In ancient Russian literature, which did not know fiction, historical in big or small, the world itself appeared as something eternal, universal, where the events and actions of people are determined by the very system of the universe, where the forces of good and evil are always fighting, a world whose history is well known ( after all, for each event mentioned in the annals, the exact date was indicated - the time elapsed from the "creation of the world"!) And even the future was predestined: prophecies about the end of the world, the "second coming" of Christ and the Last Judgment awaiting all the people of the earth were widespread. Obviously, this could not but affect literature: the desire to subdue the very image of the world, to determine the canons by which this or that event should be described, led to the very schematic nature of ancient Russian literature, which we spoke about in the introduction. This schematicity is called submission to the so-called literary etiquette - D. S. Likhachev argues about its structure in the literature of Ancient Rus': 1) how this or that course of events should have taken place; 2) how the character should have behaved in accordance with his position; 3) how should the writer describe what is happening.
"We have, therefore, the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and the etiquette of words," he says. To clarify these principles, consider the following example: in the life of a saint, according to the etiquette of behavior, it was supposed to tell about the childhood of the future saint, about his pious parents, about how he was drawn to the church from infancy, shunned games with peers, and so on: in any this plot component is not only always present in the life, but is expressed in each life in the same words, that is, verbal etiquette is observed. Here, for example, are the opening phrases of several lives belonging to different authors and written at different times: Theodosius of the Caves "draws my soul to the love of God, and every day I go to the church of God, listening to divine books with all attention, and I don’t even play with children approaching, as if the custom is dull, n (o) and abhorring their games ... To this, and giving in to the teaching of divine books ...
And soon all grammar is out of the blue"; Nifont of Novgorod "when his parents learn the divine books. And soon I’ll never get used to book teaching, and I’m in no way out of my peers for children’s games, but I’m more attached to the church of God and revere the divine writings more reverently”; divine scripture...
not deviating from certain games or shames of the "spectacle", but more so to reading divine writings. "The same situation is observed in the annals: descriptions of battles, posthumous characteristics of kgyazey or church hierarchs are written using almost the same limited vocabulary. To the problem of authorship among the scribes of Ancient Russia, the attitude was also somewhat different from the modern one: for the most part, the author's name was indicated only to verify events, in order to certify the reader of the authenticity of what was being described, and the authorship itself had no value in the modern concept. the following: on the one hand, most of the ancient Russian works are anonymous: we do not know the name of the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", and of many other works, such as "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev", "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land" or "Kazan history". On the other hand, we meet with an abundance of so-called falsely-inscribed monuments - its authorship is attributed to some famous person in order to make it more significant.
In addition, the insertion into his works of not only individual phrases, but entire fragments was not read as plagiarism, but testified to the erudition, high book culture and literary proficiency of the scribe. So, acquaintance with the historical conditions and some principles of the work of the authors of the XI-XVII centuries.
gives us the opportunity to appreciate the special style and ways of presenting the Old Russian scribes, who built their narrative according to accepted and justified canons: he introduced a fragment from exemplary works into his narrative, demonstrating his erudition and describing events according to a certain stencil, following literary etiquette. Poverty in details, everyday details, stereotyped characteristics, "insincerity" of the characters' speeches - all these are not literary shortcomings at all, but the peculiarities of the style, which implied that literature is intended to tell only about the eternal, without going into passing everyday trifles and mundane details. On the other hand, the modern reader especially appreciates precisely the deviations from the canon that the authors periodically made: it was these deviations that made the narrative alive and interesting. This digression at one time was given a terminological definition - "realistic elements".
Of course, this in no way correlates with the term "realism" - there are still seven centuries before it, and these are precisely anomalies, violations of the basic laws and trends of medieval literature under the influence of live observation of reality and the natural desire to reflect it. Of course, despite the presence of strict limits of etiquette, which largely limited the freedom of creativity, ancient Russian literature did not stand still: it developed, changed styles, etiquette itself, its principles and means of its implementation changed. D.
S. Likhachev in the book "Man in the Literature of Ancient Rus'" (M., 1970) showed that each era had its own dominant style - that was the style of monumental historicism of the XI-XIII centuries. , then the expressive-emotional style of the XIV-XV centuries, then there was a return to the former style of monumental historicism, but on a new basis - and the so-called "style of the second monumentalism", characteristic of the XVI century, arose. Also D.
