic and church property; but the clergy were dissatisfied with the new inventories; Metropolitan Arseny Matseevich of Rostov especially rebelled against them. In his report to the synod, he spoke harshly, arbitrarily interpreting church historical facts, even distorting them and making comparisons offensive to Catherine. The Synod presented the case to the Empress, in the hope (as Solovyov thinks) that Catherine II would show her usual softness this time as well. The hope was not justified: Arseny's report caused such irritation in Catherine, which was not noticed in her either before or after. She could not forgive Arseny comparing her with Julian and Judas and the desire to expose her as a violator of her word. Arseny was sentenced to exile in the Arkhangelsk diocese, to the Nikolaevsky Korelsky monastery, and then, as a result of new accusations, to deprivation of monastic dignity and life imprisonment in Revel (see Arseny Matseevich). Characteristic for Catherine II is the following case from the beginning of her reign. A case was reported on allowing Jews to enter Russia. Catherine said that to begin the reign by decree on the free entry of Jews would be a bad way to calm the minds; it is impossible to recognize entry as harmful. Then Senator Prince Odoevsky offered to take a look at what Empress Elizabeth wrote in the margins of the same report. Catherine demanded a report and read: "I do not want selfish profit from the enemies of Christ." Turning to the prosecutor general, she said: "I want this case to be postponed."

The increase in the number of serfs through huge distributions to the favorites and dignitaries of the populated estates, the establishment of serfdom in Little Russia, completely fall into a dark spot on the memory of Catherine II. However, one should not lose sight of the fact that the underdevelopment of Russian society at that time affected every step. So, when Catherine II decided to abolish torture and proposed this measure to the Senate, the senators expressed their fear that if torture was abolished, no one, going to bed, would be sure whether he would get up in the morning alive. Therefore, Catherine, without publicly destroying torture, sent out a secret order that in cases where torture was used, the judges based their actions on Chapter X of the Order, in which torture is condemned as a cruel and extremely stupid thing. At the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, an attempt was renewed to create an institution that resembled a supreme privy council or a Cabinet that replaced it, in a new form, under the name of the permanent council of the empress. The author of the project was Count Panin. Feldzeugmeister General Villebois wrote to the Empress: “I don’t know who the drafter of this project is, but it seems to me that, under the guise of defending the monarchy, he is in a subtle way more inclined towards aristocratic rule.” Villebois was right; but Catherine II herself understood the oligarchic nature of the project. She signed it, but kept it under wraps, and it was never made public. Thus Panin's idea of ​​a council of six permanent members remained a mere dream; the private council of Catherine II always consisted of rotating members. Knowing how the transition of Peter III to the side of Prussia irritated public opinion, Catherine ordered the Russian generals to remain neutral and thereby contributed to the end of the war (see the Seven Years' War). The internal affairs of the state demanded special attention: the lack of justice was most striking. Catherine II expressed herself energetically on this subject: “extortion has increased to such an extent that there is hardly the smallest place in the government in which the court would go without infection of this ulcer; if someone is looking for a place, he pays; if someone defends himself from slander, he defends himself with money; if anyone slanders anyone, he backs up all his cunning intrigues with gifts. Catherine was especially amazed when she learned that within the boundaries of the current Novgorod province they took money from the peasants for swearing them allegiance to her. This state of justice forced Catherine II to convene in 1766 a commission to issue the Code. Catherine II handed over to this commission the Order, by which she was to be guided in the preparation of the Code. The order was drawn up on the basis of the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria (see. Order [ Big] and the Commission of 1766). Polish affairs, the first Turkish war that arose from them, and internal unrest suspended the legislative activity of Catherine II until 1775. Polish affairs caused the partitions and the fall of Poland: according to the first partition in 1773, Russia received the current provinces of Mogilev, Vitebsk, part of Minsk, i.e. most of Belarus (see Poland). The first Turkish war began in 1768 and ended in peace in Kuchuk-Kaynardzhi, which was ratified in 1775. According to this peace, the Port recognized the independence of the Crimean and Budzhak Tatars; ceded Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn to Russia; opened free passage for Russian ships from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean; granted forgiveness to Christians who took part in the war; allowed Russia's petition on Moldovan affairs. During the first Turkish war, plague raged in Moscow, causing a plague riot; in the east of Russia, an even more dangerous rebellion broke out, known as the Pugachevshchina. In 1770, the plague from the army penetrated into Little Russia, in the spring of 1771 it appeared in Moscow; the commander-in-chief (currently - governor-general) Count Saltykov left the city to the mercy of fate. The retired General Eropkin voluntarily assumed the heavy duty of maintaining order and, by preventive measures, weakening the plague. The townsfolk did not comply with his instructions and not only did not burn clothes and linen from those who died from the plague, but hid their very death and buried them in the backyards. The plague intensified: in the early summer of 1771, 400 people died daily. The people crowded in horror at the Barbarian Gates, in front of the miraculous icon. The contagion from crowding people, of course, intensified. The then Archbishop of Moscow Ambrose (see), an enlightened man, ordered the removal of the icon. A rumor immediately spread that the bishop, along with the healers, had conspired to kill the people. The ignorant and fanatical crowd, mad with fear, put to death a worthy archpastor. There were rumors that the rebels were preparing to set fire to Moscow, exterminate doctors and nobles. Eropkin, with several companies, managed, however, to restore calm. In the last days of September, Count Grigory Orlov, then the closest person to Catherine, arrived in Moscow: but at that time the plague was already weakening and stopped in October. This plague killed 130,000 people in Moscow alone.

