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Chinese painting Chinese painting is also called traditional Chinese painting. Traditional Chinese painting dates back to the Neolithic period, about eight thousand years ago. Colored pottery excavated with painted animals, fish, deer, and frogs shows that during the Neolithic period, the Chinese had already begun to use brushes for painting. Chinese painting is an important part of traditional Chinese culture and an invaluable treasure of the Chinese nation, it has a long history and glorious traditions in the field of world arts.
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Features of Chinese Painting Chinese painting and Chinese calligraphy are closely related because both art forms use lines. The Chinese transformed simple lines into highly developed art forms. Lines are drawn not only contours, but also in order to express the concept of the artist and his feelings. Different lines are used for different objects and purposes. They may be straight or curved, hard or soft, thick or thin, pale or dark, and the paint may be dry or runny. The use of lines and strokes is one of the elements that endow Chinese painting with its unique qualities.
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Traditional Chinese Painting Traditional Chinese painting is a combination of several arts - poetry, calligraphy, painting, engraving and printing - in one painting. In ancient times, most artists were poets and calligraphers. For the Chinese, "Painting in Poetry and Poetry in Painting" was one of the criteria for fine works of art. The inscriptions and seal impressions helped to explain the artist's ideas and moods, as well as to add decorative beauty to Chinese painting.
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In the painting of Ancient China, artists often depicted pine trees, bamboo, and plum trees. When inscriptions were made to such drawings - “exemplary behavior and nobility of character”, then the qualities of people were attributed to these plants and they were called upon to embody them. All Chinese arts - poetry, calligraphy, painting, engraving and printing - complement and enrich each other.
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Styles of Chinese Painting In terms of artistic expression, traditional Chinese painting can be divided into complex painting style, liberal painting style, and complex liberal painting style. Complex style - the painting is drawn and painted in a neat and orderly manner, the complex style of painting uses an extremely refined brushwork to write objects.
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The liberal style of painting uses loose writing and short strokes to describe the look and feel of objects and express the artist's feelings. When painting in the liberal style of painting, the artist must place the brush exactly on the paper, and each stroke must be skillful in order to be able to express the spirit of the picture. The complex-liberal style of painting is a combination of the two previous styles.
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Masters of Chinese Painting Qi Baishi (1863-1957) is one of the most famous Chinese painters of our time. He was a versatile artist, he wrote poetry, carved stone, was a calligrapher, and also painted. Through years of practice, Qi has found his own distinct, personal style. He was able to portray the same theme in any style. His work is distinguished by the fact that in one picture he could combine several styles and methods of writing.
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Thanks to Qi Baishi, Chinese and world painting took another step forward: he was able to create his own individual artistic language, unusually bright and expressive. He left a profound milestone in the history of guohua.
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ABOUT QI BAISHI THEY SAY: "HE SAW BIG IN THE SMALL, FROM NOTHING GAVE A LOT." His works are filled with light that penetrates flower petals and insect wings: it seems that it illuminates us too, giving rise to a feeling of joy and peace in the soul.
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Chinese art. What is necessary? Chinese painting differs from Western painting in the necessary materials for painting. Chinese painters use to paint a picture: a brush, an ink stick, rice paper and an inkstone - all this is necessary in Chinese painting. Rice paper (Xuan paper) is a necessary material for Chinese painting because it has a beautiful texture so that the ink brush moves freely on it, making the strokes fluctuate from shadow to light.
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Combination of Poetry, Calligraphy and Printing in Chinese Painting Chinese painting shows the perfect union of poetry, calligraphy, painting and printing. As a rule, many Chinese artists are also poets and calligraphers. They often add a poem to their painting and stamp various seals upon completion. The combination of these four arts in Chinese painting makes the paintings more perfect and beautiful, and a true connoisseur will get aesthetic pleasure from contemplating Chinese painting.
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Genres of Chinese Painting In Chinese painting, the following genres are distinguished - landscape (“mountains-waters”), portrait genre (there are several categories), images of birds, insects and plants (“flowers-birds”) and animalistic genre. It should also be added that symbols such as the phoenix bird and the dragon are very popular in Chinese traditional painting.