S. Likhachev considers several main directions leading to the development of ancient Russian literature into the literature of modern times: the growth of the personal principle in literature and the individualization of style, the expansion of the social circle of people who can become heroes of works. The role of etiquette is gradually decreasing, and instead of schematic representations of the conditional standards of a prince or a saint, there are attempts to describe a complex individual character, its inconsistency and variability. Here it is necessary to make one reservation: V.P. Adrianov-Peretz showed that the understanding of the complexity of the human character, the subtlest psychological nuances was inherent in medieval literature already at the earliest stages of its development, but the norm of the image in the annals, and in the stories, and in the lives there was still an image of etiquette, conditional characters, depending on the social status of their owners.
The choice of plots or plot situations became wider, fiction appeared in literature; genres that do not have a primary need are gradually entering literature. Works of folk satire begin to be written down, chivalric novels are translated; moralizing, but in fact entertaining short stories - facets; in the 17th century syllabic poetry and dramaturgy emerge. In a word, by the 17th century. more and more features of the literature of the new time are being revealed in literature.
The originality of ancient Russian literature:
Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. At the same time, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, writers of books, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author's texts have not come down to us, but their later lists have been preserved. Often scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the rewritten work, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of Old Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing different editions, variants of lists, and also determine which edition of the list most closely matches the original author's text. Such sciences as textology and paleography can come to the rescue (studies the external signs of handwritten monuments - handwriting, lettering, the nature of the writing material).
A characteristic feature of ancient Russian literature is historicism. Her heroes are predominantly historical figures, she almost does not allow fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about "miracles" - phenomena that seem supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the fiction of an ancient Russian writer, but accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the persons themselves with whom the "miracle" happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state, the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.
Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian man, who is capable of giving up the most precious thing for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in the ability of a person to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, "listening to good and evil indifferently." Any genre of ancient literature, be it a historical story or a legend, a life story or a church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Concerning mainly state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of the word, in the power of conviction. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to take care that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that the descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.
The literature of Ancient Rus' expressed and defended the interests of the upper classes of feudal society. However, it could not fail to show an acute class struggle, which resulted either in the form of open spontaneous uprisings, or in the forms of typical medieval religious heresies. Literature clearly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groupings within the ruling class, each of which was looking for support among the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected the interests of the whole state, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the folk character of ancient Russian literature.
In the 11th - the first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.
To save writing material, words in a line were not separated, and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with a red capital letter. Often used well-known words were written in abbreviated form, under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. The handwriting with the correct almost square lettering was called the charter.
The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.
Artistic Method Problem:
The artistic method of ancient Russian literature is inextricably linked with the nature of the worldview, the worldview of medieval man, which absorbed religious speculative ideas about the world and a specific vision of reality associated with labor practice. In the mind of medieval man, the world existed in two dimensions: real, earthly and heavenly, spiritual. The Christian religion insisted that human life on earth is temporary. The purpose of earthly life is preparation for eternal, imperishable life. These preparations should consist in the moral perfection of the soul, the curbing of sinful passions, and so on.
Two aspects of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature are connected with the dual nature of the worldview of medieval man:
1) reproduction of individual facts in all their concreteness, a purely empirical statement;
2) the consistent transformation of life, that is, the idealization of the facts of real life, the image of not what is, but what should be.
The historicism of Old Russian literature in its medieval understanding is connected with the first side of the artistic method, and its symbolism is associated with the second.
The ancient Russian writer was convinced that symbols are hidden in nature, in man himself. He believed that historical events are also full of symbolic meaning, since he believed that history moves and is directed by the will of a deity. The writer considered symbols as the main means of revealing the truth, discovering the inner meaning of the phenomenon. As the phenomena of the surrounding world are ambiguous, so is the word. Hence the symbolic nature of metaphors, comparisons in ancient Russian literature.
The Old Russian writer, in an effort to convey the image of truth, strictly follows the fact that he himself witnessed or learned about from the words of an eyewitness, a participant in the event. He does not doubt the truth of miracles, supernatural phenomena, believes in their reality.
As a rule, the heroes of the works of ancient Russian literature are historical figures. Only in some cases, the heroes are representatives of the people.
Medieval literature is still alien to any individualization of human character. Old Russian writers create generalized typological images of an ideal ruler, a warrior, on the one hand, and an ideal ascetic, on the other. These images are sharply opposed to the generalized typological image of an evil ruler and the collective image of the demon-devil personifying evil.
