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Causes of the Livonian War point by point. The initial period of the war

Causes of the Livonian War point by point. The initial period of the war

22.09.2019

In the 16th century, Russia needed access to the Baltic Sea. He opened trade routes and eliminated intermediaries: German merchants and the Teutonic Knights. But Livonia stood between Russia and Europe. And Russia lost the war with her.

The beginning of the war

Livonia, also known as Livonia, was located on the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. Initially, this was the name of the lands inhabited by Livs. In the 16th century, Livonia was under the control of the Livonian Order, a military and political organization of German Catholic knights.
In January 1558, Ivan IV began to "cut a window to Europe." The moment was chosen well. The chivalry and clergy of Livonia were divided, weakened by the Reformation, and the local population was tired of the Teutons.
The reason for the war was the non-payment of Moscow by the bishopric of the city of Dorpat (aka Yuryev, aka modern Tartu) "Yuryev tribute" from the possessions ceded by the Russian princes.

Russian army

By the middle of the 16th century, Russia was already a mighty power. Reforms, the centralization of power, the creation of special infantry units - the archery troops played an important role. The army was armed with modern artillery: the use of a carriage made it possible to use guns in the field. There were factories for the production of gunpowder, weapons, cannons and cannonballs. New ways of taking fortresses were developed.
Before starting the war, Ivan the Terrible secured the country from raids from the east and south. Kazan and Astrakhan were taken, a truce was concluded with Lithuania. In 1557, the war with Sweden ended with victory.

First successes

The first campaign of the Russian army of 40 thousand people took place in the winter of 1558. The main goal was to get the voluntary concession of Narva from the Livonians. The Russians easily reached the Baltic. The Livonians were forced to send diplomats to Moscow and agreed to hand over Narva to Russia. But soon the Narva Vogt von Schlennenberg ordered the shelling of the Russian fortress of Ivangorod, provoking a new Russian invasion.

20 fortresses were taken, including Narva, Neishloss, Neuhaus, Kiripe and Derpt. The Russian army came close to Revel and Riga.
On January 17, 1559, in a major battle near Tiersen, the Germans were defeated, after which they again concluded a truce and again for a short time.
By autumn, the Livonian master Gotthard von Ketler enlisted the support of Sweden and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and opposed the Russians. Near Dorpat, the Livonians defeated the detachment of the governor Zakhary Ochin-Pleshcheev, then proceeded to besiege Yuryev, but the city survived. They tried to take Lais, but suffered heavy losses and retreated. The Russian counteroffensive took place only in 1560. The troops of Ivan the Terrible occupied the strongest fortress of the knights Fellin and Marienburg.

The war drags on

The successes of the Russians hastened the disintegration of the Teutonic Order. Reval and the cities of Northern Estonia swore allegiance to the Swedish crown. Master Ketler became a vassal of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II August. Lithuanians occupied more than 10 cities of Livonia.

In response to the aggression of Lithuania, the Moscow governors invaded the territory of Lithuania and Livonia. Tarvast (Taurus) and Verpel (Polchev) were captured. Then the Lithuanians "walked" through the Smolensk and Pskov regions, after which full-scale hostilities unfolded along the entire border.
Ivan the Terrible himself led the 80,000th army. In January 1563, the Russians moved to Polotsk, besieged and took it.
The decisive battle with the Lithuanians took place on the Ulla River on January 26, 1564, and thanks to the betrayal of Prince Andrei Kurbsky, it turned into a defeat for the Russians. The Lithuanian army went on the offensive. At the same time, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray approached Ryazan.

The formation of the Commonwealth

In 1569, Lithuania and Poland became a single state - the Commonwealth. Ivan the Terrible had to conclude peace with the Poles and deal with relations with Sweden, where his enemy Johan III ascended the throne.
On the lands of Livonia occupied by the Russians, Grozny created a vassal kingdom under the leadership of the Danish prince Magnus of Holstein.
In 1572 King Sigismund died. The Commonwealth was on the verge of civil war. In 1577, the Russian army invaded the Baltics, and soon Russia gained control of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, but the victory was short-lived.
The turning point of the war occurred after the accession to the Polish throne of Stefan Batory. He suppressed the unrest in the country and, in alliance with Sweden, opposed Russia. He was supported by Duke Mangus, Elector August of Saxony and Elector Johann Georg of Brandenburg.

From offensive to defensive

On September 1, 1578, Polotsk fell, then the Smolensk region and the Seversk land were devastated. Two years later, the Poles again invaded Russia and took Velikiye Luki. Pali Narva, Ozerische, Zavolochye. Near Toropets, the army of Prince Khilkov was defeated. The Swedes occupied the fortress of Padis in Western Estonia.

Batory invaded Russia for the third time in 1581. His goal was Pskov. However, the Russians guessed the plans of the Poles. It was not possible to take the city.
In 1581 Russia was in a difficult situation. In addition to the Poles, she was threatened by the Swedes and the Crimean Khan. Ivan the Terrible was forced to ask for peace on the terms of the enemy. The mediator in the negotiations was Pope Gregory XIII, who hoped to strengthen the position of the Vatican in the East. Negotiations were held in the Pit Zapolsky and ended with the conclusion of a ten-year truce.

