Ministry of Education of the Republic of Bashkortostan

GOU SPO Ufa Fuel and Energy College

Specialty 140207

Essay on the topic: "Philosophical works of Francis Bacon"

Teacher:

E. V. Borisova

A. I. Davletshin

Introduction

1. Life path and its stages

1.1 Life and works.

1.2 Initial social and philosophical position.

1.3 The doctrine of idols (ghosts) and the purification of the human intellect from them

2. Works of F. Bacon

2.1 Main works.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Application

Introduction

The relevance of the chosen topic "Francis Bacon" lies in the fact that most of Bacon's life passed within the conditional chronological framework of the Renaissance, due to the nature of his teachings, he is considered the first philosopher of the New Age. Bacon sharply opposed theology and philosophy. These are two completely different spheres of knowledge, and neither should interfere in the affairs of the other, that is, he was a supporter of the theory of "two truths". He noted that the discovery of printing, gunpowder and the compass completely changed the state of affairs, respectively, in literature, military affairs and navigation; these changes in turn gave impetus to numerous changes in all other areas of human activity.

Not a single empire, not a single sect, not a single star has made a greater impact on humanity. But, studying the history of culture, it is clear that throughout human history, science has had a very weak impact on everyday life.

The purpose of the test work is that the development of science is hindered by various delusions of the human mind, that is, distorted images of reality; Bacon calls them "idols" or "ghosts". This must be changed: science and acquired knowledge must bear fruit in practice, must serve for the development of technology and industry, and make human life easier. Only by freeing ourselves from these "idols" can we move forward along the path of science, which, according to Bacon, is "the daughter of time" and not "the daughter of authorities." Scientific knowledge accumulates gradually, thanks to the activities of many generations of scientists.

Bacon was a supporter of absolute monarchy and a strong centralized state. He criticizes the nobility for its uselessness. The people are a constant source of unrest, but the cause of revolts lies in great famine and great discontent, and the latter is caused by ruin, want, and heavy taxes.

These calamities can be "healed" by developing industry and trade, by easing duties and taxes, and curbing luxury. The development of science and the abundance of technical inventions make life much easier. And although among them there are rich and poor, classes and estates, but there is no poverty and the social vices caused by it.

1. Life path and its stages

1.1 Life and works

Among the thinkers of the late XVI century. - the beginning of the 18th century, who made a significant contribution to the development of cultural theory, first of all, Francis Bacon (1561-1626) should be mentioned.

Usually, when they talk about Francis Bacon, they remember that he was the founder of English materialism, consistently defending the ideas of such "spontaneous" dialectical materialists of ancient Greece as Leucippus, Democritus, Thales, and others. Others see his merit primarily in the fact that he laid the foundations for a new direction of philosophical thought, which later became known as the "philosophy of science". Still others argue that Francis Bacon owes his fame to the development of cardinal issues of the methodology of scientific knowledge, that his doctrine of "idols", i.e. about the errors of thinking that arise in the process of interaction between the cognizing subject and the cognized object, has become the basis of modern epistemology. Francis Bacon himself believed that his contribution to the treasury of human thought was very modest (for example, he wrote that, unlike Telesio and Patrici, he did not offer any coherent theory to explain the patterns of development of nature, society and man), but the descendants highly appreciated the role he played in the development of Western European philosophy. In particular, Karl Marx and F. Engels emphasized in The Holy Family that in Bacon "... materialism harbors in itself in a naive form the germs of all-round development." They wrote that in the works of the English philosopher “matter smiles with its poetic-sensual brilliance to the whole person.” European philosophical thought, and many of our ideas about the nature and specifics of scientific knowledge, about the boundaries of the human mind, about the relationship between empiricism and theory in the process of scientific research, are rooted in his work. We owe him a whole scattering of original ideas included in the arsenal of modern cultural thought.

Francis Bacon was born into the family of a representative of the so-called "new nobility", which began to appear in England during the time of Henry VIII, who pursued a tough policy of separating the English church from the Catholic world and establishing the supremacy of secular power over church power. Henry VIII was in dire need of allies to support his domestic and foreign policy. He created hundreds of new landlords, distributing for merit to the crown and selling for nothing the former monastic lands and estates of representatives of the tribal nobility who fell into disgrace or were executed by court order for treason. One of these landlords was the father of Francis Bacon, who became the largest landowner, thanks to the mercy of the king. It is no coincidence that Francis Bacon in many of his writings praises the Tudor dynasty, who managed to stop the export of capital from the country and achieve spiritual autonomy from the Vatican and economic independence from the more developed countries of Europe. The “new nobility”, by virtue of its origin, was in antagonism with the ancient feudal families, and even having real power (the vast majority of manufactories, shipyards, docks, factories for the production of canvas and woolen fabrics, ironworks, banking offices, etc. belonged to people from this new social stratum), needed ideologists to justify the established order of things, as well as well-educated people from their midst who could defend their interests in the highest government posts. One of these people was Francis Bacon, who inherited the business of his father, who occupied a very significant place in the official hierarchy. By the way, Oliver Cromwell, the future leader of the English bourgeois revolution, who later did a lot to restore the monarchy in England, also came out of this environment.