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Chinese Painting - Guohua Guohua painting is a traditional Chinese painting. In Guohua painting, ink and water colors are used, the painting is done on paper or silk. Guohua is close in spirit to calligraphy. For applying paints, brushes are used, made of bamboo and wool of domestic or wild animals (rabbit, goat, squirrel, deer, etc.)
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The history of the emergence of Chinese painting dates back more than six thousand years and dates back to the period when the ancestors of modern Chinese decorated ceramic products. As an ornament, they depicted people, fish, animals and plants. We can learn about ancient examples of Chinese painting only from archaeological excavations. Late fine arts include various burial vessels and items. The next stage in the development of Chinese painting was drawings made on silk and paper. Several examples of such drawings have survived to this day.
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During the Qin and Han dynasties, fresco painting developed. It was used in burials, as well as in temples and palaces. With the development of Buddhism in the period from the 3rd to the 6th century, temple painting develops, for example, images of the Buddha in mountain caves. Perhaps the most famous caves so far are the Dunhuang Mogao Caves (敦煌莫高窟). One of the most prominent artists of the Six Dynasties era was Gu Kaizhi - 顾恺之 (344-406). He painted secular art. Two of his famous paintings, The Fairy of the Lo River and The Illustrious Women of Antiquity, are long horizontal scrolls divided into several fragments.
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It was assumed that the picture had to be viewed on the go, that is, to go from its beginning to the end and slowly consider the plot depicted on the scroll. Gu Kaizhi is also considered the founder of "guohua" (literally "national painting"). It was he who put forward the principle of “mood through form”, the meaning of which is that a good picture is the one that conveys the “soul.” And in order to accurately convey the “soul”, you need to draw the eyes very clearly. The next important stage in the development of painting in China at that time was the Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties and Song eras.
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At this time, the formation of the main schools of painting took place. Among the famous artists are Zhang Ziqian - 展子虔 (Sui era), Li Sixun (李思训)，Wu Daozi (吴道子). In the Tang era, the portrait stands out as a separate genre. There is a famous painting by Yan Liben (7th century) “Lords of the Ancient Dynasties”, in which he depicted on a long horizontal scroll 13 rulers who were at the head of China from the beginning of the Han Dynasty until the end of the 6th century. At the same time, images of court scenes appear. In the period of the Five Dynasties, it is worth noting the outstanding landscape painter - Fan Kuan 范宽. By the way, his works “Mountains covered with snow” and “Traveling along a mountain stream” have survived to this day.
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A famous artist of the Song era is Gu Hongzhong 顾闳中. In the era of the Yuan Dynasty, the artists Wang Meng 王蒙, Huang Gongwang 黄公望 and Ni Zang 倪瓒 can be distinguished. In the era of the Ming and Qing dynasties, a large number of art schools and genres appeared. Thematically, Chinese painting can be divided into three types: portraits, landscapes, and images of flowers and birds. Portraits appeared first, but then landscapes (山水画) became more and more popular.
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Ancient Chinese painting was very different from European painting. In Europe, the possibilities of color and shadows were widely used, and in China, painters created amazing paintings with a play of lines. The main thing that distinguishes Chinese painting from European is the desire to convey the "spirit of the picture", or, as the Chinese say, "to express the mood with the help of form." Of the artists of the 19th-20th century, Qi Baishi (齐白石) should be highlighted. One of his most famous paintings is "Shrimp", as well as the artist Xu Beihong 徐悲鸿. Xu Beihong was inspired by Gu Kaizhi, so people think that the horses in his painting "奔马" look more realistic than real horses.
Conclusion: The history of Chinese painting originated in ancient times and they depicted people, fish, animals and plants as an ornament. Later they began to depict drawings made on silk and paper. Then fresco painting, temple painting develops. Then schools of painting began to be built.
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Music of Ancient ChinaIn Chinese music
was adopted
lu-lu system
(literally "building",
"measure"), based on
which lay
twelve sounds.