Results

Ivan the Terrible's attempt to cut a window to Europe ended in failure.
Under the agreement, the Commonwealth returned to the Russians Velikiye Luki, Zavolochye, Nevel, Kholm, Rzheva Empty, the Pskov suburbs of Ostrov, Krasny, Voronech, Velyu, Vrev, Vladimirets, Dubkov, Vyshgorod, Vyborets, Izborsk, Opochka, Gdov, Kobyle settlement and Sebezh.
The Muscovite state transferred 41 Livonian cities to the Commonwealth.
The Swedes decided to finish off the Russians. In the autumn of 1581 they captured Narva and Ivangorod and forced them to sign peace on their own terms. The Livonian War is over. Russia lost part of its own territories and three border fortresses. The Russians left only a small fortress Oreshek on the Neva and a corridor along the river with a length of just over 30 kilometers. The Baltic remained unattainable.

Description of the Livonian War

Livonian War (1558-1583) - the war of the Russian kingdom against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic states.

Main events (Livonian War - briefly)

Causes: Access to the Baltic Sea. The hostile policy of the Livonian Order.
Occasion: Refusal of the order to pay tribute for Yuriev (Derpt).
First stage (1558-1561): The capture of Narva, Yuryev, Fellin, the capture of Master Furstenberg, the Livonian Order as a military force practically ceased to exist.
Second stage (1562-1577): The entry into the war of the Commonwealth (since 1569) and Sweden. Capture of Polotsk (1563). Defeat on the river Ole and near Orsha (1564). Capture of Weissenstein (1575) and Wenden (1577).
Third stage (1577-1583): Campaign of Stefan Batory, Fall of Polotsk, Velikiye Luki. Defense of Pskov (August 18, 1581 - February 4, 1582) Capture of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye by the Swedes.
1582- Yam-Zapolsky truce with the Commonwealth (the refusal of Ivan the Terrible from Livonia for the return of the lost Russian fortresses).
1583- Plyussky truce with Sweden (renunciation of Estonia, concession to the Swedes of Narva, Koporye, Ivangorod, Korela).
Reasons for the defeat: an incorrect assessment of the balance of power in the Baltic states, the weakening of the state as a result of the internal policy of Ivan IV.

Course of the Livonian War (1558–1583) (full description)

Causes

In order to start a war, formal reasons were found, but the real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as more convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, and the desire to participate in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which became obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthen Muscovite Russia, prevented its external contacts.

Russia had a small segment of the Baltic coast, from the Neva basin to Ivangorod. However, it was strategically vulnerable, and there were no ports or developed infrastructure. Ivan the Terrible hoped to use the transport system of Livonia. He considered it an ancient Russian patrimony, which was illegally seized by the Crusaders.

The forceful solution of the problem predetermined the defiant behavior of the Livonians themselves, who, even according to their historians, acted imprudently. The mass pogroms of Orthodox churches in Livonia served as a pretext for aggravating relations. Even at that time, the term of the truce between Moscow and Livonia (concluded in 1504 as a result of the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503) ended. To extend it, the Russians demanded the payment of the Yuryev tribute, which the Livonians were obliged to pay even to Ivan III, but for 50 years they never collected it. Recognizing the need to pay it, they again did not fulfill their obligations.

1558 - the Russian army entered Livonia. Thus began the Livonian War. It lasted 25 years, becoming the longest and one of the most difficult in Russian history.

First stage (1558-1561)

In addition to Livonia, the Russian tsar wanted to conquer the East Slavic lands, which were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1557, November - he concentrated a 40,000-strong army in Novgorod for a campaign in the Livonian lands.

Capture of Narva and Syrensk (1558)

In December, this army, under the command of the Tatar prince Shig-Aley, Prince Glinsky and other governors, advanced to Pskov. Meanwhile, the auxiliary army of Prince Shestunov began hostilities from the Ivangorod region at the mouth of the Narva (Narova) River. 1558, January - the tsarist army approached Yuryev (Derpt), but could not capture it. Then part of the Russian army turned towards Riga, and the main forces headed for Narva (Rugodiv), where they joined up with Shestunov's army. There was a lull in the fighting. Only the garrisons of Ivangorod and Narva fired at each other. On May 11, the Russians from Ivangorod attacked the Narva fortress and were able to take it the next day.

Soon after the capture of Narva, Russian troops under the command of the governor Adashev, Zabolotsky and Zamytsky and the duma clerk Voronin were ordered to capture the fortress of Syrensk. On June 2, the regiments were under its walls. Adashev set up barriers on the Riga and Kolyvan roads in order to prevent the main forces of the Livonians under the command of the Master of the Order from reaching Syrensk. On June 5, large reinforcements from Novgorod approached Adashev, which the besieged saw. On the same day, artillery shelling of the fortress began. The next day the garrison surrendered.