In the view of the ancient Russian writer, life is a constant arena of the struggle between good and evil.
The source of goodness, good thoughts and deeds is God. The devil and demons are pushing people to evil. However, the Old Russian literature does not remove responsibility from the person himself. Everyone is free to choose their own path.
In the understanding of the ancient Russian writer, the categories of ethical and aesthetic merged. Good is always great. Evil is associated with darkness.
The writer builds his works on the contrast between good and evil. He leads the reader to the idea that the high moral qualities of a person are the result of hard moral work.
The behavior and actions of the heroes are determined by their social status, their belonging to the princely, boyar, squad, church estates.
Strict observance of the rhythm established by the ancestors of the order is the vital basis of etiquette, ceremoniality of ancient Russian literature. So the chronicler, first of all, sought to put the numbers in a row, that is, to arrange the material he selected in chronological order.
The works of ancient Russian literature were didactic, moralizing in nature. They were designed to help get rid of vices.
So, medieval historicism, symbolism, ritualism and didacticism are the leading principles of artistic representation in the works of ancient Russian literature. In various works, depending on the genre and time of their creation, these features manifested themselves in different ways.
The historical development of ancient Russian literature proceeded through the gradual destruction of the integrity of its method, liberation from Christian symbolism, ritualism and didacticism.
3 - 6. "The Tale of Bygone Years".
The main ideas of the initial chronicle. Already in the title “Behold the story of time years, where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began first before the princes, and where did the Russian land come from” - contains an indication of the ideological and thematic content of the chronicle. The Russian land, its historical destinies, starting from the moment of its origin and ending with the first decade of the 12th century, are at the center of attention of the chronicle. The lofty patriotic idea of the power of the Russian land, its political independence, religious independence from Byzantium constantly guides the chronicler when he brings into his work "traditions of antiquity" and truly historical events of the recent past.
The chronicle legends are unusually topical, publicistic, full of sharp condemnation of princely strife and strife, weakening the power of the Russian land, a call to observe the Russian land, not to shame the Russian land in the fight against external enemies, primarily with the steppe nomads - the Pechenegs, and then the Polovtsy.
The theme of the homeland is defining, leading in the annals. The interests of the homeland dictate to the chronicler one or another assessment of the actions of the prince, they are the measure of his glory and greatness. The living feeling of the Russian land, homeland and people tells the Russian chronicler that unprecedented breadth of the political horizon, which is unusual for Western European historical chronicles.
From written sources, the chroniclers borrow the historical Christian-scholastic concept, linking the history of the Russian land with the general course of development of "world" history. "The Tale of Bygone Years" opens with a biblical legend about the division of the earth after the flood between the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Japhet. The Slavs are the descendants of Japhet, that is, they, like the Greeks, belong to a single family of European peoples.
Finally, it is possible to "establish" the first date - 6360 - (852) - mentions in "Chronicles of Greek" "Russian Land". This date makes it possible to put "numbers in a row" i.e. proceed to a consistent chronological presentation, more precisely, the arrangement of the material "by summer" - on years. And when they cannot attach any event to a particular date, they limit themselves to simply fixing the date itself (for example: "in the summer of 6368", "in the summer of 6369"). The chronological principle gave ample opportunities for free handling of the material, made it possible to introduce new legends and stories into the annals, exclude old ones if they did not correspond to the political interests of the time and the author, supplement the annals with records of the events of recent years, the contemporary of which was its compiler.
As a result of the application of the weather chronological principle of presenting the material, the idea of history gradually developed as a continuous sequential chain of events. The chronological connection was reinforced by a genealogical, ancestral connection, the succession of the rulers of the Russian land, starting from Rurik and ending (in The Tale of Bygone Years) with Vladimir Monomakh.
At the same time, this principle made the chronicle fragmentary, which I. P. Eremin drew attention to.
Genres included in the chronicle. The chronological principle of presentation allowed the chroniclers to include in the chronicle material that was heterogeneous in character and genre features. The simplest narrative unit of the chronicle is a laconic weather record, limited only to a statement of fact. However, the very inclusion of this or that information in the annals testifies to its significance from the point of view of a medieval writer.
The chronicle also presents a type of detailed record, which records not only the "acts" of the prince, but also their results. For example: "IN Summer 6391 and so on.