The Pugachev rebellion was raised by the Yaik Cossacks, dissatisfied with the changes in their Cossack way of life. In 1773, the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev (see) took the name of Peter III and raised the banner of rebellion. Catherine II entrusted the suppression of the rebellion to Bibikov, who immediately understood the essence of the matter; It's not Pugachev that matters, he said, it's the general displeasure that matters. The Bashkirs, Kalmyks, and Kirghiz joined the Yaik Cossacks and the rebellious peasants. Bibikov, ordering from Kazan, moved detachments from all sides to more dangerous places; Prince Golitsyn liberated Orenburg, Mikhelson - Ufa, Mansurov - Yaitsky town. At the beginning of 1774, the rebellion began to subside, but Bibikov died of exhaustion, and the rebellion flared up again: Pugachev captured Kazan and moved to the right bank of the Volga. Bibikov's place was taken by Count P. Panin, but did not replace him. Mikhelson defeated Pugachev near Arzamas and blocked his path to Moscow. Pugachev rushed to the south, took Penza, Petrovsk, Saratov and hanged the nobles everywhere. From Saratov, he moved to Tsaritsyn, but was repulsed and again defeated by Mikhelson near Cherny Yar. When Suvorov arrived at the army, the impostor held on a little and was soon betrayed by his accomplices. In January 1775, Pugachev was executed in Moscow (see Pugachevshchina). Since 1775, the legislative activity of Catherine II resumed, which, however, had not stopped before. So, in 1768, commercial and noble banks were abolished and the so-called assignation or change bank was established (see Banknotes). In 1775, the existence of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was already declining, ceased to exist. In the same year, 1775, the transformation of the provincial government began. An institution was issued for the administration of the provinces, which took twenty whole years to be introduced: in 1775 it began with the Tver province and ended in 1796 with the establishment of the Vilna province (see Gubernia). Thus, the reform of the provincial administration, begun by Peter the Great, was brought out of a chaotic state by Catherine II and completed by her. In 1776, Catherine commanded the word in petitions slave replace with the word loyal. By the end of the first Turkish war, Potemkin, who aspired to great deeds, gained particular importance. Together with his collaborator, Bezborodko, he drew up a project known as the Greek one. The grandiosity of this project - destroying the Ottoman Porte, restoring the Greek Empire, on the throne of which Konstantin Pavlovich should be elevated - was liked by E. The opponent of Potemkin's influence and plans, Count N. Panin, tutor of Tsarevich Pavel and president of the College of Foreign Affairs, in order to distract Catherine II from the Greek project , brought her a draft of armed neutrality, in 1780. Armed neutrality (see) was intended to patronize the trade of neutral states during the war and was directed against England, which was unfavorable for Potemkin's plans. Pursuing his broad and useless plan for Russia, Potemkin prepared an extremely useful and necessary thing for Russia - the annexation of the Crimea. In the Crimea, since the recognition of its independence, two parties were worried - Russian and Turkish. Their struggle gave a reason to occupy the Crimea and the Kuban region. The manifesto of 1783 announced the annexation of the Crimea and the Kuban region to Russia. The last Khan Shagin Giray was sent to Voronezh; Crimea renamed into Taurida Governorate; Crimean raids stopped. It is believed that due to the raids of the Crimeans, Great and Little Russia and part of Poland, from the 15th century. until 1788, lost from 3 to 4 million people: captives were turned into slaves, captives filled harems or became, like slaves, in the ranks of female servants. In Constantinople, the Mamelukes had Russian nurses and nannies. in the 16th, 17th and even 18th centuries. Venice and France used shackled Russian slaves bought from the markets of the Levant as galley laborers. The pious Louis XIV tried only to ensure that these slaves did not remain schismatics. The annexation of the Crimea put an end to the shameful trade in Russian slaves (see V. Lamansky in the "Historical Bulletin" for 1880: "The Power of the Turks in Europe"). Following that, Erekle II, the king of Georgia, recognized the protectorate of Russia. The year 1785 is marked by two important pieces of legislation: Complaint to the nobility(see Nobility) and city ​​position(see City). The statute on public schools on August 15, 1786 was implemented only on a small scale. Projects to establish universities in Pskov, Chernigov, Penza and Yekaterinoslav were shelved. In 1783, the Russian Academy was founded to study the native language. The foundation of institutions was the beginning of the education of women. Orphanages were established, smallpox vaccination was introduced, and the Pallas expedition was equipped to study the remote outskirts.

Potemkin's enemies argued, not understanding the importance of acquiring Crimea, that Crimea and Novorossiya were not worth the money spent on their establishment. Then Catherine II decided to inspect the newly acquired region herself. Accompanied by the Austrian, English and French ambassadors, with a huge retinue, in 1787 she set off on a journey. The Archbishop of Mogilev, Georgy Konissky, met her in Mstislavl with a speech, which was famous by his contemporaries as a model of eloquence. The whole character of the speech is determined by its beginning: "Let's leave it to the astronomers to prove that the Earth revolves around the Sun: our sun walks around us." In Kanev met Catherine II Stanislav Poniatowski, King of Poland; near Keidan - Emperor Joseph II. He and Catherine laid the first stone of the city of Yekaterinoslav, visited Kherson and inspected the Black Sea Fleet, which had just been created by Potemkin. During the journey, Joseph noticed the theatricality in the setting, saw how hastily they drove the people to the villages supposedly under construction; but in Kherson he saw the real deal - and did justice to Potemkin.

The second Turkish war under Catherine II was waged, in alliance with Joseph II, from 1787 to 1791. In 1791, on December 29, peace was concluded in Iasi. For all the victories, Russia received only Ochakov and the steppe between the Bug and the Dnieper (see Turkish wars and the Peace of Jassy). At the same time, with varying happiness, there was a war with Sweden, declared by Gustav III in 1789 (see Sweden). It ended on August 3, 1790 with the Peace of Verel (see), on the basis of the status quo. During the 2nd Turkish War, a coup took place in Poland: on May 3, 1791, a new constitution was promulgated, which led to the second partition of Poland, in 1793, and then to the third, in 1795 (see Poland). Under the second section, Russia received the rest of the Minsk province, Volhynia and Podolia, under the 3rd - the Grodno province and Courland. In 1796, in the last year of the reign of Catherine II, Count Valerian Zubov, appointed commander-in-chief in the campaign against Persia, conquered Derbent and Baku; his successes were stopped by the death of Catherine.