Capture of Neuhausen and Dorpat (1558)

From Syrensk, Adashev returned to Pskov, where the entire Russian army was concentrated. In mid-June, it took the fortresses of Neuhausen and Dorpat. The entire north of Livonia was under Russian control. The army of the Order in numerical ratio was several times inferior to the Russians and, moreover, was scattered over separate garrisons. It could not oppose anything to the army of the king. Until October 1558, the Russians in Livonia were able to capture 20 castles.

Battle of Tiersen

January 1559 - Russian troops marched on Riga. Near Tirzen they defeated the Livonian army, and near Riga they burned the Livonian fleet. Although it was not possible to capture the Riga fortress, 11 more Livonian castles were taken.

Truce (1559)

The Master of the Order was forced to conclude a truce before the end of 1559. By November of this year, the Livonians were able to recruit landsknechts in Germany and resume the war. But they did not cease to pursue failures.

1560, January - the army of governor Borboshin captured the fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin. The Livonian Order as a military force practically ceased to exist.

1561 - the last master of the Livonian Order, Kettler, recognized himself as a vassal of the king of Poland and divided Livonia between Poland and Sweden (Esel Island went to Denmark). The Poles got Livonia and Courland (Kettler became the Duke of the latter), the Swedes got Estland.

Second stage (1562-1577)

Poland and Sweden began to demand the withdrawal of Russian troops from Livonia. Ivan the Terrible not only did not comply with this requirement, but at the end of 1562 invaded the territory of Lithuania, allied to Poland. His army numbered 33,407 men. The goal of the campaign is the well-fortified Polotsk. 1563, February 15 - Polotsk, unable to withstand the fire of 200 Russian guns, capitulated. Ivan's army moved to Vilna. The Lithuanians were forced to conclude a truce until 1564. After the resumption of the war, Russian troops occupied almost the entire territory of Belarus.

But the repressions that began against the leaders of the "chosen council" - the actual government until the end of the 50s, had a negative impact on the combat capability of the Russian army. Many of the governors and nobles, fearing reprisals, preferred to flee to Lithuania. In the same 1564, one of the most prominent governors, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who was close to the Adashev brothers, who were members of the elected Rada, and feared for his life, moved there. The subsequent oprichnina terror further weakened the Russian army.

1) Ivan the Terrible; 2) Stefan Batory

The formation of the Commonwealth

1569 - as a result of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state of the Commonwealth (Republic) under the authority of the King of Poland. Now the Polish army came to the aid of the Lithuanian army.

1570 - the fighting in both Lithuania and Livonia intensified. To secure the Baltic lands, Ivan IV decided to create his own fleet. At the beginning of 1570, he issued a "letter of commendation" for the organization of a privateer (private) fleet, which acted on behalf of the Russian tsar, to the Dane Carsten Rode. Rode was able to arm several ships, and he caused significant damage to the Polish maritime trade. In order to have a reliable naval base, the Russian army in the same 1570 tried to capture Reval, thereby starting a war with Sweden. But the city freely received supplies from the sea, and Grozny was forced to lift the siege after 7 months. The Russian privateer fleet was never able to become a formidable force.

Third stage (1577-1583)

After a 7-year lull, in 1577, the 32,000-strong army of Ivan the Terrible undertook a new campaign to Revel. But this time the siege of the city did not bring anything. Then the Russian troops went to Riga, capturing Dinaburg, Wolmar and several other castles. But these successes were not decisive.

Meanwhile, the situation on the Polish front began to deteriorate. 1575 - an experienced military leader, the Transylvanian prince, was elected king of the Commonwealth. He was able to form a strong army, which also included German and Hungarian mercenaries. Bathory concluded an alliance with Sweden, and in the fall of 1578 the combined Polish-Swedish army was able to defeat the 18,000-strong Russian army, which lost 6,000 people killed and captured and 17 guns.

By the beginning of the 1579 campaign, Stefan Batory and Ivan IV had approximately equal main armies of 40,000 men each. Terrible after the defeat at Wenden was not confident in his abilities and offered to start peace negotiations. But Batory rejected this proposal and launched an offensive against Polotsk. In the autumn, Polish troops laid siege to the city and, after a month-long siege, captured it. Rati governor Sheina and Sheremeteva, sent to the rescue of Polotsk, only reached the Sokol fortress. They did not dare to engage in battle with superior enemy forces. Soon the Poles also captured Sokol, defeating the troops of Sheremetev and Shein. The Russian tsar clearly did not have enough strength to successfully fight on two fronts at once - in Livonia and Lithuania. After the capture of Polotsk, the Poles took several cities in Smolensk and Seversk lands, and then returned to Lithuania.

1580 - Batory undertook a big campaign against Rus', he captured and ravaged the cities of Ostrov, Velizh and Velikiye Luki. Then the Swedish army under the command of Pontus Delagardi took the city of Korela and the eastern part of the Karelian Isthmus.

1581 - the Swedish army captured Narva, and the next year they occupied Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. Russian troops were expelled from Livonia. The fighting moved to the territory of Rus'.

