“I’m sad”, “she was embarrassed and blushed” - these phrases inform us about the feelings and experiences of the hero, but this is not yet psychologism. A special expression of the inner world of a person by means of art proper, the depth and sharpness of the writer's penetration into the spiritual world of the hero, the ability to describe in detail various feelings - these are, in general terms, examples of psychologism. Psychologism is a stylistic unity, a system of means and techniques aimed at a complete, deep and detailed disclosure of the inner world of the characters. In this sense, one speaks of a "psychological novel", a "psychological drama". The word as a carrier of imagery in literature can most fully express mental states, more fully than any means of expression in any other form of art. In addition, the temporal principle of textual composition in literature also allows it to carry out a psychological image in an adequate form, since the inner life of a person is in most cases a process, a movement. Therefore, literature is the most psychological of the arts (not counting, perhaps, cinema).

Each kind of literature has its own possibilities for revealing the inner world of a person. In lyrics, psychologism is expressive. The lyrical hero directly expresses his feelings, engages in reflection, or indulges in reflection-meditation. Lyrical psychology is subjective.

The limitation of psychologism in drama is due to the fact that it is expressed there through monologues (on stage - also through facial expressions and gestures). Dramatic psychologism is limited by conventionality.

The epic kind of literature, which has developed a perfect structure of psychological forms and techniques, has the greatest opportunities for depicting the inner world of a person.

In order for psychologism to arise in literature, a high level of development of the culture of society as a whole is necessary, and - most importantly - that in this culture the unique human personality is recognized as a value.

The era of antiquity was favorable for the development of psychologism. In the Middle Ages, it fades away and reappears only in the Renaissance.

3 main forms of psychological image:

1. Direct. Strakhov: “The depiction of characters “from the inside”, i.e. through artistic knowledge of the inner world of the characters, expressed through inner speech, images of memory and imagination"

2. Indirect (because it conveys the inner world of the hero not directly, but through external symptoms). Strakhov: “Psychological analysis “from the outside”, expressed in the writers' psychological interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of external manifestation of the psyche.

3. Totally denoting. Skaftymov: "Feelings are named, but not shown." Feelings are transmitted by naming, an extremely brief designation of the processes that take place in the inner world.

The leading role in the system of psychologism is played by a direct form - a direct recreation of the processes of a person's inner life.

The narration about the inner life of a person can be conducted both from the first and from the third person, and the first form is historically earlier. It creates a greater illusion of believability. It is often used when there is only one protagonist in the work. When narrating in the third person, the author can comment on the course of psychological processes and their meaning, as if from the outside. In addition, such a narrative makes it possible to depict the inner world of not one, but several characters, which is much more difficult with another method.

A special narrative form is improperly direct inner speech . This is a speech formally owned by the author, but bearing the imprint of the stylistic and psychological features of the hero's speech.

Psychological imaging techniques include psychological analysis And introspection . Their essence is that complex mental states are decomposed into elements and thereby explained, become clear to the reader. Psychological analysis is used in third-person narration, and introspection - from the first, third and with improperly direct speech.

An important and frequently encountered method of psychologism is internal monologue - direct fixation and reproduction of the hero's thoughts, imitating the real psychological patterns of inner speech. The author, as it were, "eavesdrops" on the thoughts of the hero in all their naturalness, unintentionality and rawness.

The internal monologue, brought to its logical limit, already gives a slightly different method of psychologism - mindflow . This is the ultimate degree, the extreme form of internal monologue. This technique creates the illusion of an absolutely chaotic, disordered movement of thoughts and experiences. Tolstoy used this technique to describe half-asleep, half-delirious, and especially exalted.

Another example of psychology dialectics of the soul (Chernyshevsky: “Count Tolstoy’s attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts develop from others, it is interesting for him to observe how a feeling that directly arises from a given position or impression, obeying the attention of memories and the power of combinations represented by the imagination, passes into others. feelings, again returns to the previous starting point and again and again wanders, changing, along the entire chain of memories; as a thought born of the first sensation leads to other thoughts, is carried away further and further, merges dreams with real sensations, dreams of the future with reflection about the present).

One of the methods of psychology is artistic detail . External details (portrait, landscape, world of things) are used to depict mental states - an indirect form of psychologism. The author draws attention to the impressions that his characters receive from the environment.

Default Acceptance . It consists in the fact that the writer at some point says nothing at all about the inner world of the hero, forcing the reader to conduct a psychological analysis himself.

Psychologism is often found in Chekhov, Tolstoy.

QUESTION 43. LYRICS AS A KIND OF LITERATURE. TYPES OF LYRICS. FEATURES OF THE COMPOSITION OF A LYRICAL WORK.

In the lyrics, in the foreground, individual states of human consciousness: emotionally colored reflections, volitional impulses, impressions, non-rational sensations and aspirations. If in a lyrical work any event series is indicated (which is far from always the case), then it is very sparingly, without any careful detailing (for example, in Pushkin's "I remember a wonderful moment ...").

In the lyrics, the system of artistic means is entirely subordinate to the disclosure of the integral movement of the human soul. Lyrical emotion is a kind of clot, the quintessence of a person's spiritual experience.

But the lyrics are by no means confined to the sphere of the inner life of people, their psychology as such. She is invariably attracted to mental states that signify a person's focus on external reality. Therefore, lyrical poetry turns out to be an artistic development of states not only of consciousness (which, as G.N. Pospelov persistently said, is primary, main, dominant in it), but also of being. Such are philosophical, landscape and civil poems. Lyrical poetry is capable of capturing spatio-temporal ideas easily and widely, connecting expressed feelings with the facts of everyday life and nature, history and modernity, with planetary life, the universe, the universe. At the same time, lyrical creativity, one of the sources of which in European fiction is the biblical "Psalms", can acquire a religious character in its most striking manifestations (Lermontov's poem "Prayer", Derzhavin's ode to "God", "Prophet" by A.S. Pushkin) . Religious motifs are very persistent in the lyrics of our century: in V.F. Khodasevich, N.S. Gumilyov, A.A. Akhmatova, B.L. Pasternak, among modern poets - in O.A.

The lyrics gravitate mainly to the small form. Although there is a genre of lyrical poem that recreates experiences in their symphonic diversity (“About this” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “Poem of the mountain” and “Poem of the end” by M.I. Tsvetaeva, “Poem without a hero” by A.A. Akhmatova) , in the lyrics of course, small poems predominate. The principle of the lyrical kind of literature is "as short as possible and as full as possible."

Almost in any lyrical work there is a meditative beginning. Meditation is called excited and psychologically intense thinking about something.

The lyrics are incompatible with the neutrality and impartiality of the tone that is widespread in the epic narrative. The speech of the lyrical work is full of expression, which here becomes the organizing and dominant principle. Lyrical expression makes itself felt in the choice of words, and in syntactic constructions, and in allegory, and, most importantly, in the phonetic-rhythmic construction of the text.

The bearer of an experience expressed in lyrics is often called a lyrical hero. This term, introduced by Yu.N. Tynyanov in the 1921 article “Blok”, is rooted in literary criticism and criticism, although the lyrical hero is one of the types of the lyrical subject. The latter term has a more universal meaning. They talk about the lyrical hero, meaning not only individual poems, but also their cycles, as well as the work of the poet as a whole. The lyrical hero is not only bound by close ties with the author, with his attitude to the world, spiritual and biographical experience, spiritual mood, manner of speech behavior, but turns out (almost in most cases) to be indistinguishable from him. The lyrics in its main "array" are autopsychological.

At the same time, the lyrical experience is not identical to what the poet experienced as a biographical personality. The lyric does not simply reproduce the feelings of the poet, it transforms them, enriches them, creates anew, elevates and ennobles them.