Everyone had
magical meaning:
odd sounds
embodied light,
active forces of heaven,
even - dark,
passive forces
Earth.
five scales were singled out
the most important sounds received
titles:
the first is the "palace"
the second is "conversation",
third - "horn",
fourth - "assembly",
the fifth is "wings".
These five sounds were identified with
five elements (fire, water,
earth, air, wood) and five
Primary colors (white, black,
red, blue, yellow). They had and
social meaning ("ruler",
"officials", "people", "deeds",
"things").
Musical instruments of ancient China
In antiquity distinguishedseparate classes
musical instruments:
ringing (bells and
stone plates)
strings, brass and percussion
(drums).
eight kinds
"sources of sound" stone, metal, silk,
bamboo, wood, leather,
clay and gourd. One of the most
original
musical
tools of the ancient
China - stone
plates (lithophones),
called "qing".
Mu-yu (translated
"wooden fish"
– exotic
percussion instrument
in the shape of a fish.
Chinese art
ancient chinesepainting, as in other
modern, knew two
main style: "gun bi"
(diligent brush) and "se and"
(expression of an idea).
Chinese principles
painting are
admiring nature as
perfect creation. Genres of Chinese painting
quite varied:
- animalistic genres,
- household genres,
- ceremonial portrait,
- miniature on fans and others
household items,
- Chinese landscape painting.
In China, there was no still life in
in our usual sense,
immovable objects from the point of view
the Chinese are dead without dynamics
movement of life and time. Chinese art
tends to certain
sustainable images: one
of the most beloved
objects of aesthetic
incarnation in painting
is bamboo.
in Chinese paintings
bamboo is not only
plant and symbol
human
character.
Chinese painting and calligraphy
In China, useone tool and
for painting and
calligraphy - brushes
- linked these two species
art.
Calligraphy (from Greek words
κάλλος kallos "beauty" + γραφή
graphẽ "to write") - view
visual arts,
aesthetic design
handwritten font. Total
Chinese characters
goes up to 80,000. But
real in every way
texts are not used
more than 10 thousand hieroglyphs.
Chinese characters
difficult to write:
each of them consists of
several traits (from 1 to 52).
Calligraphy is like
painting, and process
hieroglyph creation
brush and ink akin
the process of creating
paintings.
Chinese tea traditions
Tea room in ancient ChinaThe ceremony began with
that a person should
internally psychologically
prepare: release
from all the bad
annoying, painful
and secondary.
Once upon a time tea as already
said above, drank only in
imperial palaces and
houses of aristocrats, then
the poor also loved him. A little later for
tea ceremonies
began to build teahouses
pavilions: extraordinary
beautiful, light, full of light
and air refined
structures.
External splendor and
emphasized beauty
simplicity of internal
decorations - in pavilions
stood small
sofas, chairs,
tables, separate
there were tea
accessories. In the evenings, colorful
paper lanterns, invited musicians
- everything had to be set to enthusiastic
perception of the surrounding world.
Chinese way of making tea
First of all, it shouldchoose the right tea
according to desire and
mood. It could be
black, green, red or
very rare and expensive
"imperial" yellow tea
Second, no less important,
water that is used
for making tea. She
must be fresh, taken
from a spring, stream or river. Third - dishes for
preparation and consumption
tea drink. In ancient times
emperors used
crockery made of gold and silver.
Later, the Chinese abandoned
metal utensils and
switched to porcelain
ceramic.
Gaiwan - special
bowl-type cups with volume
200-250 ml with cap,
whose diameter is smaller
top edge diameter
cups. The artistic culture of China has absorbed
core spiritual values
developed in the teachings of Taoism and
Confucianism.. The idea of a harmonious
connection between man and nature pervades
Chinese art, ranging from calligraphy
to painting. Even writing in
traditional Chinese culture
regarded as a special area of ethics and
aesthetics. All genres of ancient Chinese
art carried a deep moral
the meaning and idea of human perfection,
set up for a special perception:
admiration for nature, its beauty and work
masters.