Siege of Pskov (August 18, 1581 – February 4, 1582)

1581 - 50,000 Polish troops led by the king laid siege to Pskov. It was a very strong fortress. The city, which stood on the right, high bank of the Velikaya River at the confluence of the Pskov River, was surrounded by a stone wall. It stretched for 10 km and had 37 towers and 48 gates. However, from the side of the Velikaya River, from where it was difficult to expect an enemy attack, the wall was wooden. Under the towers there were underground passages that provided covert communication between different sections of the defense. The city had significant stocks of food, weapons and ammunition.

Russian troops were dispersed over many points, from where an enemy invasion was expected. The tsar himself with a significant detachment stopped in Staritsa, not daring to meet the Polish army marching towards Pskov.

When the sovereign learned about the invasion of Stefan Batory, an army of Prince Ivan Shuisky, who was appointed "great governor", was sent to Pskov. 7 other governors were subordinate to him. All the inhabitants of Pskov and the garrison were sworn in that they would not surrender the city, but would fight to the end. The total number of Russian troops defending Pskov reached 25,000 people and was about half the size of Batory's army. By order of Shuisky, the surroundings of Pskov were devastated so that the enemy could not find food and food there.

Livonian War 1558-1583. Stefan Batory near Pskov

On August 18, Polish troops approached the city at a distance of 2–3 cannon shots. For a week, Batory conducted reconnaissance of the Russian fortifications and only on August 26 gave the order to his troops to approach the city. But the soldiers soon came under fire from Russian guns and retreated to the Cherekha River. There Batory set up a fortified camp.

The Poles began to dig trenches and set up tours to get closer to the walls of the fortress. On the night of September 4-5, they rolled rounds to the Pokrovskaya and Svinaya towers on the southern face of the walls and, placing 20 guns, on the morning of September 6, they began to fire at both towers and 150 m of the wall between them. By the evening of September 7, the towers were badly damaged, and a breach 50 meters wide was formed in the wall. However, the besieged managed to build a new wooden wall against the breach.

On September 8, the Polish army launched an assault. The attackers were able to capture both damaged towers. But with shots from the large Bars cannon, capable of sending cannonballs over a distance of more than 1 km, the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles was destroyed. Then the Russians blew up its ruins, rolling up barrels of gunpowder. The explosion served as a signal for a counterattack led by Shuisky himself. The Poles could not hold the Pokrovskaya Tower either - and retreated.

After an unsuccessful assault, Batory ordered to conduct tunnels to blow up the walls. The Russians were able to destroy two tunnels with the help of mine galleries, the enemy could not finish the rest. On October 24, Polish batteries began shelling Pskov from across the Velikaya River with red-hot cannonballs to start fires, but the city's defenders quickly coped with the fire. After 4 days, a Polish detachment with crowbars and pickaxes approached the wall from the Velikaya side between the corner tower and the Pokrovsky Gate and destroyed the sole of the wall. It collapsed, but it turned out that behind this wall there is another wall and a ditch that the Poles could not overcome. The besieged threw stones and pots of gunpowder on their heads, poured boiling water and pitch.

On November 2, the Poles launched the last assault on Pskov. This time Batory's army attacked the western wall. Prior to that, for 5 days it was subjected to powerful shelling and in several places it was destroyed. However, the Russians met the enemy with heavy fire, and the Poles turned back, never reaching the breaches.

By that time, the morale of the besiegers had fallen noticeably. However, the besieged experienced considerable difficulties. The main forces of the Russian army in Staritsa, Novgorod and Rzhev were inactive. Only two detachments of archers of 600 people each tried to break into Pskov, but more than half of them died or were captured.

On November 6, Batory removed the guns from the batteries, stopped siege work and began to prepare for the winter. At the same time, he sent detachments of Germans and Hungarians to capture the Pskov-Caves Monastery, 60 km from Pskov, but the garrison of 300 archers, supported by monks, successfully repulsed two attacks, and the enemy was forced to retreat.

Stefan Batory, having made sure that he could not take Pskov, in November handed over command to Hetman Zamoysky, and he himself went to Vilna, taking with him almost all the mercenaries. As a result, the number of Polish troops almost halved - to 26,000 people. The besiegers suffered from cold and disease, the death toll and desertion increased.

Results and consequences

Under these conditions, Bathory agreed to a ten-year truce. It was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Rus' renounced all its conquests in Livonia, and the Poles liberated the Russian cities they had occupied.

1583 - the Treaty of Plyus was signed with Sweden. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to the Swedes. For Russia there was only a small section of the Baltic coast at the mouth of the Neva. But in 1590, after the expiration of the truce, hostilities between the Russians and the Swedes resumed and this time they were successful for the Russians. As a result, according to the Tyavzinsky Treaty on "eternal peace", Rus' regained Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korelsky district. But that was only small consolation. In general, Ivan IV's attempt to gain a foothold in the Baltic failed.