After graduating from the University of Cambridge, Francis Bacon was appointed to the diplomatic service and spent several years in the English embassy in Paris. However, after the death of his father, he was forced to return home. Here he begins to engage in politics and is soon elected a member of the House of Commons of the English Parliament. Very quickly, a young talented lawyer, who has a rare gift of eloquence and does not hide his monarchical convictions, was noticed. King James I Stuart himself drew attention to him, who saw in him a person who could be relied upon in that situation of permanent confrontation between parliament and the court, which manifested itself quite often not only in hidden, but also in open forms. The presentation to the king was the starting point of a brilliant and rapid career of Francis Bacon, who by the age of 57 became Lord Chancellor of the English kingdom, Baron Verulamsky, Viscount St. Albany, owner of many estates and castles.

However, fate decreed that soon his ascent to the heights of power was interrupted. The struggle of the king and parliament in the early 20s of the XVII century. sharply aggravated, and, seeking to find a compromise solution, the king decided to sacrifice a number of senior officials who caused the greatest fury of the urban plebs and petty bourgeois because of their consistently and harshly pursued policy to strengthen the position of royal power. Among them was Francis Bacon, whom Parliament accused of bribery and embezzlement. Confinement in the Tower ended happier for Francis Bacon than for Thomas More. He did not lose his head on the chopping block, but his political career was ended. He was never again involved in politics and devoted the rest of his days to scientific pursuits and literary activities.

1.2 Initial social and philosophical position

From the very beginning of his philosophical creative activity, Bacon opposed the scholastic philosophy that dominated at that time and put forward the doctrine of "natural" philosophy, based on empirical knowledge. Bacon's views were formed on the basis of the achievements of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance and included a naturalistic worldview with the basics of an analytical approach to the phenomena under study and empiricism. He proposed an extensive program for the restructuring of the intellectual world, sharply criticizing the scholastic concepts of his predecessor and contemporary philosophy.

Bacon strove to bring the "boundaries of the mental world" in line with all those enormous achievements that took place in Bacon's contemporary society of the 15th-16th centuries, when the experimental sciences received the greatest development. Bacon expressed the solution of the task in the form of an attempt at a "great restoration of the sciences", which he outlined in treatises: "On the Dignity and Multiplication of Sciences" (his largest work), "New Organon" (his main work) and other works on "natural history" , individual phenomena and processes of nature. Bacon's understanding of science included, first of all, a new classification of sciences, which he based on such abilities of the human soul as memory, imagination (fantasy), reason. Accordingly, the main sciences, according to Bacon, should be history, poetry, philosophy. The highest task of knowledge and all sciences, according to Bacon, is the domination of nature and the improvement of human life. According to the head of the "House of Solomon" (a kind of research center. Academy, the idea of ​​which was put forward by Bacon in the utopian novel "New Atlantis"), "the goal of society is to know the causes and hidden forces of all things, to expand the power of man over nature, until everything becomes possible for him.

BACON, FRANCIS(Bacon, Francis) (1561-1626), Baron Verulamsky, Viscount of St. Albany, English statesman, essayist and philosopher. Born in London on January 22, 1561, was the youngest son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge University for two years, then spent three years in France in the retinue of the English ambassador.

After the death of his father in 1579, he was left practically without a livelihood and entered the Grey's Inn barristers' school to study law. In 1582 he became a barrister, and in 1584 a member of parliament, and until 1614 he played a prominent role in debates at sessions of the House of Commons. From time to time he composed messages to Queen Elizabeth, in which he strove to deal impartially with pressing political issues; perhaps, if the queen had followed his advice, some conflicts between the crown and parliament could have been avoided. However, his abilities as a statesman did not help his career, partly because Lord Burghley saw Bacon as a rival to his son, and partly because he lost favor with Elizabeth, courageously opposing, on grounds of principle, the passage of a bill on subsidies for covering expenses incurred in the war with Spain (1593).