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Concerning the time of origin of this art, there are discrepancies. The tradition itself attributes the creation of Chinese painting to the four founding fathers: Gu Kaizhi (Chinese 顧愷之) (344 - 406), Lu Tanwei (Chinese 陆探微 middle of the 5th century), Zhang Sengyao (c. 500 - c. 550). ) and Wu Daozi (Chinese 吴道子, 680 - 740), who lived from the 5th to the 8th century AD.
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The second well-known representative of the "painting of intellectuals", the famous landscape painter Guo Xi, in his treatise "On Painting", considers the painting a kind of psychological portrait of the author, emphasizing the high meaning of the artist's personality and nobility. The artist emphasizes the need for perfection of the master's personality. He considers poetry to be another important aspect of a work of painting, citing a phrase belonging to an unknown author: “Poetry is painting without form; painting is poetry in shape.”
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Since the time of the artist Wang Wei (8th century), many “intellectual artists” prefer monochrome ink painting over flowers, believing that: “Among the ways of the painter, simple ink is above all. He will reveal the essence of nature, he will complete the deed of the creator. It was during this period that the main genres of Chinese painting were born: Genre of plant painting, in particular bamboo painting. Wen Tong was the founder of bamboo painting.
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Since the birth of Chinese painting on silk and paper in the 5th century CE. e. many authors attempt to theorize painting. The first among all, perhaps, was Gu Kaizhi, at the suggestion of which six laws were formulated - “lufa”: Shenci - spirituality, Tianqu - naturalness, Goutu - the composition of a painting, Gusyan - a permanent basis, that is, the structure of a work, Mose - following tradition , ancient monuments, Yunbi - high technique of writing with ink and brush.
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Chinese painting after the Song period The periods of the Tang and Song dynasties are considered the time of the highest flowering of Chinese culture. The same can be said about Chinese painting. During the subsequent Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, artists focused on samples of the Sung period. Unlike the artists of Tang and Song, the painters of subsequent eras did not strive to create new styles, but, on the contrary, imitated the styles of bygone eras in every possible way. And they often did it at a very good level, like the artists of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, which followed the Song era.
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Chinese painting of the 18th – 20th centuries. The era of change. The 16th-17th centuries turned out to be an era of great change for China, and not only because of the Manchu conquest. With the beginning of the colonial era, China begins to be increasingly exposed to the cultural influence of Europeans. This fact was reflected in the transformation of Chinese painting. One of the most interesting Chinese artists of the Qing era is Giuseppe Castiglione (1688 - 1766), an Italian Jesuit monk, missionary and court painter and architect in China. It was this man who became the first artist to combine Chinese and European traditions in his drawing.
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The 19th and 20th centuries were a great test of strength for China. China has entered an era of change on an unprecedented scale. During the 19th century, China lost 2 opium wars to the European colonialists and suffered significant ruin from the Europeans. In 1894 - 1895, China loses the war to Japan and is divided between the European colonial empires (including Russia), the USA and Japan into zones of influence.
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However, the most striking personality in Chinese painting of the 20th century was, of course, Qi Baishi (1864 - 1957), who combined 2 biography traits that were previously incompatible for a Chinese artist, he was an adherent of “intellectual painting” and at the same time came from a poor peasant family. Qi Baishi also received wide recognition in the West, in 1955 he was awarded the International Peace Prize.
Symbolism in Chinese painting Chinese painting is also characterized by an extremely elegant language of images. Often depicting something, the Chinese artist puts a certain subtext into the drawing. Some images are especially common, for example, four noble plants: orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum, meihua plum. In addition, each of these plants is associated with a certain quality of character. The orchid is delicate and refined, associated with the tenderness of early spring. Bamboo is a symbol of an unyielding character, a true husband of high moral character (Xun Tzu). Chrysanthemum - beautiful, chaste and modest, the embodiment of the triumph of autumn. Blooming wild plum meihua is associated with purity of thoughts and resistance to the adversities of fate. Other symbolism is also found in plant plots: thus, drawing a lotus flower, the artist tells about a person who retained purity of thoughts and wisdom, living in a stream of everyday problems.