At the same time, sharp contradictions between Poland and Sweden on the issue of control over Livonia facilitated the position of the Russian tsar, excluding a joint Polish-Swedish invasion of Rus'. The resources of Poland alone, as the experience of Batory's campaign against Pskov showed, were clearly not enough to capture and hold a significant territory of the Muscovite kingdom. At the same time, the Livonian War showed that Sweden and Poland in the east had a formidable enemy to be reckoned with.

The best that history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.
Goethe

The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve the economic situation of Rus', by improving trade. In this article, we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.

Beginning of the Livonian War

The sixteenth century was a period of uninterrupted wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return the lands that were previously part of Ancient Rus'.

Wars were fought on several fronts:

The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.

Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of crusading conquests. As a state entity, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltics were placed in feudal dependence), religious schism (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the top.

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

Ivan 4 the Terrible began the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push back the borders of the state in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:

Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livnsky Order and Rus' signed a document according to which the former were obliged to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order single-handedly withdrew from this obligation.
The weakening of the external political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national differences.

Speaking about the reason, it should be emphasized that Livonia separated Rus' from the sea, blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles, who wished to appropriate new lands, were interested in the capture of Livonia. But the main reason is the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.

Course of the war and major events

The Livonian War was fought with long breaks and is historically divided into four stages.

First stage of the war

At the first stage (1558–1561), the fighting was relatively successful for Russia. The Russian army in the first months captured Derpt, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of death and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not 1 weak, but 2 strong opponents.

The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the peasants of the Baltic were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of the war, exactions and other disasters.

Second phase of the war

The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar refused to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Tsardom. The conflict could only be continued under the conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the Chosen Rada.

It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.

Third stage of the war

The third stage (1570–1577) is the battles of local significance between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any meaningful results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.

Fourth stage of the war

At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captures the entire Baltic, but soon the luck turned away from the king and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of united Poland and Lithuania (the Commonwealth), Stefan Batory, drove Ivan the Terrible out of the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.). The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, assistance to the Commonwealth was provided by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.

The defense of Pskov saved Russia from complete defeat (since August 1581). For 5 months of the siege, the garrison and the inhabitants of the city repelled 31 assault attempts, weakening the army of Batory.

The end of the war and its results

The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian Empire and the Commonwealth of 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Peace of Plus was signed in 1583.

Thus, we can single out the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sum up the results of the Liovna war:

adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage war simultaneously with three strong states;
the pernicious influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
A deep economic crisis within the country, which broke out at the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.

Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russia's foreign policy for many years to come - to gain access to the Baltic Sea.

In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands, captured during the hostilities by the Polish king, were returned to it.

The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneously ongoing war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even on the concession of Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden to conclude a humiliating peace for the Russian state of Plus . Negotiations in Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:

ü The Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. Behind him there was only a narrow section of access to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland from the Strelka River to the Sestra River (31.5 km).

ü The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv).

ü In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress retreated to the Swedes along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

The Russian state was again cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

Chapter 3. Domestic historians about the Livonian War

Domestic historiography reflects the problems of society in critical periods in the development of our country, which is accompanied by the formation of a new, modern society, and the views of historians on certain historical events also change according to time. The views of modern historians on the Livonian War are practically unanimous and do not cause much disagreement. The views of Tatishchev, Karamzin, Pogodin on the Livonian War that dominated the 19th century are now perceived as archaic. In the works of N.I. Kostomarova, S.M. Solovieva, V.O. Klyuchevsky reveals a new vision of the problem.

Livonian War (1558-1583). Causes. Move. Results

At the beginning of the twentieth century, another change in the social system took place. During this transitional period, outstanding historians came to the national historical science - representatives of various historical schools: the statesman S.F. Platonov, the creator of the "proletarian-internationalist" school M.N. Pokrovsky, a very original philosopher R.Yu. Vipper, who explained the events of the Livonian War from their own points of view. In the Soviet period, historical schools successively succeeded each other: the “Pokrovsky school” in the mid-1930s. The 20th century was replaced by the “patriotic school”, which was replaced by the “new Soviet historical school” (since the late 1950s of the 20th century), among the adherents of which we can mention A.A. Zimina, V.B. Kobrin, R.G. Skrynnikov.

N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) assessed the Livonian War as a whole as "ill-fated, but not inglorious for Russia." The historian places the responsibility for the defeat in the war on the king, whom he accuses of "cowardice" and "confusion of spirit."

According to N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) in 1558, before the start of the Livonian War, Ivan IV had an alternative - either "deal with the Crimea" or "take over Livonia." The historian explains the decision of Ivan IV, which was contrary to common sense, to fight on two fronts by "discord" between his advisers. In his writings, Kostomarov writes that the Livonian War exhausted the strength and labor of the Russian people. The historian explains the failure of the Russian troops in the confrontation with the Swedes and Poles by the complete demoralization of the domestic armed forces as a result of the actions of the oprichniks. According to Kostomarov, as a result of the peace with Poland and the truce with Sweden, "the western borders of the state shrank, the fruits of long-term efforts were lost."