Lyrically expressed experiences can belong both to the poet himself and to other persons unlike him. Lyrics in which the experiences of a person who is noticeably different from the author are expressed are called role-playing (as opposed to autopsychological).

Aristotle's definition of lyric (“the imitator remains himself without changing his face”) is thus inaccurate: the lyric poet may well change his face and reproduce an experience that belongs to someone else.

The relationship between the lyrical hero and the subject (poet) is understood by literary critics in different ways. The opinions of scientists of the 20th century, in particular M.M. Bakhtin, who saw in the lyrics a complex system of relations between the author and the hero, “I” and “other”, and also spoke about the constant presence of the choral principle in it. This idea was developed by S. M. Broitman. He argues that lyric poetry (especially the eras close to us) is characterized not by “monosubjectivity”, but by “intersubjectivity”, i.e. imprint of interacting consciousnesses.

Lyrical creativity has a maximum inspiring, contagious power (suggestivity).

The poet's feelings become at the same time our feelings. The author and his reader form a single, inseparable "we". And this is the special charm of the lyrics.

Features of the composition of a lyrical work.

The basis of a lyrical work is not a system of events occurring in the lives of heroes, not an arrangement (grouping) of characters, but a sequence of presentation of thoughts and moods, expression of emotions and impressions, the order of transition from one image-impression to another. You can fully understand the composition of a lyrical work only by finding out the main thought-feeling expressed in it.

One of the simplest and most frequently used composition techniques in lyrics is repetition. It allows you to give a lyrical work a compositional harmony. Especially interesting is the ring composition, when a connection is established between the beginning and the end of the work, such a composition carries a certain artistic meaning, which must be reflected in the analysis of the lyrical work. For example, in a poem by A.A. Block "Night, street, lantern, pharmacy ..." uses a circular composition. The ring composition here expresses the main idea of ​​the poem - the isolation of life, a return to what has already been physically passed, the frailty of human existence.

Repetition as a compositional technique can not only organize a lyrical work as a whole, but also its individual fragments.

The most common compositional device of a lyrical work is a sound repetition at the end of poetic lines - a rhyme. For example, in a poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Prophet" rhyme organizes the text into a single artistic whole.

Another characteristic compositional technique of a lyrical work is opposition (antithesis), based on the antithesis of contrasting images. For example, in a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's "The Death of a Poet" epithets form a compositionally significant opposition:

And you won't wash away with all your black blood

The poet's righteous blood.

In a lyrical work, artistic images can also be opposed to each other. For example, in a poem by S.A. Yesenin “I am the last poet of the village ...” the opposition of the city and the village, the dead and the living is important in a semantic sense. Yesenin embodied the living principle in the images of nature: wood, straw, and the dead - in the images of iron, stone, cast iron - that is, something heavy, unnatural, opposing the natural, natural flow of life.

Often a lyrical work is built on a single image. In this case, the image is revealed gradually, and the composition of the work of art is reduced to revealing the full and true meaning of the image. For example, in a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's "Clouds", already in the first stanza, an image is given, which is subsequently likened to a person, his fate. In the second stanza, nature becomes more and more like a man. And the third stanza, on the contrary, is ideologically opposed to the first and second stanzas:

Alien to you are passions and alien to suffering;

Forever cold, forever free

You have no homeland, you have no exile.

In nature, there are no those passions, concepts that exist in human life. So Lermontov, using various compositional techniques, creates the effect of a deceived expectation.

The composition of any lyrical work is built in such a way that the reader's tension intensifies with each line. For this, there are so-called reference points of the composition, which are key to understanding the author's idea, but can be located in different parts of the text.

Of particular interest is such a compositional feature of a literary work as lyrical digressions, which reflect the writer's thoughts about life, his moral position, his ideals. In digressions, the artist turns to topical social and literary issues, often they contain characteristics of the characters, their actions and behavior, and assessments of the plot situations of the work. Lyrical digressions allow us to understand the image of the author himself, his spiritual world, dreams, his memories of the past and hopes for the future.

At the same time, they are closely connected with the entire content of the work, expanding the scope of the depicted reality.

Digressions, which make up the unique ideological and artistic originality of the work and reveal the features of the writer's creative method, are diverse in form: from a brief incidental remark to a detailed discussion. By their nature, these are theoretical generalizations, socio-philosophical reflections, assessments of heroes, lyrical appeals, polemics with critics, fellow writers, appeals to their characters, to the reader, etc.

QUESTION 44. LYRICAL SUBJECT, ITS TYPOLOGY. CONCEPTS "LYRICAL HERO", "ROLE LYRICS", "LYRIC CHARACTER".

In the center is the question of the relationship between the biographical author and the image in the lyrics. In lyrics, the relationship between the author and the hero is subjective-subjective, in epic and drama - object-subjective.

Science has ceased to confuse the biographical or empirical author with the image of the cat. appears in lyrics only in the 20th century.

In the history of lyricism, there was no single, always equal lyrical subject, but there were three qualitatively different types: syncretic (at the mythopoetic stage of the development of poetry), genre (at the stage of traditionalist artistic consciousness: 5th century BC - 18th century AD e.) and personally creative (in the literature of the 18th-20th centuries).

1) Ancient (“mythopoetic”) lyrics are distinguished by the direct syncretism of the author and the hero. Archaic knows initially only the choral author. As M.M. Bakhtin noted, “in lyric poetry, I am still all in the choir and I speak from the choir.” Even in Greek choral lyrics, the one whom we will later begin to call the author is “not one, there are many of them. In the verses that this multiple author sings and dances, he calls himself a single one and speaks of himself not “we”, but “I”; but what he tells does not refer to him, but to God. But the subject of younger solo lyrics, although his face is already single, still “sings not about himself. Elegik inspires the army, argues, gives advice - and turns on his own behalf to someone else, not to himself. "Myself" - Greek lyrics do not know such a character.

2) This subject is not individual in the strict sense of the word. If the syncretic author was oriented (externally and internally) to the choir, then this author is oriented towards a certain genre and a certain hero, namely a genre hero, different in ode, elegy or epistle. Naturally, such an author is less connected with the empirical author than in modern personal poetry, but is more closely connected with the genre hero, which is why the paradoxical from the current point of view becomes possible, when, for example, A. Sumarokov, the author of odes, is more like M. Lomonosov, who works in the same genre, than for himself as the author of elegies.

3) Only from the middle of the 18th century does the modern, individually creative type of the lyrical subject begin to take shape, incomprehensible without the syncretic and genre subject that preceded it, but qualitatively unique. This subject is oriented externally and internally not to the chorus and not to the genre hero, but to the personal hero, which creates new forms of rapprochement between the author and the hero, sometimes taken for identity.

The fundamental fact of the presence of a hero in the lyrics allows us to raise the question of his originality.

B.O. Korman distinguishes between the author-narrator, the author himself, the lyrical hero and the hero of role-playing lyrics. The terms author-narrator and author proper are not entirely successful. Instead of them, we will use the terms respectively - non-subjective forms of expression of the author's consciousness and the lyrical "I". If we imagine the subjective structure of the lyrics as a kind of integrity, the two poles of which are the author's and the hero's plans, then the non-subjective forms of expression of the author's consciousness will be closer to the author's, closer to the hero (almost coinciding with it) - the hero of role-playing lyrics; an intermediate position will be occupied by the lyrical "I" and the lyrical hero.

The most obvious is the nature of the hero of role-playing lyrics, or a lyrical character (for example, N. Nekrasov’s poems “Kalistrat” or “Green Noise”): the subject to whom the statement belongs here openly acts as an “other”, hero, close, as is commonly believed to the dramatic.

It can be a historical or legendary character, a female image, on behalf of which a statement is given in a poem belonging to the poet, or vice versa - a male “I” in the poems of a poetess.