From ancient times to the invasion of the colonialists in the middle of the XIX century. in the Far East, one of the brightest and most original civilizations of China developed consistently, continuously and almost exclusively on its own basis. The development of this civilization, closed from external influences and influences, is due to the enormous size of the territory and long-term isolation from other ancient societies. The ancient Chinese civilization developed in such an isolated way, as if it were on another planet. Only in the II century. BC. the first contact with another high culture took place thanks to Zhang Qian's journey to Central Asia. And another 300 years had to pass before the Chinese became seriously interested in the cultural phenomenon of Buddhism that came from abroad.
The stability of the ancient Chinese civilization was also given by the ethnically homogeneous population, which called itself the Han people. The viability and development potential of the Han society was supported by a strong centralized state, the trend towards the creation and strengthening of which was leading throughout the ancient Chinese civilization. A real oriental despotism was created with exceptionally high centralization of power in the hands of the ruler, with a clear administrative-territorial division and a huge staff of learned officials. This model of statehood, reinforced by the ideology of Confucianism, existed in China until the fall of the Manchu dynasty at the beginning of the 20th century. The example of affirmation in China since ancient times of the advantages of state property, its dominant role in the development of civilization, is also unique. The private owner was under strict control of the authorities in order to maintain conservative stability in society.
Ancient China is a unique example of a class hierarchy. In Chinese society, farmers, artisans, merchants, officials, priests, warriors and slaves stood out. They were, as a rule, closed hereditary corporations in which each person knew his place. Vertical corporate ties prevailed over horizontal ones. The basis of Chinese statehood is a large family, consisting of several generations of relatives. Society from top to bottom was bound by mutual responsibility. The experience of total control, suspicion and denunciation is also one of the achievements of the civilization of Ancient China.
The ancient Chinese civilization in its breakthrough in the development of man, society and the state, in its achievements and influence on the surrounding world is comparable to antiquity. The closest neighbors of China, the countries of East Asia (Korea, Vietnam, Japan) used, adapting to the needs of their languages, Chinese hieroglyphic writing, the ancient Chinese language became the language of diplomats, the state structure and the legal system were built according to Chinese models, Confucianism had a significant influence on the formation of official ideology or Buddhism in a Sinicized form.
The most ancient tribes that settled in the fertile valleys of the large rivers of China in the Neolithic era (VIII millennium BC) created settlements from small adobe huts sunk into the ground. They cultivated the fields, raised domestic animals, and knew many crafts. At present, a large number of Neolithic sites have been discovered in China. The ceramics of that time found at these sites belong to several cultures, the oldest of which is the Yangshao culture, which got its name from the site of the first excavations carried out in the 1920s. 20th century in the province of Henan. Yangshao vessels were made from pale yellow or reddish-brown fired clay, first by hand, then using a potter's wheel.
Those that were made on the potter's wheel were distinguished by their extraordinary regularity of form. Ceramics were fired at a temperature of about one and a half thousand degrees Celsius, and then polished with a boar's tooth, due to which it became smooth and shiny. The upper part of the vessels was covered with complex geometric patterns of triangles, spirals, rhombuses and circles, as well as images of birds and animals. Especially popular were fish stylized as geometric painting. The ornament had a magical meaning and, apparently, was associated with the ideas of the ancient Chinese about the forces of nature. Thus, zigzag lines and crescent-shaped signs were probably conventional images of lightning and the moon, which later turned into Chinese characters.
The next period in the history of China was called Shang-Yin (XVIXI centuries BC) after the tribe that settled in the Yellow River valley in the 2nd millennium BC. It was then that the first Chinese state was formed, headed by the ruler Wang, who was also the high priest. At that time, significant changes took place in all spheres of life of the inhabitants of China: silk spinning, bronze casting, hieroglyphic writing were invented, the foundations of urban planning were born. The capital of the state, the great city of Shan, located not far from the modern city of Anyang, unlike the ancient settlements, had a distinct plan.