The last years of the reign of Catherine II were overshadowed, from 1790, by a reactionary direction. Then the French Revolution broke out, and with our domestic reaction all-European, Jesuit-oligarchic reaction entered into an alliance. Her agent and instrument was Catherine's last favorite, Prince Platon Zubov, together with his brother, Count Valerian. European reaction wanted to draw Russia into a struggle against revolutionary France - a struggle alien to the direct interests of Russia. Catherine II spoke kind words to the representatives of the reaction and did not give a single soldier. Then the undermining under the throne of Catherine II intensified, accusations were renewed that she illegally occupied the throne belonging to Pavel Petrovich. There is reason to believe that in 1790 an attempt was being made to elevate Pavel Petrovich to the throne. This attempt was probably connected with the expulsion from St. Petersburg of Prince Frederick of Württemberg. The domestic reaction at the same time accused Catherine of allegedly excessive free-thinking. The basis of the accusation was, among other things, the permission to translate Voltaire and participation in the translation of Belisarius, the story of Marmontel, which was considered anti-religious, because it does not indicate the difference between Christian and pagan virtue. Catherine II grew old, there was almost no trace of her former courage and energy - and now, under such circumstances, in 1790, Radishchev's book "Journey from St. The unfortunate Radishchev was punished by exile to Siberia. Perhaps this cruelty was the result of a fear that the exclusion of articles on the emancipation of the peasants from the Nakaz would be considered hypocrisy on the part of Catherine. In 1792, Novikov was sent to Shlisselburg, who had served Russian education so much. The secret motive for this measure was Novikov's relationship with Pavel Petrovich. In 1793, Knyazhnin suffered severely for his tragedy Vadim. In 1795, even Derzhavin was suspected of taking a revolutionary direction, for transcribing Psalm 81, entitled "To Rulers and Judges." Thus ended the educational reign of Catherine II, which had raised the national spirit, great husband(Catherine le grand). Despite the reaction of recent years, the name of the educational institution will remain with him in history. Since this reign in Russia, they began to realize the importance of humane ideas, they began to talk about the right of a person to think for the benefit of their own kind [We almost did not touch on the weaknesses of Catherine II, recalling the words of Renan: "serious history should not attach too much importance to the morals of sovereigns, if these morals are not had a great influence on the overall course of affairs. Under Catherine, the influence of Zubov was harmful, but only because he was an instrument of a harmful party.].

Literature. The works of Kolotov, Sumarokov, Lefort are panegyrics. Of the new ones, Brickner's work is more satisfactory. The very important work of Bilbasov is not finished; only one volume was published in Russian, two in German. S. M. Solovyov in the 29th volume of his history of Russia dwelled on peace in Kuchuk-Kainardzhi. The foreign works of Rulière and Caster cannot be bypassed only by the undeserved attention given to them. Of the countless memoirs, the memoirs of Khrapovitsky are especially important (the best edition is N. P. Barsukov). See Waliszewski's latest work: "Le Roman d" une impératrice". Works on individual issues are indicated in the corresponding articles. The publications of the Imperial Historical Society are extremely important.

E. Belov.

Gifted with literary talent, receptive and sensitive to the phenomena of life around her, Catherine II took an active part in the literature of her time. The literary movement she initiated was devoted to the development of enlightenment ideas of the 18th century. Thoughts about education, briefly outlined in one of the chapters of the "Order", were subsequently developed in detail by Catherine in allegorical tales: "About Tsarevich Chlor" (1781) and "About Tsarevich Fevey" (1782), and mainly in "Instructions to Prince N. Saltykov", given when he was appointed tutor of the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich (1784). The pedagogical ideas expressed in these works, Catherine mainly borrowed from Montaigne and Locke: from the first she took a general view of the goals of education, the second she used in developing particulars. Guided by Montaigne, Catherine II put forward the moral element in the upbringing - the rooting in the soul of humanity, justice, respect for the laws, indulgence towards people. At the same time, she demanded that the mental and physical aspects of education should be properly developed. Personally leading the upbringing of her grandchildren up to the age of seven, she compiled an entire educational library for them. For the Grand Dukes, Catherine also wrote Notes on Russian History. In purely fictional writings, to which magazine articles and dramatic works belong, Catherine II is much more original than in writings of a pedagogical and legislative nature. Pointing to the actual contradictions of the ideals that existed in society, her comedies and satirical articles were to greatly contribute to the development of public consciousness, making more understandable the importance and expediency of the reforms she was undertaking.

The beginning of the public literary activity of Catherine II dates back to 1769, when she was an active collaborator and inspirer of the satirical magazine "Vsyakaya Vsyachina" (see). The patronizing tone adopted by Vsyakoy Vsyachina in relation to other journals, and the instability of its direction, soon armed almost all the journals of that time against it; her main opponent was the bold and direct "Drone" of N. I. Novikov. The latter's sharp attacks on judges, governors, and prosecutors strongly displeased Vsyakaya Vsyachina; who conducted the controversy against Trutnya in this journal cannot be said positively, but it is reliably known that one of the articles directed against Novikov belongs to the empress herself. In the interval from 1769 to 1783, when Catherine again acted as a journalist, she wrote five comedies, and between them her best plays: "On Time" and "Name Day of Mrs. Vorchalkina." The purely literary merits of Catherine's comedies are not high: there is little action in them, the intrigue is too simple, the denouement is monotonous. They are written in the spirit and after the model of French modern comedies, in which the servants are more developed and intelligent than their masters. But at the same time, purely Russian social vices are ridiculed in Catherine's comedies and Russian types appear. Bigotry, superstition, bad education, the pursuit of fashion, blind imitation of the French - these are the themes that Catherine developed in her comedies. These themes had already been outlined earlier by our satirical magazines of 1769 and, among other things, by Vsyakoy Vsachina; but what was presented in the magazines in the form of separate pictures, characterizations, sketches, in the comedies of Catherine II received a more solid and vivid image. The types of the miserly and heartless hypocrite Khanzhakhina, the superstitious gossip Vestnikova in the comedy "On Time", the petimeter Firlyufyushkov and the projector Nekopeikov in the comedy "Mrs. Vorchalkina's Name Day" are among the most successful in Russian comic literature of the last century. Variations of these types are repeated in the rest of Catherine's comedies.