Around 1591, he became an adviser to the queen's favorite, the Earl of Essex, who offered him a generous reward. However, Bacon made it clear to the patron that he was devoted above all to his country, and when in 1601 Essex tried to organize a coup, Bacon, being a queen's lawyer, took part in his condemnation as a traitor. Under Elizabeth, Bacon never rose to any high positions, but after James I Stuart ascended the throne in 1603, he quickly advanced in the service. In 1607 he took the post of Solicitor General, in 1613 - Attorney General, in 1617 - Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and in 1618 received the post of Lord Chancellor, the highest in the structure of the judiciary. In 1603 Bacon was knighted, he was raised to the title of Baron Verulamsky in 1618 and Viscount of St. Albans in 1621. In the same year he was accused of taking bribes. Bacon acknowledged receiving gifts from people who were being sued, but denied that this had any bearing on his decision. Bacon was stripped of all posts and forbidden to appear at court. He spent the rest of the years before his death in seclusion.

Bacon's main literary creation is considered Experiences (essays), on which he worked continuously for 28 years; ten essays were published in 1597, and by 1625 the book had already collected 58 essays, some of which appeared in the third edition in a revised form ( Experiments, or Instructions moral and political, The Essayes or Counsels, Civill and Morall). Style Experiences concise and instructive, replete with learned examples and brilliant metaphors. Bacon called his experiments "fragmentary reflections" on ambition, close associates and friends, love, wealth, science, honors and fame, the vicissitudes of things and other aspects of human life. In them you can find a cold calculation, which is not mixed with emotions or impractical idealism, advice to those who are making a career. There are, for example, such aphorisms: “Everyone who rises high passes along the zigzags of a spiral staircase” and “Wife and children are hostages of fate, for the family is an obstacle to the accomplishment of great deeds, both good and evil.” Bacon's Treatise About the wisdom of the ancients (De Sapientia Veterum, 1609) is an allegorical interpretation of the hidden truths contained in ancient myths. His History of the reign of Henry VII (Historie of the Raigne of King Henry the Seventh, 1622) is distinguished by lively characteristics and a clear political analysis.

Despite Bacon's involvement in politics and jurisprudence, the main business of his life was philosophy and science, and he majestically proclaimed: "All knowledge is the domain of my care." Aristotelian deduction, which at that time occupied a dominant position, he rejected as an unsatisfactory way of philosophizing. In his opinion, a new instrument of thinking should be proposed, a "new organon", with the help of which it would be possible to restore human knowledge on a more reliable basis. A general outline of the "great plan for the restoration of the sciences" was made by Bacon in 1620 in the preface to the work The New Organon, or True Directions for the Interpretation of Nature (Novum Organum). This work included six parts: a general overview of the current state of the sciences, a description of a new method for obtaining true knowledge, a set of empirical data, a discussion of issues to be further investigated, preliminary solutions, and, finally, philosophy itself. Bacon only managed to sketch the first two movements. The first one was named On the benefits and success of knowledge (Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Humane, 1605), the Latin version of which, On the dignity and multiplication of sciences (De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum, 1623), came out with corrections and many additions. According to Bacon, there are four kinds of "idols" that besiege the minds of people. The first type is the idols of the family (mistakes that a person makes by virtue of his very nature). The second type is the idols of the cave (mistakes due to prejudice). The third type is the idols of the square (mistakes caused by inaccuracies in the use of language). The fourth type is the idols of the theater (mistakes made as a result of the adoption of various philosophical systems). Describing the walking prejudices that hinder the development of science, Bacon proposed a tripartite division of knowledge, produced according to mental functions, and related history to memory, poetry to imagination, and philosophy (in which he included the sciences) to reason. He also gave an overview of the limits and nature of human knowledge in each of these categories and pointed out important areas of research hitherto neglected. In the second part of the book, Bacon described the principles of the inductive method, with the help of which he proposed to overthrow all the idols of reason.

In an unfinished story New Atlantis (The New Atlantis, written in 1614, publ. in 1627) Bacon describes a utopian community of scientists engaged in the collection and analysis of data of all kinds according to the scheme of the third part of the great plan of restoration. The new Atlantis is a superior social and cultural system that exists on the island of Bensalem, lost somewhere in the Pacific Ocean. The religion of the Atlanteans is Christianity, miraculously revealed to the inhabitants of the island; the cell of society is the highly revered family; type of government is essentially a monarchy. The main institution of the state is the Solomon House, the College of the Six Days of Creation, a research center from which scientific discoveries and inventions come, ensuring the happiness and prosperity of citizens. It is sometimes believed that it was the Solomon House that served as the prototype of the Royal Society of London, established during the reign of Charles II in 1662.

Bacon's struggle against authorities and the method of "logical distinctions", the promotion of a new method of cognition and the conviction that research should begin with observations, and not with theories, put him on a par with the most important representatives of the scientific thought of the New Age. However, he did not receive any significant results - neither in empirical research, nor in the field of theory, and his method of inductive cognition through exceptions, which, as he believed, would produce new knowledge “like a machine”, did not receive recognition in experimental science. .