In poems with impersonal forms of expression of the author's consciousness, the statement belongs to a third person, and the subject of speech is not grammatically identified. It is in poems in which the face of the speaker is not directly revealed, in which he is only a voice, that the illusion of the absence of a bifurcation of the speaker into author and hero is most fully created, and the author himself dissolves in his creation (“Anchar” by Pushkin).

Unlike such an author, the lyrical self has a grammatically expressed face and is present in the text as “I” or “we”, to which the speech belongs. In the foreground is not the hero himself, but some event, circumstance, situation, phenomenon. At the same time, the lyrical "I" can become a subject-in-itself, in an independent way, which was not obvious with non-subjective forms of expression of the author's consciousness.

This image must be fundamentally different from a biographical (empirical) author (although the degree of his autobiographical nature can be different, including a very high one). The lyrical "I" of the poet goes beyond the boundaries of his subjectivity - it is "the living "I" in the eternal return, finding its abode in the poet." The lyrical "I", according to Annensky, is "not personal and not collective, but first of all our I, only realized and expressed by the poet."

The next subjective form, even closer to the heroic plane, is the lyrical hero. He is not only a subject-in-itself, but also a subject-for-itself, i.e. he becomes his own theme, and therefore more clearly than the lyrical "I", is separated from the primary author, but at the same time seems as close as possible to the biographical author.

A lyrical hero does not appear in every poet. Of the Russian lyricists, he is most characteristic of M. Lermontov, A. Blok, M. Tsvetaeva, V. Mayakovsky, S. Yesenin. With sufficient completeness and certainty, it is revealed in the context of the poet's work, in a book or cycle. It is possible to speak about the lyrical hero proper only when the image of a person that arises in poetry and has stable features is "not only the subject, but also the object of the work."

Now it becomes clear that the lyrical hero, not coinciding directly with the biographical author, nevertheless is an image that deliberately refers to the poet's non-literary personality, which sometimes leads to a naive-realistic identification of them. An adequate perception of the lyrical hero requires taking into account his aesthetic "playfulness" - his inseparability from the author and inconsistency, mismatch with him.

Although in lyric poetry the distance between the author and the hero is thinner and more difficult to grasp than in other kinds of literature, this boundary is a historically changing value. It is the smallest with the syncretic type of literary subject, the largest with the genre type, and in individual creative poetry this very boundary (and its seeming absence) becomes aesthetically consciously played out.

This is manifested in the fact that in the lyrics of the 19th and 20th centuries, the role of such forms of utterance, in which the speaker sees himself both from the inside and from the outside, is becoming more and more - both quantitatively and qualitatively - as a fully objectified "other" (i.e. not as a character, but as a person) - "you", "he", an indefinite person or state separated from its carrier:

And boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand / ... /

And life, as you look around with cold attention /… /

(Lermontov "And boring and sad ...")

But the lyrics at this time include not only such an “I” that knows how to see itself from the outside, but also a real other, a complex play of points of view of voices and value intentions (“Two Voices” by Tyutchev) arises. Finally, a neosyncretic subject is born, in which the “I” and “the other” are no longer mixed (as it was in archaic lyrics), but are played out precisely in their inseparability and inseparability.

A peculiar form of such a neosyncretic subject is found in the fourth poem of Blok's Carmen cycle:

Snowy spring is raging.

I take my eyes off the book...

Oh terrible hour when she

Reading Zunigi's hand

In the eyes of Jose threw a look!

Eyes lit up with laughter

A row of pearls gleamed.

And I forgot all the days, all the nights

And my heart bled

You will pay me for love!

The same pronoun "I" denotes two subjects here. The first (“I take my eyes off the book”) is the lyrical hero of the poem, who reads the scene in which the heroes of the myth of Carmen participate. The second time “I” (“And I forgot all the days, all the nights”) is Jose himself, or rather, the inseparable inseparability of the lyrical hero and Jose.

Introduction

In modern fiction, one can see the desire of the authors not only to reflect the global catastrophes of human existence at the end of the 20th century, but also to show the value of an individual. And the formulation of the problem of psychologism modern women's prose, in particular the prose of L.E. Ulitskaya, becomes an artistic basis for the study of the moral, socio-cultural aspects of the life of a modern person.

It should be noted that actually the problem of psychologism little has been studied in L. Ulitskaya's prose, since scientists most often seek to consider the genre originality of the writer's works. This explains relevance this study.

In the work of L. Ulitskaya straight And indirect form psychology are more common total denoting. In use direct form of psychologism the influence of classical literature on the writer's work is manifested (in an interview with Rossiyskaya Gazeta, L. Ulitskaya notes that the work of L.N. Tolstoy is of great importance to her). Usage indirect form probably due to the desire not directly show the psychological state, but indicate it with strokes, therefore, the total denoting form is also less frequent.

object this work is the work of L. Ulitskaya, in particular such works as

Subject this work is a characteristic of psychologism in the work of L. Ulitskaya

aim of this work is to identify the characteristics of psychologism in the work of L.E. Ulitskaya.

Achieving this goal involves solving a number of tasks:

to analyze the literature on the research topic;

psychologism street green tent

get acquainted with the creative biography of L. Ulitskaya, comprehend the originality of her writing style, approach to depicting reality and man;

reveal the features of the manifestation of psychologism in the work of L. Ulitskaya;

Structure this work corresponds to the goal and objectives and consists of introduction, main part, conclusion, list of references.

Theoretical foundations of the study

The concept of psychologism in literature, techniques and methods of psychological depiction

Psychologism- this is an important property of literature, allowing a deeper understanding of the human soul, to delve into the meaning of actions.

There are two interpretations of the term "psychologism". In a broad sense, the term means common property of literature and art to recreate human life and characters. With this approach, psychologism is characteristic of any literary work. In a narrow sense, psychology refers to special property, characteristic only for individual works. From this point of view, psychologism is a special technique, a form that allows you to correctly and vividly depict mental movements. According to A.B. Esin, "psychologism is a certain artistic form behind which stands and in which artistic meaning, ideological and emotional content is expressed."

Chernyshevsky, who was one of the first to define psychologism as a special artistic phenomenon, also considered it a property of the artistic form of a work: in an article on the early prose of L. Tolstoy, he calls psychologism artistic device.

The presence or absence of psychologism in a literary work in the narrow sense will not be an advantage or disadvantage of the work, it is only its feature, due to the idea of ​​the work, its content and subject matter, as well as author's understanding of the characters. Psychologism, when it is present in a work, is an organizing stylistic principle and determines the artistic originality of the work.

According to Esin, there are three main forms of psychological depiction . Two of them were formulated by I.V. Strakhov: "The main forms of psychological analysis can be divided into the portrayal of characters" from within", - that is, through artistic knowledge the inner world of the characters, expressed through inner speech, images of memory and imagination; for psychological analysis from outside", expressed in the writer's psychological interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of external manifestation of the psyche. "These forms of psychologism are called, respectively straight And indirect .

Esin identifies another form of psychological image - direct naming by the author of feelings and experiences occurring in the soul of the hero . He calls this method summatively denoting.

Psychologism has its own internal structure, that is, it consists of techniques and methods of representation. As a rule, in works of an emphatically psychological nature, the writer focuses on internal rather than external details. We will often find a description of all the nuances of the hero's experiences than a detailed analysis of his appearance. But in addition to the quantitative ratio in such works, the principle of their relationship also changes. If in the usual story external details exist independently, then here they are will be subordinate to the general content, will be directly related to the emotional experiences of the characters. In addition to their direct function of reproducing life, they also acquire another important function - to accompany and frame psychological processes. With this approach, objects and events are material for reflection, a reason for reasoning, and may mean nothing without being correlated with the inner world of the hero.