The Livonian War, which began in 1559, S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879) explains the need for Russia to "assimilate the fruits of European civilization", the carriers of which were supposedly not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports. The loss of seemingly conquered Livonia by Ivan IV was the result of simultaneous actions against the Russian troops of the Poles and Swedes, as well as the result of the superiority of the regular (mercenary) troops and European military art over the Russian noble militia.

According to S.F. Platonov (1860-1933), Russia was drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what "was happening on her western borders", which "exploited her and oppressed her (unfavorable terms of trade)". The defeat of the troops of Ivan IV at the last stage of the Livonian War is explained by the fact that then there were "signs of a clear depletion of means for the struggle." The historian also notes, referring to the economic crisis that befell the Russian state, that Stefan Batory "beat the already lying enemy, not defeated by him, but who had lost his strength before the fight against him."

M.N. Pokrovsky (1868-1932) claims that the Livonian War was allegedly started by Ivan IV on the recommendation of some advisers - no doubt who came out of the ranks of the "army". The historian notes both "a very good moment" for the invasion, and the absence of "almost any formal reason" for this. Pokrovsky explains the intervention of the Swedes and Poles in the war by the fact that they could not allow the transfer of "the entire southeastern coast of the Baltic" with trading ports under Russian rule. Pokrovsky considers the unsuccessful sieges of Revel and the loss of Narva and Ivangorod to be the main defeats of the Livonian War. He also notes the great influence on the outcome of the war of the Crimean invasion of 1571.

According to R.Yu. Vipper (1859-1954), the Livonian War was being prepared long before 1558 by the leaders of the Chosen Rada and could have been won - in the event of an earlier action by Russia. The historian considers the battles for the Eastern Baltic the largest of all the wars waged by Russia, as well as "the most important event in European history." Vipper explains the defeat of Russia by the fact that by the end of the war, "the military structure of Russia" was in disintegration, and "the ingenuity, flexibility and adaptability of Grozny were over."

A.A. Zimin (1920-1980) connects the decision of the Moscow government to "raise the question of joining the Baltic states" with the "strengthening of the Russian state in the 16th century." Among the motives that prompted this decision, he highlights the need to acquire Russia's access to the Baltic Sea in order to expand cultural and economic ties with Europe. Thus, the Russian merchants were interested in the war; the nobility expected to acquire new lands. Zimin considers the involvement of "a number of major Western powers" in the Livonian War as the result of the "short-sighted policy of the Chosen One." With this, as well as with the ruin of the country, with the demoralization of service people, with the death of skilled military leaders during the years of the oprichnina, the historian connects the defeat of Russia in the war.

The beginning of the "war for Livonia" R.G. Skrynnikov connects with the "first success" of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which "plans for the conquest of Livonia and assertion in the Baltic states" were put forward. The historian points to the "special goals" of Russia in the war, the main of which was the creation of conditions for Russian trade. After all, the Livonian Order and German merchants hindered the commercial activities of the Muscovites, and Ivan IV's attempts to organize his own "shelter" at the mouth of the Narova failed. The defeat of the Russian troops at the last stage of the Livonian War, according to Skrynnikov, was the result of the entry into the war of the armed forces of Poland, led by Stefan Batory. The historian notes that in the army of Ivan IV at that time there were not 300 thousand people, as previously stated, but only 35 thousand. In addition, the twenty-year war and the ruin of the country contributed to the weakening of the noble militia. Skrynnikov explains the conclusion of peace by Ivan IV with the abandonment of the Livonian possessions in favor of the Commonwealth by the fact that Ivan IV wanted to focus on the war with the Swedes.

According to V.B. Kobrin (1930-1990) The Livonian war became unpromising for Russia, when, some time after the start of the conflict, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland became opponents of Moscow. The historian notes the key role of Adashev, who was one of the leaders of Russia's foreign policy, in unleashing the Livonian War. The conditions of the Russian-Polish truce, concluded in 1582, Kobrin considers not humiliating, but rather difficult for Russia. He notes in this regard that the goal of the war was not achieved - "the reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the annexation of the Baltic states." The historian considers the terms of the truce with Sweden to be even more difficult, since a significant part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which was part of the Novgorod land, “was lost”.

Conclusion

Thus:

1. The purpose of the Livonian War was to give Russia access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from Livonia, the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries.

2. The immediate cause for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the “Yuryev tribute”.

3. The beginning of the war (1558) brought victories to Ivan the Terrible: Narva and Yuryev were taken. The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state.

4. Since 1561, the Livonian War entered the second period, when Russia was forced to wage war with the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden.

5. Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate their forces against the Muscovite state, because were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania and at the same time create, by neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic states. The Danish Duke Magnus in May 1570 was proclaimed "King of Livonia" upon arrival in Moscow.

6. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material means so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia.

7. The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was, according to Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and consequently, not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support for the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vise on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown to include Lithuania. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha.