In March 1626, determined to test the extent to which cold slows down the process of decay, he experimented with a chicken stuffed with snow, but caught a cold. Bacon died at Highgate near London on April 9, 1626.

Francis Bacon, who lived at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, formulated many ideas that psychologists and cognitive scientists repeat to this day.

In The New Organon, or True Directions for the Interpretation of Nature, Bacon speaks of the need to revise and restore the sciences, laying the foundations for the scientific method that we know today. And there he talks about the difficulties that anyone who seeks to explain the world faces.

"Organon" (from the Greek word "tool, method") was then called the logical writings of Aristotle. He, through his works, presented the method not only to the scholastics, who based their own “sums” and disputes on Aristotelian logic, but also to the entire European scientific thought. Bacon decided to create something no less ambitious, which is why he called the "New Organon" the second part of the work on the "great restoration of the sciences." Bacon considered the main method of scientific knowledge of the world to be induction, which involves reasoning from the particular to the general and is based on experience.

On the path of knowledge, even intelligent and enlightened people encounter many obstacles. These obstacles he called idols or ghosts - from the word "idolum", which in Greek meant "ghost" or "vision". This emphasizes that we are talking about a hassle, an illusion - about something that does not really exist.

We offer to look at these idols and find out if they still exist today.

Idols of the clan

"Ancestral idols" are, according to Bacon, delusions that "found their foundation in the very nature of man." It would be a mistake to believe that the world is exactly as it is seen by our senses. “It is false to say that the feelings of man are the measure of things,” writes Bacon. But the experience that we get by communicating with the external environment is also subject to interpretation, which also creates inevitable errors. The human mind in the "New Organon" is compared to an uneven mirror, which adds its own errors to the reflected things, distorting nature.

The idea that our perceptions are relative was subsequently developed by many scientists and has shaped the modern understanding of the human and natural sciences. The figure of the observer influences the interpretation of famous quantum experiments, be it Schrödinger's cat or Klaus Jensonoms' experiment with electron diffraction. The study of subjectivity and individual human experiences has been a major theme in culture since the 20th century.

Bacon notes that all people have delusions of a "tribal" nature: they are called so because they are characteristic of all of us as a species, and there is no escape from this baggage of one's own nature. But a philosopher - a person who follows the path of knowledge - can at least realize this nature and make allowances for it, putting forward judgments about the essence of phenomena and things.

Cave idols

Before talking about these misconceptions, we first need to dwell on the symbolism of the cave. In classical texts, this image always refers to Plato's cave, which he describes in the dialogue "The State".

According to the myth of the cave, human knowledge and ignorance can be described as follows. Standing with his back to the light of a fire in a dark cave, a person looks at the shadows cast by things on the walls of the cave, and, seeing them, believes that he is dealing with true reality, while he sees only shadow figures. According to Plato, our perception is based on the observation of illusions, and we only imagine that we know the true reality. Thus, the cave is a sensually perceived world.

Bacon clarifies that each person has his own cave, which distorts the light of nature. Unlike the "idols of the family", the "cave" delusions differ for each of us: this means that the errors in the work of our organs of perception are individual. Education and development conditions also play an important role. Like several hundred years ago, today each of us has our own experience of growing up, the behavior patterns learned in childhood, which formed the inner language of our favorite books.

“Besides the mistakes inherent in the human race, everyone has his own special cave, which weakens and distorts the light of nature. This happens either from the special innate properties of each, or from education and conversations with others, or from reading books and from the authorities before whom one bows, or due to a difference in impressions. Francis Bacon, New Organon

In thinking about this, Bacon was ahead of his time in many ways. It was only in the second half of the 20th century that anthropologists, psychologists, and cognitivists began to talk massively about how different perceptions of different people differ. Both and which, ultimately, determine the peculiarities of thinking, not to mention the difference in cultures and the peculiarities of family education, can become a divisive factor.

Idols of the Square

https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/asset/the-wedding-dance/pAGKgN6eHENosg?hl=ru

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These "idols" Bacon proposes to detect (and neutralize) in close communities of people united by common ties, interests and problems. Social communication is our best skill as a species, but it can also be the root of the errors that go from individual to collective as people pass on their delusions to each other.

Bacon pays special attention to words, because people are united through speech, and the main mistake that can arise in this regard is “bad and absurd establishment of words.” Let the word "square" not deceive you: these idols got their name simply because the square is a noisy place. And this sin of knowledge, according to the philosopher, affects not only greengrocers in the markets, but also scientists. After all, even when a dispute is started between scientists, it most often gets bogged down in the need to “define concepts”. Everyone who has ever participated in scientific discussions knows that you can decide for as long as you like. Therefore, Bacon advised to turn to the "custom and wisdom" of mathematicians - to begin with definitions.