External details (landscape, facial expressions and gestures, portrait) are not a direct way of expressing psychologism, but with the appropriate environment they acquire additional functions. So, not any portrait characterizes the hero from a psychological point of view, but in the neighborhood with psychological details, he takes on part of their functions. However, not every internal state can be conveyed through gestures and facial expressions or through analogy with the state of nature, so these means are not universal.

Of great importance in the creation of psychologism is narrative-compositional form: Narration can be in the first or third person. Until the end of the 18th century, the first-person narrative was considered the most appropriate form for this kind of work, and imitation of letters was often used. A different form would be contrary to the principle of plausibility, since it was believed that the author is not able to penetrate the mind of his hero and no one can reveal his feelings to the reader better than the character himself. First person narrative focuses on reflections hero, psychological self-assessment And psychological introspection which, in principle, is the main purpose of the work. However, such a narrative has two limitations: the impossibility of equally fully and deeply showing the inner world of many heroes and the monotony of the psychological image, which gives the work a certain monotony.

Another, more neutral form is third person narration, or author's narration. This is precisely the art form that allows the author to to introduce the reader into the inner world of the character, to show it in the most detailed and deep way. At the same time, the author can interpret the behavior of the characters, give him an assessment and comment. This form of narration freely includes internal monologues, diary passages, letters, dreams, visions etc. The author's narration is not subject to artistic time, the author can dwell in detail on the details that are important to him, while saying only a few words about a rather long period of life that did not affect the development of the hero. Third-person psychological narration allows you to depict the inner world of many characters, which is a difficulty in first-person narration.

According to Esin, the most common compositional and narrative forms are internal monologue and , which are found in almost all psychologist writers. However, in addition to these, there are also specific narrative forms that are used less often. This dreams and visions, doppelgänger characters which enable the author to discover new psychological states. Their main function is introduction to the work of fantastic motifs. But when psychologically depicted, these forms acquire a different function. Unconscious and semi-conscious forms of inner life are depicted as psychological states and correlate primarily not with the plot and external actions, but with the inner world of the hero, with his other psychological states. For example, a dream will be motivated not by previous events in the hero's life, but by his previous emotional state. literary dreams, according to I.V. Insurance, - this is an analysis by the writer of the "psychological states and characters of the characters".

Another technique of psychologism, which became widespread in the second half of the 19th century, is default. It arises at a time when the reader begins to look in the work not for external plot entertainment, but for images of complex and interesting mental states. Then the writer at some point could omit the description of the psychological state of the hero, allowing the reader to independently make a psychological analysis and think out what the hero is experiencing at the moment. Such silence makes the image of the inner world very capacious, because the writer does not specify anything, does not limit the reader to certain limits, and gives complete freedom to the imagination. In such episodes, psychologism does not disappear; it exists in the mind of the reader. This technique is most widely used in the work of A.P. Chekhov, and later - by other writers of the 20th century.

Thus, psychologism is a special technique, a form that allows you to accurately and vividly depict mental movements. There are three main forms of psychological representation: direct, indirect and summative. Psychologism has its own internal structure, that is, it consists of techniques and methods of representation, the most common of which are internal monologue And psychological author's storytelling. In addition to them, there is the use dreams and visions twin heroes and reception default.

§ 2. The problem of art

psychologism: theoretical aspects

“Psychology is a fairly complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings, thoughts and experiences of a fictional person (literary character) using specific means of literature,” notes A.B. Esin. “The study of mental life in its contradictions and depths,” defines psychologism L.Ya. Ginzburg, under the mental life of a character means "the dynamic coexistence of different levels, different planes of conditioning", the behavior of the hero. V.V. Kompaneets sees psychologism not as a technique, but as a property of fiction, including a reflection of the author's psychology. The above judgments do not exhaust the variety of interpretations, however, they serve as proof of the ambiguity of approaches to the problem of psychologism in Soviet literary criticism in the 1970s and 1980s. and having at least the broad and narrow meanings of the term.

For example, the concept of psychologism A. Jesuitov reduces to three main meanings:

"1)<…> generic sign of the art of the word, its organic property, evidence of artistry ...;

2) <…> the result of artistic creativity< …> expression and reflection of the psychology of the author himself, his characters and, more broadly, social psychology (class, estate, social group, era, etc.), which in turn is revealed through the personality of the artist and the images of heroes created by him<…>;

3) <…>conscious and determining aesthetic principle<…>organic unity of psychologism as a subject and psychologism as a result of art<… >acts as a special, primary and immediate goal and task of artistic creativity. The main and direct object of reflection and reproduction is precisely human psychology, which acts as a kind of intrinsic value, and psychologism is a special and purposeful development of methods and forms of its embodiment and disclosure (psychological analysis) ... ".

The researchers proposed to distinguish between the psychology of the author, the reader and the hero, most often understanding "by psychologism ... the study of the mental life of heroes in its deep contradictions" .

The complexity of the categorical definition turned out to be associated with the formal and meaningful qualities of psychologism. And if the vast majority of literary critics (including A.I. Pavlovsky, F.M. Khatipov, A.B. Esin) saw in it a way of artistic depiction of the inner world of heroes, then difficulties arose when trying to determine its place in the modern system of theoretical literary concepts and in the multilevel system of the work. Since the scope of consideration included components of subject representation (portraits, psychologized landscapes and details) and “what has neither objectivity nor visual representation is the reproduction of the psychology of the characters”, insofar as this layer of the work was referred to as style (A.B. Esin ), figurative content (I.I. Vinogradov), content-formal qualities (S.I. Kormilov, A.N. Andreev).

Thus, the difficulties in creating a unified concept of literary psychologism were due to (1) a confusion of the concepts of "psychologism", "psychological analysis", "psychological image"; (2) a categorical definition of psychologism as an element, level or quality of a work of art; (3) vague correlation of psychologism with the "rhetorical triangle" (author - hero - reader).

A comparison of works on the problem of psychologism in the literature showed:

• Lack of unity in theoretical approaches;
• · Greater elaboration of questions of individual-author's psychologism;
• · the greatest research of literary psychologism of the 19th century (the unity of approaches, interpretations of its author's variants);
• · the lack of works of a historical and typological nature, devoted to the psychologism of the XX century. and the dynamics of psychologism in world literature.

The new image of artistic psychologism can be comprehended by studying its variants in the works of individual writers and then by comparing them (in this case, special attention should be paid to the phenomenon of artistic psychologism in the literature of the twentieth century). It seems that the development of this problem should (1) take into account those patterns and qualitative leaps in artistic development that marked the 20th century, and (2) develop new research algorithms for analyzing the psychological content of the text.

We offer a working definition: artistic psychologism – artistic-figurative, pictorial-expressive reconstruction and actualization of the inner life of a person, due to the value orientation of the author, his ideas about the personality and communicative strategy. Under psychological image we will understand artistic study of the physiological sphere (feelings, experiences, states) of the character and his personal experience, which goes into the field of mental and spiritual.

N.V. Zababurova, a researcher of the French psychological novel, proposed an integrated approach to the study of psychologism, which implies a level-by-level analysis of the work:

1) the type of psychological problems. It reflects the influence of non-literary (socio-historical, philosophical, scientific) and literary (literary traditions, the aesthetic concept of a certain literary movement to which the writer belongs, etc.) factors that determine the worldview and features of the author's artistic thinking. This issue largely determines the genre design of the work, which is essential for the nature of psychologism;

2) the concept of personality inherent in a given era and social environment (realized in the artistic content and forms of embodiment of inner life);

3) artistic system and creative method (the historical typology of forms of artistic psychologism correlates with the evolution of creative methods);

4) the level of poetics.