By 1783, Catherine's active participation in the Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word, published at the Academy of Sciences, edited by Princess E. R. Dashkova, dates back. Here Catherine II placed a number of satirical articles, entitled by the common name "Tales and Fables". The original purpose of these statues was, apparently, a satirical depiction of the weaknesses and ridiculous aspects of the society of the contemporary empress, and the originals for such portraits were often taken by the empress from among those close to her. Soon, however, "There were Fables" began to serve as a reflection of the magazine life of the "Interlocutor". Catherine II was the unspoken editor of this magazine; as can be seen from her correspondence with Dashkova, she still read in manuscript many of the articles sent for publication in the journal; some of these articles touched her to the core: she entered into polemics with their authors, often making fun of them. For the reading public, Catherine's participation in the magazine was not a secret; Articles of the letter were often sent to the address of the writer of "Tales and Fables", in which rather transparent hints were made. The empress tried as much as possible to keep her composure and not betray her incognito; only once, angered by Fonvizin's "impudent and reprehensible" questions, she so vividly expressed her irritation in "Facts and Fables" that Fonvizin found it necessary to hasten with a letter of repentance. In addition to "Tales and Fables", the empress placed in the "Interlocutor" several small polemical and satirical articles, for the most part ridiculing the pompous writings of random collaborators of the "Interlocutor" - Lyuboslov and Count S. P. Rumyantsev. One of these articles ("The Society of the Unknowing Daily Note"), in which Princess Dashkova saw a parody of the meetings of the Russian Academy that had just been founded, in her opinion, served as the reason for the termination of Catherine's participation in the magazine. In subsequent years (1785-1790), Catherine wrote 13 plays, not counting dramatic proverbs in French intended for the Hermitage theatre.

Freemasons have long attracted the attention of Catherine II. If we are to believe her words, she took the trouble to study in detail the vast Masonic literature, but found nothing in Freemasonry but "folly." Stay in St. Petersburg. (in 1780) Cagliostro, about whom she spoke of as a scoundrel worthy of the gallows, armed her even more against the Masons. Receiving disturbing news about the ever-increasing influence of Moscow Masonic circles, seeing among her close associates many followers and defenders of Masonic teachings, the Empress decided to fight this "folly" literary weapon, and within two years (1785-86) she wrote one the other, three comedies ("Deceiver", "Seduced" and "Siberian Shaman"), in which she ridiculed Freemasonry. Only in the comedy "Seduced" are there, however, life traits reminiscent of Moscow Freemasons. "Deceiver" directed against Cagliostro. In The Shaman of Siberia, Catherine II, obviously unfamiliar with the essence of Masonic teachings, did not hesitate to reduce it to the same level as shamanic tricks. Undoubtedly, Catherine's satire did not have much effect: Freemasonry continued to develop, and in order to deal him a decisive blow, the Empress no longer resorted to meek methods of correction, as she called her satire, but to harsh and decisive administrative measures.

In all likelihood, Catherine's acquaintance with Shakespeare, in French or German translations, also belongs to the indicated time. She remade "Windsor Gossips" for the Russian stage, but this reworking turned out to be extremely weak and very little reminiscent of genuine Shakespeare. In imitation of his historical chronicles, she composed two plays from the life of the ancient Russian princes - Rurik and Oleg. The main significance of these "Historical Representations", which are extremely weak in literary terms, lies in those political and moral ideas that Catherine puts into the mouths of the characters. Of course, these are not the ideas of Rurik or Oleg, but the thoughts of Catherine II herself. In comic operas, Catherine II did not pursue any serious goal: these were situation plays in which the main role was played by the musical and choreographic side. The Empress took the plot for these operas, for the most part, from folk tales and epics, known to her from manuscript collections. Only "The Unfortunate Bogatyr Kosometovich", despite its fabulous character, contains an element of modernity: this opera put the Swedish king Gustav III in a comic light, who at that time opened hostile actions against Russia, and was removed from the repertoire immediately after the conclusion of peace with Sweden. Catherine's French plays, the so-called "proverbs" - small one-act plays, the plots of which were, for the most part, episodes from modern life. They are of no particular importance, repeating the themes and types already introduced in other comedies by Catherine II. Catherine herself did not attach importance to her literary activities. “I look at my compositions,” she wrote to Grimm, “as if they were trifles. I like to make experiments in all kinds, but it seems to me that everything I wrote is rather mediocre, why, apart from entertainment, I did not attach any importance to this.”

Works of Catherine II published by A. Smirdin (St. Petersburg, 1849-50). Exclusively literary works of Catherine II were published twice in 1893, under the editorship of V. F. Solntsev and A. I. Vvedensky. Individual articles and monographs: P. Pekarsky, "Materials for the history of the journal and literary activities of Catherine II" (St. Petersburg, 1863); Dobrolyubov, art. about "The Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word" (X, 825); "Works of Derzhavin", ed. J. Grota (St. Petersburg, 1873, vol. VIII, pp. 310-339); M. Longinov, "Dramatic works of Catherine II" (M., 1857); G. Gennadi, "More on the dramatic works of Catherine II" (in "Bibl. Zap.", 1858, No. 16); P. K. Shchebalsky, "Catherine II as a Writer" ("Dawn", 1869-70); his own, "Dramatic and moral writings of Empress Catherine II" (in "Russian Bulletin", 1871, vol. XVIII, nos. 5 and 6); N. S. Tikhonravov, "Literary little things in 1786" (in the scientific and literary collection, published by "Russian Vedomosti" - "Help for the Starving", M., 1892); E. S. Shumigorsky, "Essays from Russian history. I. Empress-publicist" (St. Petersburg, 1887); P. Bessonova, "On the influence of folk art on the dramas of Empress Catherine and on whole Russian songs inserted here" (in the journal Zarya, 1870); V. S. Lebedev, "Shakespeare in the alterations of Catherine II" (in the Russian Bulletin "(1878, No. 3); N. Lavrovsky, "On the pedagogical significance of the works of Catherine the Great" (Kharkov, 1856); A. Brikner, "Comic Opera Catherine II "The Unfortunate Hero" ("Zh. M. N. Pr.", 1870, No. 12), A. Galakhov, "There were also Fables, the work of Catherine II" ("Notes of the Fatherland" 1856, No. 10).