“People believe that their mind commands words. But it also happens that words turn their power against reason. This has made the sciences and philosophy sophistical and ineffectual. Most of the words have their source in common opinion and separate things within the limits most obvious to the mind of the crowd. Francis Bacon, New Organon

There is a lot of talk today about how important linguistics is for consciousness - and not only cognitive psychologists and linguists, but also specialists who are engaged in machine learning. Since the twentieth century, social philosophers have been actively talking about the significance of words and definitions. By using a language in which there are many reduced concepts, we grossly simplify the thought; using harsh words to define other people - we plant aggression in society. At the same time, giving competent and detailed definitions of things and phenomena, we speak about them more calmly and balancedly, create more competent descriptions.

What Bacon could never have predicted was the development of the means of communication, unprecedented for his time. However, human psychology has not changed much with the receipt of new tools - it's just that now we can even more effectively create communities with our own rules, ideas, prejudices, and the language that reinforces it all.

Theater idols

The last kind of "idols" that take us prisoner of delusions are the idols of the theatre. This refers to the ideas that a person borrows from other people. These include incorrect philosophical teachings, erroneous scientific ideas and false axioms, myths that exist in society. We can blindly trust the authority of other people, or simply repeat the wrong things after others without thinking.

These idols got their name because "how many philosophical systems are accepted or invented, so many comedies are staged and played, representing fictional and artificial worlds." Bacon points out that the interpretations of the universe, which are offered by incorrect theoretical systems, are similar to theatrical performances. They do not give descriptions of the true reality.

This idea still seems to be relevant today. For example, you can remember about the idols of the theater when you hear another pseudoscientific theory or just everyday stupidity based on prejudice.

Epochs are different, but the distortions are the same

In addition to listing the four idols, Bacon left in the New Organon many references to thinking errors that we would today call cognitive distortions.

• Illusory correlation and several other similar distortions: “The human mind, by virtue of its tendency, easily assumes more order and uniformity in things than it finds,” Bacon writes, arguing that people tend to create connections that are not really there.
• Description of the subject's propensity to confirm his point of view: “The mind of a person attracts everything to support and agree with what he once accepted, whether because it is a matter of common faith, or because he likes it. Whatever the strength and number of facts to the contrary, reason either does not notice them, or neglects them, or diverts and rejects them by means of distinctions with a great and pernicious prejudice, so that the reliability of those former conclusions remains intact.
• “The mistake of the survivor” (the hero of this parable did not fall into it): “The one who, when they showed him the images of those who escaped the shipwreck by taking a vow, displayed in the temple and at the same time sought an answer, did he now recognize the power of the gods, asked in turn : "And where are the images of those who died after they made a vow?"

Bacon also talked about the nature of superstition, based on the principles of human thinking (namely, he pointed out that people tend to notice events that fit their expectations and ignore prophecies that do not come true) and pointed out that positively and negatively colored Arguments have different strengths.

He noted that the mind is more strongly influenced by images and events that can "immediately and suddenly hit him." The rest of the events go more or less unnoticed. It's no secret that the information we're interested in is remembered best, especially if our lives depend on it. It is interesting that Bacon drew attention to these features of human perception so long ago.

So, if you are going to read Daniel Kahneman, it makes sense to supplement his books with a volume of Bacon - or even several dialogues of Plato.

New time has become a period of prosperity. English philosophy of the 17th - 18th centuries. had its own characteristics: materialistic orientation(most of the philosophers of England preferred to explain the problems of being materialistically and sharply criticized idealism), dominance over(England became a rare country for its time, where empiricism won in matters of knowledge) and great interest in socio-political problems(The philosophers of England not only tried to explain the essence of being and knowledge, the role of man in the world, but also looked for the causes of the emergence of society and the state, put forward projects for the optimal organization of real-life states). The philosophy of England was very progressive for the 17th century. The greatest trace in the philosophy of modern England was left by: Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.

Francis Bacon(1561 - 1626) - English philosopher and politician, in 1620 - 1621 - Lord Chancellor of Great Britain, the second official in the country after the king), was founder of the empirical trend in philosophy.

The essence of Francis Bacon's philosophy - empiricism - is that experience is the basis of knowledge. The more experience (both theoretical and practical) accumulated by humanity (and the individual), the closer it is to true knowledge. True knowledge, according to Bacon, cannot be an end in itself. The main tasks of knowledge and experience are to help a person achieve practical results in his activities, to promote new inventions, the development of the economy, and the dominance of man in nature. In this regard, Bacon put forward an aphorism that succinctly expressed his entire philosophical creed: "Knowledge is power".

Francis Bacon's Methods of Cognition

Bacon came up with the innovative idea that the main method of knowledge should be induction.

Induction- a logical conclusion, going from a particular position to a general one.