8. By 1577, in fact, all of Livonia to the north of the Western Dvina (Vidzeme) was in the hands of the Russians, except for Riga, which, as a Hanseatic city, Ivan IV decided to spare. However, military successes did not lead to a victorious end to the Livonian War. The fact is that by this time Russia had lost the diplomatic support that it had at the beginning of the Swedish stage of the Livonian War. Firstly, in October 1576, Emperor Maximilian II died, and hopes for the capture of Poland and its division did not materialize. Secondly, a new king came to power in Poland - Stefan Batory, the former prince of Semigradsky, one of the best commanders of his time, who was a supporter of an active Polish-Swedish alliance against Russia. Thirdly, Denmark completely disappeared as an ally and, finally, in 1578-1579. Stefan Batory managed to persuade Duke Magnus to betray the king.

9. In 1579, Batory captured Polotsk and Velikiye Luki, in 1581 he besieged Pskov, and by the end of 1581 the Swedes captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Vesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), Haapsa-lu, Pärnu and the entire South (Russian ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In Ingermanland, Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and in Ladoga - Korela.

10. In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands, captured during the hostilities by the Polish king, were returned to it.

11. Peace of Plus was concluded with Sweden. Under this agreement, the Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodivo). In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress retreated to the Swedes along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

12. As a result, the Russian state was cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

List of used literature

1. Zimin A.A. History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day. - M., 1966.

2. Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. - Kaluga, 1993.

3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. - M. 1987.

4. Kobrin V.B. Ivan groznyj. - M., 1989.

5. Platonov S.F. Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584). Vipper R.Yu. Ivan the Terrible / Comp. D.M. Kholodikhin. - M., 1998.

6. Skrynnikov R.G. Ivan groznyj. - M., 1980.

7. Soloviev S.M. Works. History of Russia since ancient times. - M., 1989.

Read in the same book:Introduction | Chapter 1. Creation of Livonia | Military operations of 1561 - 1577 | mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.095 sec)

The best that history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.

Beginning of the Livonian War

The sixteenth century was a period of uninterrupted wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return the lands that were previously part of Ancient Rus'.

Wars were fought on several fronts:

The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.

Map of the Livonian War

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livnsky Order and Rus' signed a document according to which the former were obliged to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order single-handedly withdrew from this obligation.
The weakening of the external political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national differences.

Course of the war and major events

The Livonian War was fought with long breaks and is historically divided into four stages.

First stage of the war

Second phase of the war

It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.

Third stage of the war

Fourth stage of the war

Livonian War of 1558-1583

The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, assistance to the Commonwealth was provided by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.

The end of the war and its results

Thus, we can single out the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sum up the results of the Liovna war:

adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage war simultaneously with three strong states;
the pernicious influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
A deep economic crisis within the country, which broke out at the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.

Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russia's foreign policy for many years to come - to gain access to the Baltic Sea.

Siege of Pskov by King Stefan Batory in 1581, Karl Pavlovich Bryullov

Date: January 15, 1582.
Location: Kiverova Gora village, 15 versts from Zapolsky Pit.
Type: peace treaty.
Military conflict: Livonian war.
Participants, countries: Rzeczpospolita - Russian kingdom.
Participants, representatives of the countries: J. Zbarazhsky, A. Radziwill, M. Garaburda and H. Varshevitsky - D.P. Yeletsky, R.
Livonian War

V. Olferiev, N. N. Vereshchagin and Z. Sviyazev.
Negotiator: Antonio Possevino.

Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty was concluded on January 15, 1582 between the Russian kingdom and the Commonwealth. This agreement was concluded for 10 years and became one of the main acts that ended the Livonian War.

Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty: conditions, results and significance

Under the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty, the Commonwealth returned all the conquered Russian cities and territories, namely the Pskov and Novgorod lands. The exception was the area of the city of Velizh, where the border was restored, which existed until 1514 (until Smolensk was annexed to the Russian kingdom).

The Russian kingdom gave away all its territories in the Baltic states (the territory belonging to the Livonian Order). Stefan Batory also demanded large monetary compensation, but Ivan IV refused him. The agreement, at the insistence of the ambassadors of the Russian kingdom, did not mention the Livonian cities that were captured by Sweden. And although the ambassadors of the Commonwealth made a special statement, which stipulated territorial claims in relation to Sweden, this issue remained open.

In 1582, the treaty was ratified in Moscow. Ivan IV the Terrible intended to use this treaty to build up forces and resume active hostilities with Sweden, which, however, was not put into practice. Despite the fact that the Russian kingdom did not acquire new territories and did not resolve the contradictions with the Commonwealth, the threat in the form of the Livonian Order no longer existed.

Introduction 3

1. Causes of the Livonian War 4

2. Stages of war 6

3.Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and exhausting, it brought many losses to Russia. It is very important and relevant to consider this event, because any military action changed the geopolitical map of our country, had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the diversity of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter.

Article: Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences

After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Therefore, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

aim of this work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

- identify the causes of the Livonian War

- analyze its stages

- to consider the results and consequences of the war

1. Causes of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible faces new tasks - to return the Russian lands that were once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.

So, for example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the hostility of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves Ivan the Terrible's aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them "intentions that are beneficial for Russia."