V. Solntsev.

Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). The father came from the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully, ended the service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - from the family of Holstein-Gottorp, was the cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) has been the king of Sweden since 1751 (elected heir in the city). The lineage of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dances, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. I was brought up in strictness. She grew up inquisitive, prone to outdoor games, persistent.

Ekaterina continues to engage in self-education. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horseback riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of Catherine's lovers. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her, called Paul (future Emperor Paul I) and deprived of the opportunity to educate, and only occasionally allowed to see. A number of sources claim that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov. Others - that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The issue of paternity aroused public interest as well.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter openly made mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, which caused great displeasure of Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows where my wife is getting pregnant; I don’t know for sure if this child is mine and if I should recognize him as mine. At this time, the condition of Elizabeth Petrovna worsened. All this made the prospect of expelling Catherine from Russia or concluding her in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov, Dashkova and others.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to openly live with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Ekaterina hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigoryevich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the court left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. Thus, the first in Rus', Count Bobrinsky, the founder of a famous family, was born.

Coup June 28, 1762

1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which should govern.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive, without sharp fluctuations, development. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms (judicial, administrative, etc.). The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of the fertile southern lands - the Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). As Klyuchevsky wrote, “The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand; from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, increased by more than four times, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic; in an increase in import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of domestic turnover was indicated by the issue of a coin in 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million.

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting increased more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the XVIII century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). The export of Russian goods to European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Domestic politics

Catherine's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine's time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian expanses and the severity of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified.

Laid commission

An attempt was made to convene the Legislative Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs for comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% - from the townspeople, which also included the nobles, 20% - from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As the guiding document of the Commission of 1767, the empress prepared the "Instruction" - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Soon after the coup, the statesman N.I. Panin proposed the creation of an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 higher dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as the conditions of 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another project of Panin, the Senate was transformed - 15 Dec. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, the prosecutor general became the head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost the legislative initiative and became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Provincial reform

Nov 7 In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, county, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, county (which was based on the principle of taxable population). Of the former 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which had 300-400 thousand residents. The provinces were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Thus, the further need to maintain the presence of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks in their historical homeland for the protection of the southern Russian borders has disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, and also in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the Zaporizhzhya Sich to be disbanded, which was carried out on the orders of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was bloodlessly disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and created the Army of the Faithful Cossacks, later the Black Sea Cossack Host, and in 1792 Catherine signs a manifesto that gives them the Kuban for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

The beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of the general administrative reforms of the 1970s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby starting the process of joining the Kalmyk state to Russia, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be in charge of a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs from among Russian officials were appointed. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshuts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by a consistent policy of the empress to limit the khan's power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 1960s, the crisis in the khanate intensified due to the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landlords and peasants, the reduction of pasture land, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the interference of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsynskaya line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​the main nomad camps of the Kalmyks, cities and fortresses began to be built along the entire Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn, this aggravated internal relations in the khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church to Christianize the nomads, as well as the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to work. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy was ripened with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - to Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses that had wandered along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, the army was assembled on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many noyons and zaisangs, realizing the fatality of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnos lost on the way about 100,000 people who died in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, diseases, as well as captured, lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people. , , .

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in the poem "Pugachev" by Sergei Yesenin.

Regional reform in Estonia and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estonia and Livonia, the special Baltic order was abolished, which provided for more extensive rights than the Russian landowners had for local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys ... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of imported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began sailing in the Mediterranean as well. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the amount of which by the end of the reign of the Empress exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

Moscow Orphanage

In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for homeless children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Military Academy named after Peter the Great), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to make such an inoculation. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state events that were directly within the responsibilities of the Imperial Council, the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of border and port quarantines" was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on questions of medicine have been published.

National politics

After the lands that were formerly part of the Commonwealth were annexed to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II established the Pale of Settlement in 1791, beyond which the Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated territories east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in Feb. In 1764, she again issued a decree depriving the Church of landed property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activity.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Commonwealth the equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution ceased Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of the Old Believers, the economically active population, from abroad. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans in Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, freely perform worship. At the end of the 18th century, there were over 20,000 Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Expansion of the Russian Empire

Partitions of Poland

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus.

The reason for intervening in the affairs of the Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protege Stanisław August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising raised in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its success in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to divide the Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops.

In 1772 took place 1st section of the Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorye), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and renounce claims to the lost territories: it lost 3,800 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowice Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 took place 2nd section of the Commonwealth, approved by the Grodno Seimas. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right-Bank Ukraine.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories for Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result of them, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region were ceded to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans were strengthened, and Russia's authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Georgievsky treatise

Georgievsky treatise of 1783

Catherine II and the Georgian king Erekle II concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783, according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti. The treaty was concluded in order to protect Orthodox Georgians, since Muslim Iran and Turkey threatened the national existence of Georgia. The Russian government took Eastern Georgia under its protection, guaranteed its autonomy and protection in case of war, and during the peace negotiations, it was obliged to insist on the return of the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom of possessions that had long belonged to it, and illegally torn away by Turkey.

The result of the Georgian policy of Catherine II was a sharp weakening of the positions of Iran and Turkey, which formally destroyed their claims to Eastern Georgia.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered the war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, unleashed a war with her for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered the territory of Russia were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm that had flown in, suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of the monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she abstained from participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the formation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all suspected sympathizers for the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine the Russian Empire acquired the status of a "great power". As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. the Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in the three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who would communicate so intensively and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical writings, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she confessed: "I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink."

She possessed an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies “Oh, time!”, “Name day of Mrs. Vorchalkina”, “Anterior noble boyar”, “Ms. Vestnikova with her family”, “The Invisible Bride” (-), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine “Everything”, published from the city. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses . Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: "Satire in a smiling spirit."

Ekaterina - philanthropist and collector

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a "philosopher on the throne" and favored the European Enlightenment, was in correspondence with Voltaire, Diderot, d "Alembert.

Under her rule, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various areas of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families initiated by Catherine in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries. The goal was to “infect” Russian science and culture with European ones.

Courtyard of the time of Catherine II

Features of personal life

Catherine was a brunette of medium height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love".