When a state was formed in China, the idea arose of Heaven as a powerful supreme deity of the universe. The ancient Chinese believed that their country is located in the center of the Earth, the latter being square and flat. The sky over China has the shape of a circle. Therefore, they called their country Zhongguo (Middle Kingdom) or Tianxia (Celestial). At different times of the year, abundant sacrifices were brought to Heaven and Earth. For this purpose, special altars were erected outside the city: round for Heaven, square for Earth.
Many handicrafts have survived to this day, which were intended for ritual ceremonies in honor of the spirits of ancestors and deities that control the forces of nature. The ritual bronze vessels used for sacrifices are distinguished by the mastery of execution. In these heavy monolithic products, all the ideas about the world that had developed by that time were combined. The outer surfaces of the vessels are covered with relief. The main place in it was given to images of birds and dragons, embodying the elements of sky and water, cicadas, foreshadowing a good harvest, bulls and rams, promising people satiety and prosperity. ritual bronze vessels
Tall, slender, widening at the top and bottom, the goblet (“gu”) was intended for sacrificial wine. Usually, on the surface of these vessels, a thin spiral “thunder pattern” (“lei-wen”) was depicted, against which the main images were made. Volumetric animal muzzles seem to grow out of bronze. The vessels themselves often had the shape of animals and birds (a ritual bronze vessel), because they were supposed to protect a person and protect crops from evil forces. The surface of such vessels was completely filled with protrusions and engravings. The whimsical and fantastic shape of the ancient Chinese bronze vessels with dragons was ordered by four vertical convex ribs located on the sides. These ribs oriented the vessels to the cardinal points, emphasizing their ritual character. Ritual bronze vessel
The underground burials of the nobility in the Shang-Yin era consisted of two deep underground chambers of a cruciform or rectangular shape located one above the other. Their area sometimes reached four hundred square meters, the walls and ceiling were painted with red, black and white paints or inlaid with pieces of stone, metal, etc. The entrances to the burials were guarded by stone figures of fantastic animals. So that the souls of the ancestors did not need anything, various handicrafts, weapons, bronze vessels, carved stones, jewelry, as well as magical objects (a bronze figure on a pedestal) were placed in the graves. All items that were placed in burials, as well as patterns decorating statues and bronze utensils, had a magical meaning and were connected by a single symbolism. A bronze figure on a pedestal
In the XI century. BC. The state of Shang-Yin was conquered by the Zhou tribe. The conquerors who founded the Zhou Dynasty (13th century BC) quickly adopted many of the technical and cultural achievements of the vanquished. The state of Zhou existed for many centuries, but its prosperity was short-lived. Many new states appeared on the political arena, and China already by the 8th century. BC. entered into internecine wars. Period from the 5th to the 3rd century. BC. was called Zhangguo ("the fighting kingdoms").
The newly formed kingdoms drew vast areas into the orbit of Chinese civilization. Trade between remote areas of China began to actively develop, which was facilitated by the construction of canals. Iron deposits were discovered, which made it possible to switch to iron tools and improve farming techniques. Round coins of the same shape came into circulation, replacing money made in the form of a spade (tapering spade), sword or shell. The range of crafts that came into use expanded significantly. Science developed in the cities. Thus, in the capital of the kingdom of Qi, the first higher educational institution in China, the Jixia Academy, was created. A huge role in the entire subsequent artistic life of China was played by those that arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. two teachings are Confucianism and Taoism.