Under by induction Bacon understood the generalization of many particular phenomena and the receipt of general conclusions based on generalization (for example, if many individual metals melt, then, therefore, all metals have the property of melting). Bacon opposed the method of induction to the method of deduction proposed by Descartes, according to which true knowledge can be obtained based on reliable information using clear logical methods.

Dignity induction Bacon before the deduction of Descartes - in expanding the possibilities, intensifying the process of cognition.

Lack of induction- its unreliability, probabilistic nature (since if several things or phenomena have common features, this does not mean at all that all things or phenomena from their given class have these features; in each individual case, there is a need for experimental verification, confirmation of induction). The way to overcome the main drawback of induction (its incompleteness, probabilistic nature), according to Bacon, is in the accumulation by mankind of as much experience as possible in all fields of knowledge.

Having defined the main method of cognition - induction, the philosopher singles out specific ways in which cognitive activity can take place. This:

• "Way of the Spider"- obtaining knowledge from "pure reason", that is, in a rationalistic way. This path ignores or significantly downplays the role of concrete facts and practical experience. Rationalists are divorced from reality, dogmatic and, according to Bacon, "weave a web of thoughts from their minds."
• "Way of the Ant"- this way of obtaining knowledge, when only experience is taken into account, that is, dogmatic empiricism (the complete opposite of rationalism divorced from life). This method is also imperfect. "Pure empiricists" focus on practical experience, the collection of disparate facts, evidence. Thus, they receive an external picture of knowledge, they see problems “outside”, “from outside”, but they cannot understand the inner essence of the things and phenomena being studied, see the problem from the inside.
• "The Way of the Bee"- the most perfect way of knowing. Using it, the philosopher-researcher takes all the virtues of the "path of the spider" and "the path of the ant" and at the same time is freed from their shortcomings. Following the "path of the bee", it is necessary to collect the entire set of facts, summarize them (look at the problem "outside") and, using the capabilities of the mind, look "inside" the problem, understand its essence.

Thus, the best way of knowledge, according to Bacon, is empiricism based on induction (collection and generalization of facts, accumulation of experience) using rationalistic methods of understanding the inner essence of things and phenomena by reason.

Idols of Francis Bacon

But Francis Bacon not only shows in what ways the process of cognition should take place, but also highlights the reasons that prevent a person and humanity from gaining true knowledge. The philosopher allegorically calls these reasons “ ghosts"(or "idols") and defines four their varieties: idols of the family, caves, markets and taetra.

Idols of the clan and the ghosts of the cave- inborn errors of people, which consist in mixing the nature of knowledge with their own nature. In the first case ( idols of the family) we are talking about the refraction of knowledge through the culture of a person (kind) as a whole - that is, a person carries out knowledge, being within the framework of a universal culture, and this leaves an imprint on the final result, reduces the truth of knowledge. In the second case ( cave idols) we are talking about the influence of the personality of a particular person (cognizing subject) on the process of cognition. As a result, a person's personality (his prejudices, delusions - "cave") is reflected in the final result of knowledge.

Market Idols and theater idols- acquired delusions.

Market Idols arise due to incorrect, inaccurate use of the speech, conceptual apparatus: words, definitions, expressions.

Theater idols arise due to the influence of existing philosophy on the process of cognition. Often, when cognition, the old philosophy interferes with an innovative approach, directs cognition not always in the right direction. Based on the presence of four main obstacles to knowledge, Bacon advises to abstract as much as possible from the existing "idols" and receive "pure knowledge" free from their influence.

Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626) belonged to the New Age not only by the objective significance of his philosophical system, but also by his conscious conviction in the progressive role of science in the life of man and society.

Bacon compares science to water. It either falls from the sky, or beats from the bowels of the earth. Like water, science has its source either in the heavenly spheres or in the earth. It consists of two kinds of knowledge: one of them is inspired by God, the other originates from the senses. Science is thus divided by Bacon into theology and philosophy.

Bacon stood on the point of view of the duality of truth. Bacon demanded a clear and strict delimitation of the spheres of competence of these two branches of science. Theology has God as its object, but it is futile to strive to attain the knowledge of God by the natural light of reason. Bacon recognizes God as the cause of all objects and essence, the creator of the world and man. But, just as the works show the strength and skill of the artist, but do not draw his image, the creations of God testify to the wisdom and power of God, saying nothing about his image. From this Bacon concludes that God can and must be the object of faith alone. "Give faith what belongs to faith," Bacon repeats the Christian covenant. Let the two departments of science - theology and philosophy - not interfere in each other's field. Let each of them limit their activity to the limits laid down for it. Theology has God as its subject and reaches him through revelation; philosophy studies nature based on experience and observation. The theory of the duality of truth was the only way for Bacon's time to substantiate the scientific knowledge of nature. At the center of Bacon's teachings is not man, but nature, knowledge of the external world, man's mastery of the forces of nature.