One can dispute the algorithmic expediency of N.V. Zababurova, but it is quite obvious that the productivity of the analysis of the psychologism of a work is directly related to the research setting on integrity(A.P. Skaftymov, Yu.M. Lotman, M.M. Girshman, A.N. Andreev) literary text and its consideration. Systemic nature psychologism opposes the principles of its fragmentary study. Therefore, as an alternative, the so-called. philological analysis, which "involves the consideration of a literary text in the aggregate of all its aspects, components and levels" . The tasks of such an analysis were formulated by V.A. Maslova as follows: 1) identify the specifics of the individual elements of the work and their integrity; 2) combine the linguistic and literary approaches to the text; 3) correlate it "both with the author who created this text and with the reader of this text, for whom the text was created" .

Based on the idea of ​​a qualitative modification of psychologism (disintegration of character, chronotopic, symbolic, mythological ways of revealing the psychology of a hero) in the artistic prose of the New Age, one can choose a research path that allows one to identify psychological specificity at various levels of the work and in their correlation (system).

Following R. Ingarden, who proposed considering the aesthetic object and emotional-contemplative experience in a "qualitative complex", we believe it natural to analyze the psychological content of the text from the point of view of functional significance plans of representation, expression and emotional impact on the recipient, in the system "author - text - reader ». In this case, the perceiver is focused not on “direct empathy arising from coexistence with the depicted objects”, but on a deep intellectual and emotional aesthetic experience (Einfühlung, “feeling”), based on the pairing of many artistic qualities into one whole. This approach is also due to the new scientific paradigm of the 20th century, which can be applied not only to psychologism not only in the 20th century, but also to the 18th–19th centuries.

Thus, in the study of the psychologism of a work of art, it seems necessary: ​​1) to take into account the complexity (systematic nature) of the nature of psychologism; 2) correlate the author's, character and reader's plans; 3) comply with the requirement of isomorphism of the text and methods of its research, allowing the integration of literary, philosophical, psychological methods.

Questions and tasks

1 slice. My attitude to the read (general).

• What did I feel?
• What associations did it evoke?
• Whose side are my sympathies? Etc.

2 slice. Analysis of the personality of the hero in the following steps:

• Feelings and how does the author convey them?
• · Thoughts and how the author brings them to the reader?
• Experiences and inner doubts of the hero?
• · Gestures?
• Physiognomy? Etc.

3 cut. With the help of what means of fiction does the author achieve a holistic perception of the personality of the hero? What is this person like?

4 cut. The symbolism of the work.

5 slice. The main conflicts of the work.

6 cut. Psychological atmosphere (tension, tightness, hidden aggressiveness)

7 cut. General laws of psychology (for example, the dialogism of the consciousness of young people in the 40s and 60s of the 19th century in I. Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons").

In some specific cases, the opposite way of conducting a psychological analysis of a work of art is possible.

6. Start compiling a vocabulary of the concepts covered in the course. Choose those concepts that, in your opinion, could be actively used in the practical analysis of texts.

Iezuitov, A. Problems of Psychology in Literature / A. Iezuitov // Problems of Psychology in Soviet Literature. – L.: Len. Department; Nauka, 1970, pp. 38–44.

Esin, A.B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature: A book for the teacher / A.B. Esin. – M.: Enlightenment, 1988. – 174 p.

Kompaneets, V.V. Artistic psychologism in Soviet literature (1920s) / V.V. Kompaneets. - L .: Nauka, Leningrad. department, 1980. - 113 p.

Ginzburg, L.Ya. About psychological prose / L.Ya.Ginzburg. – M.: INTRADA, 1999. – 415 p.

Esin, A.B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature: A book for the teacher / A.B. Esin. - M .: Education, 1988. - P. 18.

Ginzburg, L.Ya. About psychological prose / L.Ya.Ginzburg. – M.: Sov. writer, 1971. - S. 286; 379.

Kompaneets, V.V. Artistic psychologism in Soviet literature (1920s) / V.V. Kompaneets. - L .: Nauka, Leningrad. Department, 1980. - S. 12.

Iezuitov, A. Problems of Psychology in Literature / A. Iezuitov // Problems of Psychology in Soviet Literature. – L.: Len. Department; Nauka, 1970, pp. 39–40.

Andreev, A.N. Holistic analysis of a literary work: textbook. allowance for students. universities / A.N. Andreev. - Minsk: NMTsentr, 1995. - P. 81.

Kormilov, S.I. Theoretical system of G.N.Pospelov and the problem of the modern system of theoretical and literary concepts / S.I.Kormilov // Vest. Moscow university Ser. 9. Philology. - 1995. - No. 3. - P. 8.

Introduction………………………………………………………………... P. 4-9

I chapter: Psychologism of V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. According to: theoretical and methodological foundations of the study……………… P.10-18

I.1. The main points of view of scientists regarding the development of psychologism in the literature………………………………………………………………... P. 10-11

I.2. The history of the development of psychologism in literature…………………….. P. 11-17

I.3. Methodology for the study of psychologism in the works of V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. By …………………………………………………………………. pp. 17-18

II chapter: Conscious and unconscious in behavior

heroev V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. By…………………………………… S. 19-33

II.2. Conscious and unconscious in the behavior of E.A. By…………………………………………………………………… P. 23-28

II.3. Conscious and unconscious in the behavior of V.F. Odoevsky………………………………………………………... P. 28-33

III chapter: External and internal in the structure of personality V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. By………..………………………………………………………… P.34-45

III.1. Theory of the question …………………………………………………… P.34-37

III.2. External and internal in the structure of personality V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. By …………………………………………………………………… P. 37-45

Conclusion…………………………………………………………… P.46-48

List of used literature……………………………... P.49-53

Psychologism in literature has always aroused interest among researchers. From the moment this trend appeared in literary texts - the description of the psychological reasons for the actions of the hero - to the present day, the psychology of the individual remains not fully understood, the human psyche contains many secrets hidden from science.

Psychologism was most fully revealed for the first time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy, who paid special attention to the dynamics of the feelings and thoughts of their characters, to the "dialectics of the soul". In their works, the processes of formation of thoughts, feelings, experiences of the characters, their interweaving and influence on each other are concretely and fully reproduced.

When describing the dynamics of the characters' feelings, a large number of artistic means are used. Characterized by internal monologues of characters, reflection, description of dreams and visions. From now on, special attention is paid not only to consciousness, but also to the subconscious, which often moves a person, changes his behavior and train of thought. Z. Freud and K.G. wrote about the interaction of the conscious and the unconscious in human behavior. Jung, but disputes and hypotheses on this topic are still put forward.

Subject of this bachelor's work - the psychologism of the "mysterious" stories of V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. By. Prince Odoevsky was always interested in the inner world of man with all its secrets, and E.A. He is rightfully recognized as a master of "terrible" stories, in which the "dialectics of the soul" is brilliantly revealed.

Relevance of this study is due to the increased interest in psychologism as an aesthetic category, its manifestations in literature. human behavior. At any moment of the work of consciousness, something conscious and unknowable is present in it. Awareness of everything is not possible, the unconscious is intertwined with the conscious. The process of thinking is inextricably linked with the synthesis of the components of consciousness. The term "individuality" for the first time acquires special significance precisely in the era of romanticism, at the time when Poe and Odoevsky worked. In the works of these authors, one can see an increased attention to the individual, his actions, changes and spiritual impulses, which was not characteristic of literature until then.