N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible had an alternative - either to deal with the Crimea, or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains the decision of Ivan IV, which was contrary to common sense, to fight on two fronts by "discord" between his advisers.

S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by the need of Russia to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization”, the carriers of which were not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not put up with unfavorable terms of trade.

MN Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of some "advisers" from a number of troops.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, "The Livonian War was prepared and planned by the leaders of the Chosen Rada for quite a long time."

R.G. Skrynnikov connects the beginning of the war with the first success of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish themselves in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that "the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea."

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in unleashing the Livonian War.

In general, formal pretexts were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthening of Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute" (Yuryev, later called Derpt (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for it and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, in 1557 the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king.

2.Stages of the war.

The Livonian war can be conditionally divided into 4 stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

Let's consider each of the stages in more detail.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed through all of Livonia (to Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of politicians grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga were transferred under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of sharp political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master V. Furstenberg was dismissed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Esel (Saaremaa).

The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became subjects of Sweden. According to the Vilna Treaty of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and his last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of a weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states up to the capture of Riga: "Our sovereign of those Livonian cities that the king took for protection, it is unsuitable to retreat, and it is fitting for the sovereign to stand for those cities." The council's decision also emphasized that giving up Livonia would hurt trade interests.

Third stage. From 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Seimas in Lublin, Lithuania and Poland were united into a single state - the Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate their forces against the Muscovite state, because. were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, by neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic states.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted the offer of Ivan the Terrible to become his vassal (“goldovnik”) and in the same May 1570, upon arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia”. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material means so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the "kingdom" of Magnus by marrying Magnus to the niece of the tsar, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was, according to Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and consequently, not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support for the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vise on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown to include Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. More intimately, the Tsar was preoccupied with the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he tried with all his might to prevent. All this speaks of a correct, strategically deep understanding of the alignment of forces in Europe by the tsar and of his precise vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the short and long term. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as soon as possible, before it came to a joint Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

The events of the Livonian War are a classic example of Europe's unwillingness to let the Russian state into the world political and economic arena. The confrontation between Russia and European states, which, by the way, continues to this day, did not begin suddenly. This confrontation is going on from the depths of centuries and there are many reasons for this. Although the main thing is competition. At first, it was a spiritual competition - the struggle of the pastors of the Christian church for the flock, and, along the way, for the territorial possessions of this flock. So, the events of the Livonian War of the 16th century are echoes of the struggle waged between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

The first Russian tsar declared war on the Livonian Order in 1558. The official reason was the fact that the Livonians had already stopped paying tribute for the possession of the city of Derpt, which they captured back in the 13th century, for 50 years. In addition, the Livonians did not want to allow specialists and craftsmen from the German states to enter Muscovy. The military campaign began in 1558 and lasted until 1583 and was named the Livonian War in world history.

Three periods of the Livonian War

The events of the Livonian War have three periods, which took place with varying success for Tsar Ivan the Terrible. The first period is 1558 - 1563. Russian troops carry out successful military operations, which lead in 1561 to the defeat of the Livonian Order. The cities of Narva and Derpt were taken by Russian troops. They came close to Riga and Tallinn. The last successful operation for the Russian troops was the capture of Polotsk - this happened in 1563. The Livonian war took on a protracted character, which was facilitated by the internal problems of the Muscovite state.

The period of the second in the Livonian War lasts from 1563 to 1578. Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania united against the troops of the Russian Tsar. Pursuing each his own goal in the war with Muscovy, these northern European states pursued a common goal - not to allow the Russian state to join the ranks of European states that lay claim to a dominant position. The Muscovite state was not supposed to return those European territories that belonged to it during the time of Kievan Rus and were lost during internecine and feudal squabbles and wars of conquest. The situation in the Livonian War was complicated for the Russian troops by the economic weakness of the Muscovite state, which during this period was going through a period of ruin. The ruin and bleeding of an already not too rich country occurred as a result of the oprichnina, which turned out to be an enemy no less bloodthirsty and cruel than the Livonian Order. He plunged the knife of betrayal into the back of his sovereign, as well as into the back of his country, - a prominent Russian military leader, a member of the Chosen Rada of Ivan the Terrible, his friend and associate. Kurbsky in 1563 goes over to the side of King Sigismund and participates in military operations against Russian troops. He knew many of the military plans of the Russian Tsar, about which he did not fail to report to his former enemies. In addition, Lithuania and Poland are united in 1569 into a single state - the Commonwealth.

The third period of the Lithuanian War takes place from 1579 to 1583. This is a period of defensive battles waged by the Russians against the combined forces of the enemy. As a result, the Muscovite state loses Polotsk in 1579, and Velikiye Luki in 1581. In August 1581, the Polish king Stefan Batory began the siege of the city of Pskov, in which Kurbsky also participated. A truly heroic siege lasted for almost half a year, but the troops of the invaders never entered the city. The Polish king and the Russian tsar signed the Treaty of Yampol in January 1582. The Russian state lost not only the Baltic lands and many primordially Russian cities, but also did not get access to the Baltic Sea. The main task of the Livonian war was not solved.