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Ekaterinologist P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov (later count), Lieutenant Vasilchikov of the horse guard, G. A Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (). After she planned a marriage with Orlov, however, on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general licentiousness of the mores of the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to a new favorite, tried to make “their own man” a lover to the Empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich () (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (- the son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly the daughter of the future king) who died in infancy Poland Stanislav Poniatowski) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (- Potemkin's daughter).

Famous figures of the Catherine era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military, statesmen, cultural and art figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the square in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin by sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schroeter and D. I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of the Catherine's era and the empress's associates:

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine's era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the square next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

In growth should have been depicted: Count N. I. Panin, Admiral G. A. Spiridov, writer D. I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A. A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N. V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Commission on the code. In the busts - the publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, the traveler P. S. Pallas, the playwright A. P. Sumarokov, the historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, the artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L Borovikovsky, architect A. F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G. G. Orlov, admirals F. F. Ushakov, S. K. Greig, A. I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z. G. Chernyshev, Prince V M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow Governor-General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Governor of Novgorod Count Ya. E. Sievers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the "plague riot" of 1771 in Moscow

At birth, the girl was given the name Sophia Frederica Augusta. Her father, Christian August, was the prince of the small German principality of Anhalt-Zerbst, but he won fame for his achievements in the military field. The mother of the future Catherine, Princess of Holstein-Gottorp Johanna Elizabeth, cared little about raising her daughter. And because the girl was raised by a governess.

Catherine was educated by tutors, and among them was a chaplain who gave the girl religious lessons. However, the girl had her own point of view on many questions. She also mastered three languages: German, French and Russian.

Entry into the royal family of Russia

In 1744, the girl goes with her mother to Russia. The German princess becomes engaged to Grand Duke Peter and converts to Orthodoxy, receiving the name Catherine at baptism.

August 21, 1745 Catherine marries the heir to the throne of Russia, becoming a princess. However, family life was far from happy.

After long childless years, Catherine II finally gave birth to an heir. Her son Pavel was born on September 20, 1754. And then heated debate flared up about who really is the boy's father. Be that as it may, Catherine hardly saw her first-born: shortly after birth, Empress Elizabeth takes the child to be raised.

Seizure of the throne

On December 25, 1761, after the death of Empress Elizabeth, Peter III ascended the throne, and Catherine became the wife of the emperor. However, it has little to do with state affairs. Peter and his wife were frankly cruel. Soon, due to the stubborn support he provided to Prussia, Peter becomes a stranger to many court, secular and military officials. The founder of what today we call progressive internal state reforms, Peter also quarreled with the Orthodox Church, taking away church lands. And now, six months later, Peter was deposed from the throne as a result of a conspiracy that Catherine entered into with her lover, Russian lieutenant Grigory Orlov, and a number of other persons, in order to seize power. She successfully manages to force her husband to abdicate and take control of the empire into her own hands. A few days after the abdication, in one of his estates, in Ropsha, Peter was strangled. What role Catherine played in the murder of her husband is unclear to this day.

Fearing herself to be thrown off by the opposing forces, Catherine is trying with all her might to win the favor of the troops and the church. She recalls the troops sent by Peter to the war against Denmark and in every possible way encourages and gives gifts to those who go over to her side. She even compares herself to Peter the Great, whom she reveres, declaring that she is following in his footsteps.

Governing body

Despite the fact that Catherine is a supporter of absolutism, she still makes a number of attempts to carry out social and political reforms. She publishes a document, the "Order", in which she proposes to abolish the death penalty and torture, and also proclaims the equality of all people. However, the Senate resolutely refuses any attempts to change the feudal system.

After finishing work on the "Order", in 1767, Catherine convenes representatives of various social and economic strata of the population to form the Legislative Commission. The commission did not leave the legislative body, but its convocation went down in history as the first time that representatives of the Russian people from all over the empire had the opportunity to express their ideas about the needs and problems of the country.

Later, in 1785, Catherine issued the Charter of the Nobility, in which she radically changed politics and challenged the power of the upper classes, in which most of the masses were under the yoke of serfdom.

Catherine, a religious skeptic by nature, seeks to subjugate the Orthodox Church to her power. At the beginning of her reign, she returned land and property to the church, but soon changed her views. The empress declares the church a part of the state, and therefore all her possessions, including more than a million serfs, become the property of the empire and are subject to taxes.

Foreign policy

During her reign, Catherine expands the borders of the Russian Empire. She makes significant acquisitions in Poland, having previously seated her former lover, the Polish prince Stanislaw Poniatowski, on the throne of the kingdom. Under the agreement of 1772, Catherine gives part of the lands of the Commonwealth to Prussia and Austria, while the eastern part of the kingdom, where many Russian Orthodox live, goes to the Russian Empire.

But such actions cause extreme disapproval of Turkey. In 1774, Catherine makes peace with the Ottoman Empire, according to which the Russian state receives new lands and access to the Black Sea. One of the heroes of the Russian-Turkish war was Grigory Potemkin, a reliable adviser and lover of Catherine.

Potemkin, a loyal supporter of the policy of the empress, himself proved himself to be an outstanding statesman. It was he, in 1783, who convinced Catherine to annex the Crimea to the empire, thereby strengthening her position on the Black Sea.

Love for education and art

At the time of Catherine's accession to the throne, Russia for Europe was a backward and provincial state. The Empress is trying with all her might to change this opinion, expanding the possibilities for new ideas in education and the arts. In St. Petersburg, she establishes a boarding school for girls of noble birth, and later free schools open in all cities of Russia.

Catherine patronizes many cultural projects. She is gaining fame as an ardent collector of art, and most of her collection is exhibited in her residence in St. Petersburg, in the Hermitage.

Catherine, passionately fond of literature, is especially favorable to the philosophers and writers of the Enlightenment. Endowed with literary talent, the empress describes her own life in a collection of memoirs.

Personal life

The love life of Catherine II became the subject of many gossip and false facts. The myths about her insatiability have been debunked, but this royal person really had many love affairs in her life. She could not remarry, because marriage could shake her position, and therefore in society she had to wear a mask of chastity. But, far from prying eyes, Catherine showed a remarkable interest in men.