Russian literature was not widespread in America, and not all American literature reached Russia, however, in the works of these authors, a large number of similarities can be traced when revealing the characters' characters. There are works that examine the psychologism of Odoevsky's stories, various researchers also wrote about the dynamics of the characters of Poe's characters, but the psychologism in the work of these writers was not compared, and this is novelty this bachelor's thesis.

object studies are the "terrible" novels "The Fall of the House of Usher" and "William Wilson" by E. Poe and the story "Sylphide" and "Cosmorama" by V.F. Odoevsky, which are traditionally referred to as "mysterious". In the works under consideration, the similarity of the tendencies of American and Russian romantic prose is most clearly felt, and the use of the same motifs and other artistic techniques makes it possible to compare the work of these writers and identify the general patterns of the literary process. Poe and Odoevsky also bring together an increased interest in a completely unknowable phenomenon - the human psyche and the secrets hidden in it.

Item term paper - specific features of Poe's short stories and Odoevsky's stories, in which the consideration of the individual originality of the characters and an attempt to explain the process of thinking, the split personality of the characters, the reasons for their inadequate behavior are brought to the fore.

aim Our work is the analysis of a number of psychological phenomena noticed by V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. Po in man and embodied by them in the characters of their heroes. We will also consider the features of the conscious and unconscious in the behavior of the characters, that is, the actions controlled by them and the actions performed at the subconscious level. Accordingly, we have the following tasks:

Consider the concepts of "psychologism", "individual originality", "character", "consciousness", "conscious", "unconscious", "external", "internal";

To analyze how the internal is manifested through the external in the characters of the characters;

Pay attention to the individual originality of the characters;

Consider the state of the heroes and the reasons for the destruction of the integrity of their consciousness;

Prove that the "conscious" and "unconscious" in the synthesis move the characters in the course of the story;

Find out the result of the work of the thoughts of the heroes;

Compare the heroes of the works of E. Poe and V.F. Odoevsky.

The degree of knowledge. The concept of psychologism in literature since the 19th century has played one of the central roles. Psychologism can be characterized as the principle of organizing an artistic form, in which the means of representation are aimed at examining and describing the spiritual life of a person in all its diversity. This trend requires the writer to reflect in his works the details that express the inner world of the character (thought processes, dreams, unconscious actions, emotions, reactions, etc.). Literally every action of the hero is a reaction to some external stimulus, this is the cause of a certain state of mind. Any external manifestation of emotions is associated with the processes that take place in the human psyche, it serves the purposes of a psychological image.

To date, there is no clear model for the evolution of psychologism. Many scientists were engaged in psychologism, in particular, A.B. Esin, V.V. Fashchenko, I.V. Strakhov, L.S. Vygotsky, A.A. Slyusar, Z. Freud and others. However, it is noteworthy that the manifestations of psychologism in the work of V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. They have not actually been studied, there have been attempts to analyze this trend, but there is still no fundamental work on this topic.

The initial philosophical idea of ​​a person is to recognize him as a reasonable, or conscious being. Man is rational, as is the world in which he lives. A distinctive feature of a person from other creatures living with him in the same world is consciousness, or thinking. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that a person is unreasonable, and reason does not play a special role in his life. Of the psychologists, the scientist Sigmund Freud was the first to doubt the value of reason for a person. Freud explained human actions through instincts and memories from childhood, that is, the unconscious acts as the main cause of certain human actions.

Freud's analysis was criticized by Carl Gustav Jung, suggesting that the unconscious develops certain ideas that are the only basis for a person's worldview.

Later, the theories of both Freud and Jung were disputed, supplemented, processed, but the primary sources give the most complete and accurate idea of ​​consciousness and its components.

In our term paper, we relied on the works of Z. Freud, K.G. Jung, Yu.V. Kovaleva, A.B. Esina, I.V. Strakhova, A.N. Nikolyukina, M.A. Turyan, T.Yu. Morevoy, V.B. Musiy, M.O. Mattisen and other researchers.

The most significant in our study are the works of Z. Freud, A.B. Esina, K.G. Jung, Yu.V. Kovalev. Freud in the collection of articles "Psychology of the Unconscious" shows, proves and explains the inseparability of consciousness from the deep levels of mental activity. A special place is occupied by Freud's articles "Psychopathology of everyday life", "I and it", "Psychology of sleep", "Analysis of a phobia of a five-year-old boy" and others, where the psychologist showed the influence of the unconscious on the motives of human behavior.

A.B. Yesin, in his fundamental study "Psychology of Russian Classical Literature", considers psychologism as a property of fiction, pays special attention to the features of its manifestation, based on the works of Russian writers of the 19th century. It is he who points out that the psychologism of the works of the epic genre differs from the psychologism in the lyrical or dramatic genres.

In the work "Instinct and the Unconscious" K.G. Jung describes instinctive activity, connects instincts with the concept of the unconscious, and also points out the irrationality of the motivations of instinctive actions. In The Relationship Between the Ego and the Unconscious, the psychologist reveals the dependence of the "I" on the "it", that is, on behavior that is uncontrollable, based on instincts. And the work "Becoming a Personality" considers the formation of a human personality as a kind of evolution of the mind.

Monograph Yu.V. Kovalev "Edgar Allan Poe" is interesting in that it examines in detail the biography and work of the American writer. Attention is paid to journalistic activity, and poetic creativity, and short stories, which is of particular value for this work.

Book M.A. Turyan "My Strange Fate" is a detailed description of the life and work of the Russian author V.F. Odoevsky, whose personality and writing activity is also important when writing a work and considering the works of this writer.

In our work, we used comparative and descriptive methods to study the mental processes in the behavior of the heroes of the American and Russian romantic writers.

Work structure: Bachelor's thesis consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. Since the main task of psychologism is to identify the features of the inner world of the characters, the analysis of their individual characteristics acquires special significance in the work.

The first chapter has the title “Psychology of the mysterious stories of V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. By: theoretical and methodological foundations of the study, which will consider the history of the study of psychologism in foreign and Soviet literary criticism.

The second chapter is “Conscious and unconscious in the behavior of E.A. Po and V.F. Odoevsky", which examines the influence of conscious and unknowable attitudes on the dynamics of the characters' characters.

The third chapter is called “External and internal in the structure of the personality of E.A. Po and V.F. Odoevsky”, where the correspondence of the internal experiences of the characters with their external expression will be considered.

The volume of work is 53 pages.

Chapter I. Psychologism of V.F. Odoevsky and E.A. By: theoretical and methodological foundations of the study.

The question of the theory of psychologism was raised quite actively in Russian and foreign literary criticism. And today interest in psychologism and its manifestations does not fade away in the theory of literature. Despite the fact that today there are a large number of works on this problem, there is still no single definition of the phenomenon of artistic psychologism, its elements and importance in the structure of a literary text. The concept of psychologism has not yet been precisely defined terminologically, there is no instrumental analysis and methodology for this phenomenon. In literary works, psychologism is characterized as a phenomenon, trend, style, genre, method. When considering the works of different eras, one speaks of lyrical, synthetic, abstract psychologism. Psychologism is interesting as an examination of the human psyche in a work of art not only for literary theorists, but also for linguists, psychologists and philosophers.

Despite the lack of a clear definition of psychologism, this issue is actively considered in the study of the work of Russian and foreign writers. Thus, we can say that understanding the essence of this phenomenon is an integral part of the analysis of works of art.

The concept of "artistic psychologism" remains today one of the most complex and heterogeneous, since there is no clear definition of it. However, literary theorists often use the term in their writings. Sometimes the views on the essence of psychologism among different researchers contradict each other. However, artistic psychologism is one of the most significant phenomena in literature, and it attracts the attention of many scientists. This interest is due, firstly, to the specifics of the concept, its multidimensionality and science intensity (since the features of psychologism are also the sphere of interests of linguists, psychologists, philosophers), and secondly, to a direct relationship to other fundamental problems of literary criticism.