Bacon spoke proudly of new discoveries in all areas of life, but complained that the dominant sciences "do not in the least contribute to the invention of practical methods" and lag behind life and experience. Bacon clearly set himself the task of transforming all human knowledge, improving science. Bacon saw the meaning of all his scientific activity in the great revival of the sciences. Science must be ahead of practice, it must show the way to new inventions and discoveries. "We need a thread to show the way," because until now people have been guided only by chance, their actions have been instinctive. But in order to approach the more remote and most secret phenomena of nature, it is necessary to discover and assimilate a surer and more perfect way of putting the human mind into action. The main difficulty on the way to the knowledge of nature, says Bacon, is now not in the subject, not in external conditions beyond our control, but in the human mind, in its use and application.

The bottom line is to "go in a completely different way, in a different order, in a different way." Bacon warns that his Organon is nothing more than logic. Only by creating a new logic, i.e. method, it is difficult to bring the boundaries of thinking into line with practice and make theory a powerful means of man's struggle to master the forces of nature. Leading the shortest way to the truth, the method is the best guide for a person on the way to future discoveries and inventions. The old method of syllogism, according to Bacon, is completely helpless. Syllogism dominates opinions, instead of helping man to increase his dominance over objects, the goal towards which real scientific methodology should strive.

Thus, for Bacon, the method has a profoundly practical significance. He is the greatest transforming force, since he correctly orients the theoretical and practical activity of man. In order to rebuild all the edifices of science, it is necessary to uncover the causes that led to the lagging behind of theory from life and experience, and retarded mental progress. These reasons lie, according to Bacon, in various kinds of prejudices to which the human mind is subject. In this regard, Bacon put forward his theory of "idols", or "ghosts", i.e. distorted images of reality, from which it is necessary to get rid of before proceeding to cognition.

Bacon distinguished four types of ghosts.

First, the ghosts of the "kind", which are rooted in the very nature of the human race, in the limitations of the human mind and the imperfection of the senses. Man, under the influence of these ghosts, seeks to consider nature by analogy with himself, which found vivid expression in the famous saying of Protagoras: "Man is the measure of all things." According to Bacon, on the contrary, the human mind is like an uneven mirror, which, mixing its nature with the nature of things, reflects them in a curved form. The ghosts of the race lead to anthropomorphism and theological worldview.

Secondly, the ghosts of the "cave", which arise due to the individual abilities of a person, the specific conditions for the upbringing of individuals who are accustomed to observing nature as if from their own cave. This kind of ghost can be overcome, according to Bacon, with the help of collective experience and observation.

Thirdly, the ghosts of the "market", which are generated by the forms of community and union between people. Here, speech, outdated concepts, and incorrect word usage play a big role, leading to distortions of thought. The sure way to avoid these ghosts, Bacon believes, is the struggle against empty distractions and verbal scholarship of the Middle Ages.

Fourthly, the ghosts of the "theater", which are based on a blind faith in authorities, in particular in traditional philosophical systems, with their artificial constructions reminiscent of actions played out in the theater. Following the authority of the ancients, a person perceives things not as they really exist, but biased, with prejudice.

In order to cleanse the mind of such ghosts, one should, according to Bacon, proceed only from experience and direct study of nature. The ghosts of "kind" and "cave" belong to the natural properties of the mind, while the ghosts of "market" and "theatre" are acquired by the mind. However, all of them are a great obstacle to scientific knowledge and create false ideas and ideas, distort the true face of nature. Therefore, for Bacon, the overcoming of ghosts is the main condition for the construction of a new method and the transformation of the sciences.

Analyzing the causes hindering the development of the sciences, Bacon reminded of yet another captious and constant enemy of natural philosophy. "This enemy is superstition, blind and immoderate zeal for religion." To protect against this adversary of science, Bacon adheres to the theory of dual truth. An essential reason for the weak development of science, according to Bacon, is that there is no correct representation of the object of knowledge and the goal of science is badly defined. The true object of knowledge, according to Bacon, is matter, its structure and transformation. "Everything worthy of existence is also worthy of science, which is only an image of reality." Hence - the paramount importance of natural science in the philosophy of Bacon. "Natural science is in his eyes a true science, and physics, based on the evidence of external senses, is the most important part of natural science." Natural science, states Bacon, has hitherto taken an insignificant part in human life. "This great mother of all sciences has been reduced to the contemptuous office of a servant." Philosophy, having cast aside its former abstract form, must enter into a "lawful marriage" with natural science, for only then will it be capable, in Bacon's words, of "bearing children and delivering real benefits."