End of reign

By 1796, Catherine had absolute power in the empire for several decades. And in the last years of her reign, she showed all the same vivacity of mind and strength of spirit. But in mid-November 1796, she was found unconscious on the bathroom floor. At that time, everyone came to the conclusion that she had a stroke. 4.2 points. Total ratings received: 57.

Catherine II.F.Rokotov

Facts about the life and reign of one of the most powerful, glorious and controversial monarchs of the Russian Empire, Empress Catherine II

1. During the reign of Catherine the Great from 1762 to 1796, the possessions of the empire expanded significantly. Of the 50 provinces, 11 were acquired during the years of her reign. The amount of state revenues increased from 16 to 68 million rubles. 144 new cities were built (more than 4 cities per year throughout the reign). The army almost doubled, the number of ships of the Russian fleet increased from 20 to 67 battleships, not counting other ships. The army and navy scored 78 brilliant victories, which strengthened Russia's international prestige.

Palace Embankment

Access to the Black and Azov Seas was won, Crimea, Ukraine (except for the Lvov region), Belarus, Eastern Poland, and Kabarda were annexed. The annexation of Georgia to Russia began.

At the same time, during her reign, only one execution was carried out - the leader of the peasant uprising, Emelyan Pugachev.



F. Rokotov

2. The daily routine of the Empress was far from the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe inhabitants of the royal life. Her day was scheduled by the hour, and its routine remained unchanged throughout her reign. Only the time of sleep changed: if in her mature years Catherine got up at 5, then closer to old age - at 6, and by the end of her life even at 7 in the morning. After breakfast, the empress received high-ranking officials and secretaries of state. The days and hours of reception of each official were constant. The working day ended at four o'clock, and it was time for rest. The hours of work and rest, breakfast, lunch and dinner were also constant. At 10 or 11 pm Catherine finished the day and went to bed.



3. Every day, 90 rubles were spent on the food of the Empress (for comparison: the salary of a soldier during the reign of Catherine was only 7 rubles a year). Boiled beef with pickles was a favorite dish, and currant juice was used as a drink. For dessert, preference was given to apples and cherries.



4. After dinner, the empress took up needlework, and Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy at that time read aloud to her. Ekaterina "masterfully sewed on canvas", knitted on knitting needles. Having finished reading, she moved to the Hermitage, where she sharpened from bone, wood, amber, engraved, played billiards.



View of the Winter Palace

5. Catherine was indifferent to fashion. She did not notice her, and sometimes quite deliberately ignored her. On weekdays, the Empress wore a simple dress and did not wear jewelry.



D. Levitsky

6. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she wrote plays, and even sent some of them to Voltaire for "reviewing".



7. Catherine came up with a special suit for the six-month-old Tsarevich Alexander, the pattern of which was asked from her by the Prussian prince and the Swedish king for their own children. And for her beloved subjects, the empress invented the cut of the Russian dress, which they were forced to wear at her court.

8. People who knew Catherine closely note her attractive appearance not only in her youth, but also in her mature years, her exceptionally friendly appearance, ease of handling. Baroness Elizabeth Dimsdale, who was first introduced to her with her husband in Tsarskoye Selo at the end of August 1781, described Catherine as follows: "a very attractive woman with lovely expressive eyes and an intelligent look"



View of the Fontanka

9. Catherine was aware that men liked her and she herself was not indifferent to their beauty and masculinity. "I received from nature a great sensitivity and appearance, if not beautiful, then at least attractive. I liked it from the first time and did not use any art and embellishment for this."

I. Fayzullin. Ekaterina's visit to Kazan

10. The Empress was quick-tempered, but knew how to control herself, and never made decisions in a fit of anger. She was very polite even with the servants, no one heard a rude word from her, she did not order, but asked to fulfill her will. Her rule, according to the testimony of Count Segur, was "to praise aloud, and to scold on the sly."

Oath of the Izmailovsky Regiment to Catherine II

11. Rules hung on the walls of the ballrooms under Catherine II: it was forbidden to stand in front of the empress, even if she approached the guest and spoke to him while standing. It was forbidden to be in a gloomy frame of mind, insult each other." And on the shield at the entrance to the Hermitage there was an inscription: "The mistress of these places does not tolerate coercion."



scepter

12. Thomas Dimsdale, an English physician was called from London to introduce smallpox inoculation into Russia. Knowing about the resistance of society to innovation, Empress Catherine II decided to set a personal example and became one of the first patients of Dimsdale. In 1768, an Englishman vaccinated her and Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich with smallpox. The recovery of the Empress and her son was a significant event in the life of the Russian court.



Johann the Elder Lampi

13. The Empress was a heavy smoker. The cunning Ekaterina, not wanting her snow-white gloves to be saturated with a yellow nicotine coating, ordered to wrap the tip of each cigar with a ribbon of expensive silk.



Coronation of Catherine II

14. The Empress read and wrote in German, French and Russian, but made many mistakes. Ekaterina was aware of this and once confessed to one of her secretaries that "she could only learn Russian from books without a teacher," since "Aunt Elizaveta Petrovna told my chamberlain: teach her enough, she's already smart." As a result, she made four mistakes in a three-letter word: instead of "more", she wrote "ischo".



15. Long before her death, Catherine composed an epitaph for her future tombstone: “Here lies Catherine II. She arrived in Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At fourteen, she made a threefold decision: to please her husband, Elizabeth and the people "She did not miss anything in order to achieve success in this respect. Eighteen years of boredom and loneliness prompted her to read many books. Having ascended the Russian throne, she made every effort to give her subjects happiness, freedom and material well-being. She forgave easily and hated no one. She was indulgent, loved life, had a cheerful disposition, was a true republican in her convictions and had a good heart. She had friends. Work was given to her easily. She liked social entertainment and the arts. "

Gallery of portraits of Empress Catherine II the Great



Artist Antoine Pen. Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II

Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal.



Artist Antoine Pen. Johanna Elisabeth of Anhalt of Zerbst, mother of Catherine II

Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the Gottorp ruling house, was the cousin of the future Peter III. The family tree of Johann Elisabeth goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.



Grotto Georg-Christoph (Grooth, Groot).1748






shetty castle

Georg Groth



Grotto. PORTRAIT OF GRAND DUKE PETER FYODOROVICH AND GRAND DUCHESS EKATERINA ALEXEEVNA. 1760s.