For the first time, interest in artistic psychologism appeared more than a hundred and fifty years ago. The foundations were laid by the Russian writer and literary critic N.G. Chernyshevsky, who studied the work of the writer L.N. Tolstoy. Describing the methods used by writers-contemporaries of Tolstoy in describing their heroes, Chernyshevsky in the article “Childhood and adolescence. Military stories of Count L. N. Tolstoy" pointed out: "Psychological analysis can take different directions: one poet is increasingly occupied with the outlines of characters; the other - the influence of social relations and worldly clashes on the characters; third - the connection of feelings with actions; the fourth - the analysis of passions" 1 , while Tolstoy - "the mental process itself, its forms, its laws, the dialectic of the soul ..." 2 . In parallel, the critic considers the features of the psychologism of Pushkin, Turgenev, Lermontov.

Chernyshevsky characterizes psychological analysis as "perhaps the most essential of the qualities that give strength to creative talent" 3 , since consideration of the human psyche involves self-deepening of the personality, reflection and analysis of one's own actions. Chernyshevsky's idea of ​​the importance of this phenomenon remains relevant to this day.

Later, studies of psychologism in literature were continued in the scientific field of the psychological direction of the cultural-historical school in literary criticism, which developed in Russian literary criticism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The psychological direction became a significant part of this school, since at the end of the 19th century fiction began to have a significant impact on the way of thinking and socially significant events. The founder of this trend was A.A. Potebnya.

Representatives of the psychological direction relied on psychology as an exact science and looked for incentives in everything that determine artistic creativity. Literature was understood as the result of the mental activity of the writer, and, according to the followers of this school, it is psychology that can help in the psychological analysis of literary characters, as well as the writers themselves. The individual mental act was understood as the center of all psychological theories of art. The hero was considered as a creating or perceiving subject, while the mental processes occurring in the mind became the subject of analysis and close attention.

From the end of the nineteenth century the psychological content of literature becomes the subject of a multifaceted study, an object of interest not only for philology, but also for other sciences (in particular, psychology). The unprecedented flowering of psychologism is also associated with a sharp increase in interest in ideological and moral issues, which is associated with the socio-historical development of Russia.

The problems of the relationship between literature and psychology, language and thinking, creativity and perception raised by Russian researchers were considered and rethought by the researcher L.S. Vygotsky. His main work "Psychology of Art" is of great interest, since in it the scientist outlined his own vision of the reflection of psychologism in fiction. Vygotsky's idea of ​​catharsis is interesting, which, in his opinion, is "the central and defining part of the aesthetic reaction" 1 .

Throughout the 20th century, the problem of psychologism was of particular interest to literary theorists. However, if at the beginning of the century psychologism was considered as an artistic method, then in the 70s and beyond, there was a transition to a historical understanding of this phenomenon.

The insufficient development of the concept of psychologism and its features did not allow researchers of literary theory to find solutions to this problem. For a long time, literary critics paid special attention to the work of realist writers (Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Chekhov), since it is in the literature of the era of realism that a person’s personality, his inner world and the dynamism of his thoughts and feelings are especially carefully considered.

An interesting approach to the problem of artistic psychologism was outlined in studies of a historical and typological nature, primarily in the monograph by L.Ya. Ginzburg, On Psychological Prose. Here, the evolution of the psychological image of a person in literary texts is considered in historically determined stylistic incarnations. Thus, the researcher considers the work of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and other Russian writers, comparing the techniques used by them in the works with the techniques of foreign authors, in particular, in the texts of Stendhal, Hugo. Ginzburg defines psychologism as “the study of mental life in its contradictions and depths” 2 , speaks about the importance of psychological analysis, about the ways of its representation, emphasizing that among all means of analysis “a special place belongs to the external and internal speech of characters” 1 . But not only this factor affects the development of the hero, the content of social life also plays an important role: science, social activities, art - all these moments enrich the soul.

Also, special attention was paid to internal monologues in psychological analysis by the Soviet psychologist and researcher Strakhov I.V., who in the collection “Psychological Analysis in Literary Work” considered the methods used by various writers. Based on the study of A.P. Chekhov in the 5th part of "Psychological Analysis ..." Strakhov identified 5 types of inner speech: verbal, logically ordered inner monologue; a monologue divided into two or three parts; a monologue with two subject lines due to the influence of external impressions; a monologue with stagnation of the thought process and weakness of dynamism in the development of thought and a monologue with disturbed logic of thinking and fantasy 2 . The researcher also draws attention to the great importance of the image of character as such. A special place, according to the researcher, is occupied by a psychological portrait.

Ukrainian researcher and literary theorist V.V. Faschenko in his monumental work "Characters and Situations" also considers the principle of artistic analysis. He considers the distinctive features of a person, individual, individuality, personality and character and gives a definition of the latter term: “character in a work of art is relatively constant properties and changeable relationships depicted in the light of the author’s ideal, forming a naturally peculiar socio-psychological unity that is formed and revealed in the external and internal activity of man" 1 . The author points out that a person and his character, revealed in all its diversity and dynamism, is the center of a literary text, and also that close attention to the inner world of a person allows using the so-called inner speech in the description.

The well-known Soviet literary critic M.M. Bakhtin, who singled out in the monograph "The Aesthetics of Verbal Creation" two fundamental directions in the construction of character: classical and romantic 2 . Under the classical character, Bakhtin understands the predominance of the universal human principle in the individuality, while the romantic character is the focus of the inexhaustible individual possibilities of the individual.

However, the evolution of psychologism in the literature has not yet been defined as a scientific problem. As a rule, judgments about psychologism did not go beyond the study of the work of specific writers. The system of objective factors that determine the development of psychologism has not yet been identified (most often these include the influence of literary traditions).

In the twentieth century, a special psychologization of literature takes place. Psychologism began to be regarded as an integral part of the movement of the historical and literary process. Interest in this problem is not weakening, new horizons of research are opening up.

Russian researchers also dealt with the consideration of psychologism in foreign literature. So, the observations of N.V. Zababurova (work "French psychological novel (Enlightenment and romanticism)"), A.V. Karelsky (the article “From the Hero to the Man (The Development of Realistic Psychologism in the European Novel of the 30s–60s of the 19th Century)”) and others.

N.V. Zababurova proposed in her research an integrated approach to the study of psychologism, in which the work is analyzed at various levels: the type of psychological problems, the concept of personality of a given era and the level of poetics 1 . It should be noted that consideration of psychologism in the text is possible only with a holistic analysis, in the aggregate of all its components.

Researcher of the European novel A.V. Karelsky proposed to distinguish several types of psychologism: typifying and individualizing, as well as deductive and inductive. The researcher also talks about the concept of a "non-exclusive hero" 2 .

It is noteworthy that it was the researchers of foreign literature who drew attention to the multidimensionality of psychologism in works of art and to the fact that when studying this phenomenon, it is necessary to be guided by synchronic and diachronic approaches.

The studies of the Soviet researcher A.B. Esin, in particular, the monograph "Psychology of Russian classical literature". The researcher examines the concept of psychologism in a broad and narrow sense, where in a broad sense psychologism is “a universal property of art, which consists in the reproduction of human life, in the depiction of human characters” 1 , and in a narrow sense, this property is characteristic only for a separate part of art. According to Yesin, the writer-psychologist should especially vividly portray the character and inner world of the hero. A slightly different, but, on the whole, equivalent definition is given by the researcher in the article "Psychology", defining this method as "style unity, a system of means and techniques aimed at a complete, deep and detailed disclosure of the inner world of heroes" 2 . For Esin, psychologism is a way of emotionally imaginative impact on the reader, the realization of the development of the inner world of a person.