Confucianism, seeking to maintain order and balance in the state, turned to the traditions of the past. The founder of the teachings, Confucius (circa BC), considered the eternal order of relations established by Heaven in the family and society, between the sovereign and subjects, between father and son. Considering himself the custodian and interpreter of the wisdom of the ancients, who served as a role model, he developed a whole system of rules and norms of human behavior Ritual. According to the Ritual, it is necessary to honor the ancestors, respect the elders, and strive for internal perfection. He also created rules for all spiritual manifestations of life, approved strict laws in music, literature and painting. Unlike Confucianism, Taoism focused on the fundamental laws of the universe. The main place in this teaching was occupied by the theory of the Tao Way of the Universe, or the eternal variability of the world, subject to the natural necessity of nature itself, the balance of which is possible due to the interaction of the feminine and masculine principles of yin and yang. The founder of the teachings of Laozi believed that human behavior should be guided by the natural laws of the universe, which cannot be violated otherwise harmony will be broken in the world, chaos and death will come. The contemplative, poetic approach to the world, laid down in the teachings of Laozi, manifested itself in all areas of the artistic life of ancient China.
During the Zhou and Zhangguo periods, many objects of decorative and applied art appeared that served ritual purposes: bronze mirrors, bells, various objects made from the sacred jade stone. Translucent, always cold jade symbolized purity and was always considered a protector from poison and spoilage (Jade figurine). bellsJade figurine
Painted lacquer utensils, tables, trays, caskets, musical instruments, richly decorated with ornaments, found in the burials, also served ritual purposes. The production of lacquer, as well as silk weaving, was then known only in China. The natural sap of the lacquer tree, painted in different colors, was repeatedly applied to the surface of the product, which gave it shine, strength and protected it from moisture. In the burials of the Hunan province in Central China, archaeologists found many items of lacquer utensils (Wooden figurine of the guard).Wooden figurine of the guard
In the III century. BC. after long wars and civil strife, small kingdoms united into a single, powerful empire, headed by the Qin dynasty (BC), and then the Han (206 BC - 220 AD) . The ruler and absolute ruler of the Qin Empire, Qin Shi-Huangdi (BC) was the Chinese emperor for a short time, but managed to strengthen the central power. He destroyed the borders of independent kingdoms and divided the country into thirty-six provinces, in each of which he appointed a capital official. Under Shi-Huangdi, new well-maintained roads were laid, channels were dug that connected the provincial centers with the capital Xianyang (Shaanxi Province). A single script was created, which allowed residents of different regions to communicate with each other, despite the difference in local dialects.
Its length was seven hundred and fifty kilometers. The thickness of the wall ranged from five to eight meters, the height of the wall reached ten meters. The upper edge was crowned with teeth. Signal towers were located along the entire length of the wall, on which, in case of the slightest danger, fires were lit. A road was built from the Great Wall of China to the capital itself.
The tomb of Emperor Qin Shi-Huangdi was built on a no lesser scale. It was erected (fifty kilometers from Xianyang) within ten years after the emperor's accession to the throne. More than seven hundred thousand people participated in the construction. The tomb was surrounded by two rows of high walls, which formed a square (a symbol of the Earth) in plan. In the center was a high cone-shaped burial mound. Round in plan, it symbolized the sky. The walls of the underground tomb are faced with polished marble slabs and jade, the floor is covered with huge polished stones with a map of nine regions of the Chinese Empire drawn on them. On the floor were sculptural images of the five sacred mountains, and the ceiling looked like a firmament with shining luminaries. After the sarcophagus with the body of Emperor Qin Shi-Huangdi was transferred to the underground palace, a huge number of precious items that accompanied him during his lifetime were placed around him: vessels, jewelry, musical instruments.
But the underworld was not limited to the burial itself. In 1974, at a distance of one and a half kilometers from it, archaeologists discovered eleven deep underground tunnels lined with ceramic tiles. Located parallel to each other, the tunnels served as a haven for a giant clay army, guarding the rest of their master. Clay army
The army, divided into several ranks, is lined up in battle order. There are also horses and chariots, also sculpted from clay. All figures are life-sized and painted; each of the warriors has individual features (Terracotta figure of an archer from the tomb of Qin Shi Huang). Terracotta figure of an archer from the tomb of Qin Shi Huang
Traces of change in the country were felt everywhere, but it should be noted that the power of Qin Shi Huangdi was based on total control, denunciation and terror. Order and prosperity were achieved by too drastic measures, causing despair of the people of Qin. Traditions, morality and virtues were neglected, which forced the bulk of the population to experience spiritual discomfort. In 213 BC the emperor ordered the Songs and Traditions to be banished and all private bamboo books to be burned, except for divinatory texts, books on medicine, pharmacology, agriculture and mathematics. The monuments that were in the archives survived, but most of the ancient sources on the history and literature of China perished in the fire of this madness. A decree was issued forbidding private teaching, criticism of the government, and the once flourishing philosophical teachings. After the death of Qin Shi-Huangdi in 210 BC. against the backdrop of general political instability and discontent, uprisings began, which led the empire to death.