Pietro Antonio Rotari.1760,1761




V. Eriksen. Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great



Eriksen, Vigilius.1762

I. P. Argunov Portrait of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna.1762



Eriksen.Catherine II at the mirror.1762



Ivan Argunov.1762



V.Eriksen.1782

Eriksen.1779



Eriksen.Catherine II at the mirror.1779



Eriksen.1780


Lampi Johann-Batis.1794



R. Brompton. 1782



D.Levitsky.1782

P.D. Levitsky. Portrait of Catherine II .1783

Alexey Antropov

Portrait of Empress Catherine II in a traveling suit.SHIBANOV Mikhail. 1780

V.Borovikovsky.Catherine IIfor a walk in Tsarskoye Selo park.1794

Borovikovsky Vladimir Lukich.Portrait of Catherine II

Favorites of Catherine II

Grigory Potemkin

Perhaps the most important among the favorites, who did not lose his influence even after Catherine began to pay attention to others. He earned the attention of the empress even during the palace coup. She singled him out among other employees of the Horse Guards Regiment, he immediately became a chamber junker at court with a corresponding salary and a gift in the form of 400 peasant souls.Grigory Potemkin is one of the few lovers of Catherine II, who not only pleased her personally, but also did a lot of good for the country. Not only the “Potemkin villages” were built by him. It was thanks to Potemkin that the active development of Novorossia and the Crimea began. Although his actions were partly the reason for the start of the Russian-Turkish war, it ended with another victory for Russian weapons. In 1776, Potemkin ceases to be a favorite, but remains a man whose advice Catherine II listened to until his death. Including, in the choice of new favorites.

Grigory Potemkin and Elizaveta Temkina, daughter of the Most Serene Prince and Russian Empress

J. de Velli. Portrait of Counts G. G. and A. G. Orlovs

Grigory Orlov

Grigory Orlov grew up in Moscow, but exemplary service, distinction in the Seven Years' War contributed to his transfer to the capital, St. Petersburg. There he received the fame of a swashbuckler and "Don Juan". Tall, stately, handsome - the young wife of the future emperor, Ekaterina Alekseevna, simply could not help but pay attention to him.His appointment as treasurer of the Office of the Main Artillery and Fortification allowed Catherine to use public money to organize a palace coup.Although he was not a major statesman, sometimes he fulfilled the delicate requests of the Empress herself. Thus, according to one version, together with his brother Orlov, he killed the lawful husband of Catherine II, the deposed Emperor Peter III.

Stanislav August Poniatowski

Known for his graceful manners, Stanisław August Poniatowski, an ancient Polish aristocrat, first met Catherine in 1756. He lived in London for many years and ended up in St. Petersburg as part of the British diplomatic mission. Poniatowski was not an official favorite, but he was still considered the lover of the Empress, which gave him weight in society. With the ardent support of Catherine II, Poniatowski became the king of Poland. It is possible that Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna, recognized by Peter III, is actually the daughter of Catherine and a handsome Polish man. Peter III complained: “God knows where my wife gets pregnant from; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine. ”

Petr Zavadovsky

This time, Catherine was attracted by Zavadovsky, a representative of a well-known Cossack family. He was brought to court by Count Pyotr Rumyantsev, a favorite of another empress, Elizaveta Petrovna. A charming man with a pleasant character, Catherine II was once again struck to the very heart. In addition, she found him "quieter and more peaceful" than Potemkin.In 1775 he was appointed cabinet secretary. Zavadovsky received the rank of major general, 4 thousand peasant souls. He even settled in the palace. Such an approach to the empress alarmed Potemkin, and as a result of palace intrigues, Zavadovsky was removed - he left for his estate. Despite this, he remained faithful to her and passionately loved her for a long time, marrying only 10 years later. In 1780, he was recalled by the empress back to St. Petersburg, where he held high administrative positions, including becoming the first minister of public education.

Platon Zubov

Platon Zubov began his journey to Catherine with a service in the Semyonovsky regiment. Enjoyed the patronage of Count Nikolai Saltykov, educator of the grandchildren of the Empress. Zubov began to command the horse guards, who went to Tsarskoe Selo to carry guards. On June 21, 1789, with the help of the lady of state Anna Naryshkina, he received an audience with Catherine II and since then spent almost every evening with her. Just a few days later he was promoted to colonel and settled in the palace. At court, he was coldly received, but Catherine II was crazy about him. After the death of Potemkin, Zubov plays an increasingly important role, and Catherine did not have time to be disappointed in him - she died in 1796. Thus, he became the last favorite of the Empress. Later, he will take an active part in a conspiracy against Emperor Paul I, as a result of which he was killed, and Zubov's friend Alexander I became the head of state. Guglielmi, Gregorio. Apotheosis of the reign of Catherine II .1767

(1729-1796) Russian empress from 1762 to 1796

Her real name was Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst. In 1743, she came to Russia from Stettin to become the wife of the nephew of Empress Anna Ioannovna Peter of Holstein-Gottorp - the future Tsar Peter III. On August 21, 1745, their marriage took place, and she became Grand Duchess Catherine.

Until the end of her reign, the Empress failed to combine two incompatible desires: to become famous throughout the world for her liberal views and reforms and not to allow any freedoms in Russia. These contradictions of hers were especially evident in her relations with educated people. She instructed Ekaterina Dashkova, one of the most educated women of that time, to develop a project for the creation of the Russian Academy of Sciences, supported secular education. At the same time, it was during her reign that the already strict censorship was established.

The empress was afraid of the slightest manifestation of free-thinking and severely punished A.N. Radishchev for his criticism of the existing order, set out in the book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", at the same time punishing N.I. Novikov, who dared to publish this book.

At the end of her reign, Catherine II ordered the dissolution of all Masonic lodges. N.I. Novikov was arrested and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, Prince Trubetskoy was exiled.

Nevertheless, Catherine II was an outstanding and bright personality, a brilliant publicist and writer. She wrote a lot on a variety of topics, left behind her personal "Notes", numerous letters. Her correspondence with Diderot and Voltaire is especially interesting. True, she wrote mainly in French, since Russian remained for her the language of everyday communication.