And a short weather record, and a more detailed documentary. They do not contain any embellishing tropes. The recording is simple, clear and concise, which gives it special significance, expressiveness and even majesty.
The chronicler focuses on the event - "what is here in the summer of forces." They are followed by news of the death of the princes. The birth of children, their marriage is less often recorded. Then information about the construction activities of the princes. Finally, messages about church affairs, occupying a very modest place. True, the chronicler describes the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, places legends about the beginning of the Pechersk Monastery, the death of Theodosius of the Caves, and stories about the memorable Chernorites of the Caves. This is quite explainable by the political significance of the cult of the first Russian saints Boris and Gleb and the role of the Kiev Caves Monastery in the formation of the initial chronicle.
An important group of chronicle news is information about heavenly signs - eclipses of the sun, moon, earthquakes, epidemics, etc. The chronicler sees a connection between unusual natural phenomena and people's lives, historical events. The historical experience associated with the evidence of the chronicle of George Amartol leads the chronicler to the conclusion: “For signs in heaven, or stars, or suns, or birds, or chimney, are not for good; but there are signs of evil, whether the manifestation of rati, or famine, or death is manifested.
News items that are diverse in their subject matter can be combined within one chronicle article. The material included in The Tale of Bygone Years makes it possible to single out a historical legend, a toponymic tradition, a historical tradition (associated with a retinue heroic epic), a hagiographic legend, as well as a historical legend and a historical story.
The connection of the chronicle with folklore . The chronicler draws material on the events of the distant past from the treasury of the people's memory.
The appeal to the toponymic legend is dictated by the chronicler's desire to find out the origin of the names of the Slavic tribes, individual cities and the very word "Rus". So, the origin of the Slavic tribes of the Radimichi and Vyatichi is associated with the legendary natives of the Poles - the brothers Radim and Vyatko. This legend arose among the Slavs, obviously, during the period of the decomposition of the tribal system, when an isolated tribal foreman, in order to justify his right to political domination over the rest of the members of the clan, creates a legend about his supposedly foreign origin. This chronicle legend is close to the legend of the calling of princes, placed in the annals under 6370 (862). At the invitation of Novgorodians from across the sea "reign and volody" Three Varangian brothers come to Russian land with their families: Rurik, Sineus, Truvor.
The folklore nature of the legend confirms the presence of the epic number three - three brothers.
The legend about the calling of the princes served as an important argument for proving the sovereignty of the Kievan state, and by no means testified to the inability of the Slavs to independently arrange their own state, without the help of Europeans, as some scientists tried to prove.
A typical toponymic legend is also the legend about the founding of Kyiv by three brothers - Kyi, Shchek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid. The chronicler himself points to the oral source of the material included in the chronicle: “Ini, not knowing, rekosha, what kind of Kiy was the carrier.” The chronicler indignantly rejects the version of the folk legend about the Kiy-carrier. He categorically states that Kyi was a prince, made successful campaigns against Constantinople, where he received a great honor from the Greek king and founded the city of Kievets on the Danube.
Echoes of ritual poetry from the times of the tribal system are filled with annalistic news about the Slavic tribes, their customs, wedding and funeral rites.
The annalistic news about the marriage of Vladimir to the Polotsk princess Rogneda, about his plentiful and generous feasts arranged in Kyiv, goes back to folk tales - the Korsun legend. On the one hand, we see a pagan prince with his unbridled passions, on the other, an ideal Christian ruler, endowed with all the virtues: meekness, humility, love for the poor, for the monastic and monastic rank, etc. Contrasting comparison of the pagan prince with the Christian prince, the chronicler sought to prove the superiority of the new Christian morality over the pagan one.
The reign of Vladimir was fanned by the heroism of folk tales already at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century.
The legend of the victory of the Russian youth Kozhemyaki over the Pecheneg giant is imbued with the spirit of the folk heroic epic. As in the folk epic, the legend emphasizes the superiority of a man of peaceful labor, a simple artisan over a professional warrior - the Pecheneg hero. The images of the legend are built on the principle of contrasting comparison and broad generalization. At first glance, a Russian youth is an ordinary, unremarkable person, but he embodies that huge, gigantic power that the Russian people possess, decorating the earth with their labor and protecting it on the battlefield from external enemies. The Pecheneg warrior, with his gigantic size, terrifies those around him. A boastful and arrogant enemy is opposed by a modest Russian youth, the youngest son of a tanner. He performs a feat without arrogance and bragging. At the same time, the legend is timed to coincide with the toponymic legend about the origin of the city of Pereyaslavl - "Zone of the glory of the youth" but this is a clear anachronism, since Pereyaslavl had already been mentioned more than once in the annals before this event.