In 207 BC power was seized by the leader of the rebels, Liu Bang, the future founder of the Han Dynasty, which ruled for four centuries. In the II century. BC. The Han Empire recognized Confucianism and, in its person, acquired an official ideology with a distinct religious connotation. Violation of the Confucian precepts was punishable by death as the gravest crime. On the basis of Confucianism, an all-encompassing system of lifestyle and management organization was developed. The emperor in his reign had to be based on the principles of philanthropy and justice, and learned officials were supposed to help him pursue the right policy.
Relations in society were regulated on the basis of the Ritual, which determined the duties and rights of each group of the population. All people were to build relationships in the family on the basis of the principles of filial piety and brotherly love. This meant that each person had to unquestioningly fulfill the will of his father, obey his older brothers, take care of his parents in old age. Thus, Chinese society became class-based not only in the state, but also in the moral sense of this concept. The obedience of the younger to the elder, the lower to the higher, and all together to the emperor, is the basis for the development of Chinese civilization with its universal strict regulation of life down to the smallest detail.
The Han era in Chinese history was marked by a new flourishing of culture and art, the development of science. Historical science is born. Its founder, Sima Qian, created a five-volume treatise, which outlined in detail the history of China from ancient times. Chinese scholars have made great efforts to transcribe ancient writings from dilapidated bamboo plates that served as books into silk scrolls. The most important discovery was the invention in the I century. AD paper. Caravan routes connected China with other countries. For example, along the Great Silk Road, the Chinese brought silk and the finest hand-made embroideries to the west, which were famous all over the world. Written sources contain information about the lively trade of the Han Empire with India and distant Rome, in which China has long been called the Country of Silk.
The main centers of the Han Empire, Luoyang and Chang'an, were erected according to the rules set out in ancient treatises according to a plan with a clear division into quarters. The palaces of the rulers were located on the main thoroughfare of the city and consisted of residential and ceremonial chambers, gardens and parks. Noble people were buried in spacious tombs, the walls of which were lined with ceramic or stone slabs, and the ceilings were supported by stone columns, which, as a rule, ended with a pair of dragons. Outside, the Alley of the Spirits of the guardians of the graves, framed by statues of animals, led to the burial hill.
In the burials, objects were found that give an idea of the daily life of the Han era: painted ceramic models of houses, painted clay jugs, bronze mirrors, painted figures of dancers, musicians, domestic animals. Bronze mirrors of musicians
Reliefs played the main role in the design of the burial. The reliefs in the burials of the Shandong and Sichuan provinces are the richest in content. The reliefs depict scenes of harvesting, hunting for wild ducks, racing light chariots harnessed by thin-legged hot horses (“Procession with a chariot and riders”). All images are very realistic. Procession with chariot and riders
The presentation was created based on the materials of the electronic editions of the Schoolchild Encyclopedia - “Mysteries and Secrets of Architecture”, “Wonders of the World. The Ancient World”, and the Collections of the World Artistic Culture of the Russian Educational Portal (www. school. edu. ru). And also: N.A. Dmitrieva, N.A. Vinogradova "The Art of the Ancient World", Moscow; "Children's Literature", 1986 Encyclopedia for children. (Vol. 7) Art. Part 1, "World of Encyclopedias Avanta +", Astrel, 2007; "The Big Illustrated Encyclopedia of Art History", Moscow, "Makhaon", 2008 Bronze lamp in the shape of a tapir, 4th century. BC.