Bacon defines the purpose of science exceptionally clearly: "The purpose of science is to enrich human life with real discoveries, i.e. new means." The importance of a theory for him is not in the theory itself, but in its meaning for man. Bacon, however, does not seek to turn science into some kind of profitable trade, arguing that such an attitude harms the development and improvement of the sciences. Science is utilitarian in the sense of its usefulness to mankind, and not in the sense of personal benefit for the individual. Bacon saw in theory a great force in the struggle for the domination of man over nature.

Thus, the object of knowledge for Bacon is nature, the task of knowledge is the study of nature, the goal of knowledge is the domination of man over nature. From this position, Bacon strongly criticizes scholastic scholarship and its methodology (syllogistics). Preliminarily referring to reality, syllogistics takes abstract concepts as the starting point for cognition. The role of science, according to the ideas of syllogists, is to deduce another from one concept and deduce the separate from the general. Their ideas are not consistent with objects, but on the contrary, real facts are subsumed under ideas. But such a false method of proof "always leads to the slavery of the world before human thought and to the slavery of human thought before words."

A reliable way to the formation of concepts, according to Bacon, is only experience and induction. The correct understanding and application of the inductive method, says the philosopher, makes the human mind quite ready for the knowledge of the most secret secrets of nature. To dominate nature, you need to know its laws. But what kind of knowledge is the true knowledge that helps man to establish mastery over the forces of nature? True science, according to Bacon, is based on the knowledge of causes. There are four kinds of causes: material, active, the study of which is part of the tasks of physics, formal and final, the study of which is the business of metaphysics. The discovery of material and active causes does not yet give complete knowledge, for these causes are transient, temporary, changeable. Scientific knowledge is achieved by revealing more deeply lying formal causes. Final causes are the subject of theology. The inductive method is the way to the knowledge of form. The result to which we arrive as a result of its application is the doctrine of forms. In Bacon's philosophy, induction, the doctrine of forms, and the doctrine of invention are inextricably linked. Induction is a guide to the knowledge of forms, the doctrine of forms is the result of the process of cognition, invention is the goal and practical application of science based on the knowledge of forms.

Having defined the main method of cognition - induction, Bacon identifies specific ways through which cognitive activity can take place. This:

• "the way of the spider";
• "path of the ant";
• "the way of the bee"

"Way of the Spider" - obtaining knowledge from "pure reason", that is, in a rationalistic way. This path ignores or significantly downplays the role of concrete facts and practical experience. Rationalists are divorced from reality, dogmatic and, according to Bacon, "weave a web of thoughts from their minds."

"The way of the ant" is a way of obtaining knowledge when only experience is taken into account, that is, dogmatic empiricism (the exact opposite of rationalism divorced from life). This method is based on practical experience, the collection of disparate facts, evidence. Thus, they receive an external picture of knowledge, they see problems "outside", "from outside", but they cannot understand the inner essence of the things and phenomena being studied, see the problem from the inside.

"The way of the bee", according to Bacon, is an ideal way of knowing. Using it, the philosopher-researcher takes all the virtues of the "path of the spider" and "the path of the ant" and at the same time is freed from their shortcomings. Following the "path of the bee", it is necessary to collect the entire set of facts, summarize them (look at the problem "outside") and, using the capabilities of the mind, look "inside" the problem, understand its essence.

Thus, the best way of knowledge, according to Bacon, is empiricism based on induction (collection and generalization of facts, accumulation of experience) using rationalistic methods of understanding the inner essence of things and phenomena by reason.

However, the Baconian classification of sciences proceeds not from the difference in forms, features of the object, but from the abilities of the subject. Images of objects, entering consciousness through the senses, do not disappear without a trace; they are preserved by the soul, which can relate to them in three ways: either simply collect them in memory, or imitate them with the imagination, or, finally, process them into concepts with the understanding. On these three faculties of the human soul, according to Bacon, the subdivision of the sciences is based. Memory is the basis of history, imagination is the basis of poetry, reason is the basis of philosophy. History is divided into civil and natural. Natural history is divided into narrative and inductive. Philosophy is divided into natural philosophy, consisting of the doctrine of nature (physics of abstracts, physics of concretes, mathematics), the doctrine of man and the doctrine of God, which stands apart. Poetry is divided into parabolic (fables), dramatic and descriptive. Bacon's classification of the sciences, although based on the abilities of the subject and not on the characteristics of the object, was a great step forward from the traditional division of knowledge.

So, the historical merit of Bacon is not in the development of specific sciences, discoveries, not in the study of individual areas of nature, but in the fact that he clearly and distinctly understood the essence of the imminent turning point and determined the directions for the further movement of knowledge. He was the true ancestor of the experimental science of modern times.

Thus, for Bacon, the method has a profoundly practical significance. He is the greatest transforming force, since he correctly orients the theoretical and practical activity of man.