The legend of the Belgorod jelly is connected with the folk fairy tale epic. In this legend, the mind, resourcefulness and ingenuity of the Russian people are glorified.
The folklore basis is clearly felt in the church legend about the visit of the Russian land by the Apostle Andrew. By placing this legend, the chronicler sought to "historically" substantiate the religious independence of Rus' from Byzantium. The legend claimed that the Russian land received Christianity not from the Greeks, but allegedly by the disciple of Christ himself - the Apostle Andrew, who once passed the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" along the Dnieper and Volkhov - Christianity was predicted on the Russian land. The church legend about how Andrei blessed the Kyiv mountains is combined with a folk tale about Andrei's visit to the Novgorod land. This legend is of a domestic nature and is associated with the custom of the inhabitants of the Slavic north to bathe in hot wooden baths.
Most of the chronicle tales dedicated to the events of the 9th - the end of the 10th centuries are associated with oral folk art, its epic genres.
Historical stories and legends as part of the annals . As the chronicler moves from narrating the events of bygone years to the recent past, the material of the chronicle becomes more and more historically accurate, strictly factual and official.
The attention of the chronicler is attracted only by historical figures who are at the top of the feudal hierarchical ladder. In depicting their deeds, he follows the principles of medieval historicism. According to these principles, only purely official events of historical significance for the state should be recorded in the annals, and the private life of a person, his everyday environment, does not interest the chronicler.
In the annals, the ideal of a prince-ruler is developed. This ideal is inseparable from the general patriotic ideas of the chronicle. The ideal ruler acts as a living embodiment of love for the native land, its honor and glory, the personification of its power and dignity. All his actions, all his activities are determined by the good of the motherland and the people. Therefore, the prince in the view of the chronicler cannot belong to himself. First of all, he is a historical figure who always appears in an official setting, endowed with all the attributes of princely power. D.S. Likhachev notes that the prince in the annals is always official, he is, as it were, turned to the viewer and is represented in his most significant actions. The virtues of a prince are a kind of ceremonial attire; at the same time, some virtues are purely mechanically attached to others, thanks to which it became possible to combine the ideals of the secular and church. Fearlessness, courage, military prowess are combined with humility, meekness and other Christian virtues.
If the activity of the prince is aimed at the good of the motherland, the chronicler glorifies him in every possible way, endowing him with all the qualities of a predetermined ideal. If the prince's activities run counter to the interests of the state, the chronicler spares no black paint and ascribes to the negative character all mortal sins: pride, envy, ambition, greed, etc.
The principles of medieval historicism are vividly embodied in stories "About the murder of Borisov"(1015) and about the blinding of Vasilko Terebovskiy, which can be attributed to the genre of historical stories about princely crimes. However, in terms of style, they are completely different works. Tale "About the murder of Borisov" sets out the historical facts of the murder of the brothers Boris and Gleb by Svyatopolk with extensive use of elements of the hagiographic style. It is built on the contrast between the ideal martyr princes and the ideal villain. "cursed" Svyatopolk. The story of praise ends, oh, glorifying "Christ-loving passion-bearers", "shining lamps", "bright stars" - "protectors of the Russian land". In its ending, there is a prayerful call to the martyrs to subdue the filthy "under the nose of our prince" and spare them "from the usable rati", that they may be in peace and unity. Thus, the patriotic idea common to the entire chronicle is expressed in hagiographic form. At the same time the story "About the murder of Borisov" interesting for a number of "documentary" details, "realistic details".
The story does not idealize Vasilko. He is not only a victim of slander, cruelty and deceit of Davyd Igorevich, gullibility of Svyatopolk, but he himself reveals no less cruelty both in relation to the perpetrators of evil and in relation to innocent people. There is no idealization in the depiction of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk, indecisive, gullible, weak-willed. The story allows the modern reader to imagine the characters of living people with their human weaknesses and virtues.
The story was written by a medieval writer who builds it on the opposition of two symbolic images of the "cross" and "knife", the leitmotif that runs through the entire story.