Professor A.A. Slyusar understood psychologism as “the unity of psychological analysis and psychological synthesis, their “dialectic” 3 , where psychological analysis is understood as the isolation of individual aspects of the psyche and their further detailed analysis, and psychological synthesis is the ratio of these aspects in order to present the structure of the personality in its integrity. . The scientist also speaks of three stages in the development of this phenomenon: the awakening of self-consciousness, reflection and understanding of character as an integral phenomenon.

Of course, interest in the inner life of a person, the dialectics of the soul, the dynamics of feelings and experiences was present not only among Soviet but also foreign researchers. Soviet literary critics were engaged in the consideration of psychologism, relying on a realistic concept of personality and not taking into account the latest developments on this issue. Particular attention of foreign researchers was riveted to the “inner” person, hence the increased interest in the theory of psychoanalysis by Z. Freud, considered in a number of works (“Introduction to Psychoanalysis”, “Interpretation of Dreams”, “I and It”, etc.), as well as to the works of the creator of analytical psychology K.G. Jung ("Psychological Types", "Archetype and Symbol", "Essays on the Psychology of the Unconscious", etc.). Both researchers pay special attention to the inner world of a person, they develop the foundations of the depth psychology of personality.

In the article "On the Psychology of Eastern Religions and Philosophies" Jung gives his definition of psychologism: "Psychologism is simply the mirror opposite of the metaphysical extreme, as childishly naive as it is" 1 . Thus, the scientist believes that there are moments in the human soul that are not amenable to logical explanation, something that is beyond consciousness.

At the present stage of the literary process, the depiction of the dynamics of human feelings tends to become the only element of narration. At the same time, the sophistication of the technical means used is increasing, however, despite the gracefulness of the form, the main aesthetic law is violated - the artistic unity of the work.

For E.A. Po and V.F. Odoevsky's description of the internal state of his characters is of paramount importance. The inner world is depicted in dynamics, as a constantly changing process. Both Poe and Odoevsky strive to portray not only the characters of their characters, but also the moments of the emergence of certain thoughts, feelings and experiences.

For Odoevsky, in fact, there are no secrets in the souls of the characters - he tries to explain all the changes in their behavior and way of thinking. For Poe, there is always a certain mystery about the inner experiences of the characters, and the narrative of the works is built around this mystery, as well as constant fear in the soul.

Psychologism is an important property of literature, which allows a deeper understanding of the human soul, to delve into the meaning of actions. There are two interpretations of the term "psychologism". In a broad sense, the term refers to the general property of literature and art to recreate human life and characters. With this approach, psychologism is characteristic of any literary work. In a narrow sense, psychologism is understood as a special property that is characteristic only for individual works. From this point of view, psychologism is a special technique, a form that allows you to correctly and vividly depict mental movements. According to A.B. Esin, “psychologism is a certain artistic form behind which stands and in which artistic meaning, ideological and emotional content is expressed”

Chernyshevsky, who was one of the first to define psychologism as a special artistic phenomenon, also considered it a property of the artistic form of a work: in an article on L. Tolstoy's early prose, he calls psychologism an artistic device
The presence or absence of psychologism in a literary work in the narrow sense will not be an advantage or disadvantage of the work, it is only its feature, due to the idea of ​​the work, its content and themes, as well as the author's understanding of the characters. Psychologism, when it is present in a work, is an organizing stylistic principle and determines the artistic originality of the work.

According to Esin, there are three main forms of psychological representation. I.V. Strakhov formulated two of them in his study: “The main forms of psychological analysis can be divided into the image of characters “from the inside”, that is, through artistic knowledge of the inner world of the characters, expressed through inner speech, images of memory and imagination; on psychological analysis "from the outside", expressed in the writer's psychological interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of external manifestation of the psyche. These forms of psychologism are called, respectively, direct and indirect. Yesin singles out another form of psychological depiction - the direct naming by the author of the feelings and experiences that occur in the soul of the hero. He calls this method summative-denoting.

Psychologism has its own internal structure, that is, it consists of techniques and methods of representation. As a rule, in works of an emphatically psychological nature, the writer focuses on internal rather than external details. We will often find a description of all the nuances of the hero's experiences than a detailed analysis of his appearance. But in addition to the quantitative ratio in such works, the principle of their relationship also changes. If in the usual narrative external details exist independently, then here they will be subordinate to the general content, will be directly related to the emotional experiences of the characters. In addition to their direct function of reproducing life, they also acquire another important function - to accompany and frame psychological processes. With this approach, objects and events are material for reflection, a reason for reasoning, and may mean nothing without being correlated with the inner world of the hero.

External details (landscape, facial expressions and gestures, portrait) are not a direct way of expressing psychologism, but with the appropriate environment they acquire additional functions. So, not any portrait characterizes the hero from a psychological point of view, but in the neighborhood with psychological details, he takes on part of their functions. However, not every internal state can be conveyed through gestures and facial expressions or through analogy with the state of nature, so these means are not universal.

Of great importance in the creation of psychologism is the narrative-compositional form: the narration can be conducted in the first or third person. Until the end of the 18th century, the first-person narrative was considered the most appropriate form for this kind of work, and imitation of letters was often used. A different form would be contrary to the principle of plausibility, since it was believed that the author is not able to penetrate the mind of his hero and no one can reveal his feelings to the reader better than the character himself. The first-person narrative is focused on the reflection of the hero, psychological self-assessment and psychological self-analysis, which, in principle, is the main goal of the work. However, such a narrative has two limitations: the impossibility of equally fully and deeply showing the inner world of many heroes and the monotony of the psychological image, which gives the work a certain monotony. Another, more neutral form is third-person narration, or author's narration. This is exactly the art form that allows the author to introduce the reader into the inner world of the character, to show it in the most detailed and deep way. At the same time, the author can interpret the behavior of the characters, give him an assessment and commentary. Internal monologues, passages from diaries, letters, dreams, visions, etc. are freely included in this form of narration. The author's narration is not subject to artistic time, the author can dwell in detail on the details that are important to him, while saying only a few words about a rather long period of life that did not affect the development of the hero. Psychological third-person narration allows you to depict the inner world of many characters, which is a difficulty in first-person narration.
According to Esin, the most common compositional-narrative forms are the internal monologue and psychological author's narration, which are found in almost all psychologist writers. However, in addition to these, there are also specific narrative forms that are used less often. These are dreams and visions, double characters that enable the author to reveal new psychological states. Their main function is to introduce fantastic motifs into the work. But when psychologically depicted, these forms acquire a different function. Unconscious and semi-conscious forms of inner life are depicted as psychological states and correlate primarily not with the plot and external actions, but with the inner world of the hero, with his other psychological states. For example, a dream will be motivated not by previous events in the hero's life, but by his previous emotional state. Literary dreams, according to I.V.Strakhov, are an analysis by the writer of "the psychological states and characters of the characters."
Another technique of psychologism, which became widespread in the second half of the 19th century, is silence. It arises at a time when the reader begins to look in the work not for external plot entertainment, but for images of complex and interesting mental states. Then the writer at some point could omit the description of the psychological state of the hero, allowing the reader to independently make a psychological analysis and think out what the hero is experiencing at the moment. Such silence makes the image of the inner world very capacious, because the writer does not specify anything, does not limit the reader to certain limits, and gives complete freedom to the imagination. In such episodes, psychologism does not disappear; it exists in the mind of the reader. This technique is most widely used in the work of A.P. Chekhov, and later - among other writers of the 20th century.

Conclusions: Psychologism is a special technique, a form that allows you to correctly and vividly depict spiritual movements. There are three main forms of psychological representation: direct, indirect and summative. Psychologism has its own internal structure, that is, it consists of techniques and methods of representation, the most common of which are internal monologue and psychological author's narration. In addition to them, there is the use of dreams and visions, double heroes and the technique of default.