Thus, "The Tale of the Blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky" sharply condemns the violation by the princes of their contractual obligations, leading to terrible bloody crimes, bringing evil to the whole Russian land.
The descriptions of the events connected with the military campaigns of the princes take on the character of a historical documentary legend, testifying to the formation of the genre of the military story. Elements of this genre are present in the legend of Yaroslav's revenge on the Accursed Svyatopolk in 1015-1016.
In this chronicle legend, the main plot and compositional elements of the military story are already present: the collection of troops, the march, preparation for battle, the battle and its denouement.
All this allows us to speak about the presence in the "Tale of Bygone Years" of the main components of the military story genre.
Within the framework of the historical documentary style, messages about heavenly signs are sustained in the annals.
Elements of hagiographic style . The compilers of The Tale of Bygone Years also included hagiographic works: a Christian legend, a martyr's life (a legend about two Varangian martyrs), a legend about the founding of the Kiev Caves Monastery in 1051, about the death of its abbot Theodosius of the Caves in 1074 and the legend of the Chernorizets of the Caves. In the hagiographic style, the legends about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb (1072) and Theodosius of the Caves (1091) placed in the annals are written.
The chronicle exalted the exploits of the founders of the Kiev Caves Monastery, which was "set" neither "from kings, and from boyars, and from wealth", A "Tears, and fasting, and vigil" Anthony and Theodosius of the Caves. Under 1074, following the story of the death of Theodosius, the chronicler narrates about the Pechersk Chernorizets, who "Like the lights in Rus' shine."
One of the forms of glorification of princes in the annals are posthumous obituaries associated with the genre of grave words of praise. The first such word of praise is the obituary of Princess Olga, placed under the year 969. It begins with a series of metaphorical comparisons glorifying the first Christian princess. The metaphorical images of “daylight”, “dawn”, “light”, “moon”, “beads” (pearls) were borrowed by the chronicler from Byzantine hagiographic literature, but they were used to glorify the Russian princess and emphasize the significance for Rus' of her feat - the adoption of Christianity.
The obituary praise of Olga is stylistically close to the praise of Vladimir, placed in the annals under 1015. The deceased prince receives an appraisal epithet "blissful", i.e., righteous, and his feat is equated with the feat of Constantine the Great.
Obituaries to Mstislav and Rostislav can be attributed to the genre of verbal portrait, which describes the appearance and moral qualities of the princes: “Be the same Mstislav debel body, dark face, great eyes, brave on the rati, merciful, loving the squad in great measure, sparing no property, no drinking, no eating scolding.”
The obituaries of Izyaslav and Vsevolod, along with the hagiographic idealization of these princes, touch on specific moments of their activity, and in the obituary of Vsevolod there is a voice of condemnation, since Vsevolod, in his old age, began "Love the meaning of the unholy, creating light with them."
From Christian literature, the chronicler drew moralistic maxims, figurative comparisons.
The function of biblical comparisons and reminiscences in the annals is different. These juxtapositions emphasize the significance and grandeur of the Russian land and its princes; they allow the chroniclers to translate the narrative from a “temporary” historical plan into an “eternal” one, i.e., they perform the artistic function of symbolic generalization. In addition, these comparisons are a means of moral evaluation of events and actions of historical figures.
7. Sermon "the word about law and grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion as an outstanding work of oratory of the 11th century. The theme of the equality of peoples, the glorification of the Russian land and its princes. Three-part composition. Metaphors-symbols, rhetorical questions and exclamations, rhythmic organization of the “Sermon on Law and Grace”.
"Sermon on Law and Grace" by Hilarion. An outstanding work of oratorical prose of the 11th century is the “Sermon on Law and Grace”. It was written between 1037-1050. priest of the princely church in Berestov Hilarion.
The "Sermon on Law and Grace" is imbued with patriotic pathos of glorifying Rus' as equal in rights among all states of the world. Hilarion contrasts the Byzantine theory of the universal empire and the church with the idea of equality of all Christian peoples. Comparing Judaism (Law) with Christianity (Grace), Hilarion at the beginning of his "Word" proves the advantages of Grace over the Law. The law was distributed only among the Jewish people. Grace is the property of all nations. The Old Testament - the Law given by God to the prophet Moses on Mount Sinai, regulated the life of only the Jewish people. The New Testament - the Christian doctrine - has a worldwide significance, and every nation has the full right to freely choose this Grace. Thus, Hilarion rejects the monopoly rights of Byzantium to the exclusive possession of Grace. He creates, as D.S. Likhachev rightly notes, his own patriotic concept of world history, glorifying Rus' and its "enlightener" "kagan" Vladimir.
Hilarion exalts the feat of Vladimir in the adoption and spread of Christianity in Rus'. Thanks to this feat, Rus' entered the family of Christian countries as a sovereign state. Vladimir reigned “not in thine bo and not in unknown lands”, A "In Russian, even known and audible, there are all the ends of the earth."
In praise of Vladimir, Hilarion lists the prince's services to his homeland. He says that his activities contributed to the glory and power of Rus'. At the same time, he emphasizes that the Christian faith was adopted by the Russians as a result of free choice, that the main merit in the baptism of Rus' belongs to Vladimir, and not to the Greeks. The Lay contains a very offensive comparison for the Greeks between Vladimir and Tsar Constantine.
Hilarion's "Word" is built according to a strict, logically thought-out plan, which is reported by the author in the title of the work: “The word about the law given to him by Moses, and about grace and truth, Jesus Christ who was, and what law is gone, fill the whole earth with grace and truth, and faith in all tongues stretched to our Russian language and praise to our kagan Vlodimer, from him but be baptized with a blessing, and prayer to God from the weight of our land.
The first part - a comparison of Law and Grace - is a lengthy introduction to the second, central, part of praise to Vladimir, ending with an author's appeal to Vladimir with a call to get up from the grave, shake off sleep and look at the deeds of his son George (Christian name Yaroslav). The second part sets as its task the direct glorification of the contemporary ruler of Rus' to Hilarion and his activities. The third part is a prayer appeal to God "out of all our land."
"Word" addressed to people "Too much to fill up with book sweets" Therefore, the author clothes his work in a bookish rhetorical form. He constantly uses quotations from the Bible, biblical comparisons, comparing the Law with the slave Hagar and her son Ishmael, and Grace with Sarah and her son Isaac. These symbolic parallels are intended to more clearly show the superiority of Grace over the Law.
In the first part of the Lay, Hilarion consistently observes the principle of antithesis - the most typical method of oratorical eloquence. “First the law, then grace: first the steppe(shadow) ty, then the truth.
Hilarion widely uses book metaphors - symbols and metaphorical comparisons: Law is "dry lake"; paganism - "darkness of idols", "darkness of demonic ministry"; Grace is "flooding source" and others. He often uses rhetorical questions and exclamations - typical techniques of solemn eloquence, with the help of which great emotionality of speech is achieved. The rhythmic organization of the Lay serves the same purpose. Hilarion often resorts to repetitions, verbal rhymes. For example: "... Drive away the military, establish the world, tame the countries, gladugobzi, wiser the Bolars, settle the cities, grow your church, keep your property, save husbands and wives and babies."
High artistic skill ensured the "Word of Law and Grace" great popularity in medieval writing. It becomes a model for the scribes of the XII-XV centuries, who use separate techniques and stylistic formulas of the Lay.
8. Didactic "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh "is a work of political and moral instruction. The image of an outstanding politician and warrior. Autobiographical Elements in the Teaching. Emotional and lyrical coloring of the work.
"Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh, written by him "sitting on a sledge" i.e., shortly before his death, somewhere around 1117, the chroniclers attributed it to similar wills addressed to children.
An outstanding statesman of the late 11th - early 12th centuries, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1052-1125), by his policy contributed to the temporary cessation of princely strife. He became famous for his successful campaigns against the Polovtsians. Having become the Grand Duke of Kyiv in 1113, Monomakh contributed in every possible way to strengthening the unity of the Russian land.
The central idea of the "Instruction" is an appeal addressed to the children of Monomakh and all who will hear "this grammar" strictly observe the requirements of the feudal legal order, be guided by them, and not by personal, self-serving family interests. "Instruction" goes beyond the narrow framework of the family will and acquires great social significance.
Using the example of personal rich life experience, Vladimir gives a high example of the prince serving the interests of his land.
A characteristic feature of the Teaching is the close intertwining of didactics with autobiographical elements. Monomakh's instructions are supported not only by maxims from "Holy Scripture", but primarily by concrete examples from his own life.
The tasks of the national order are brought to the fore in the "Instruction". The sacred duty of the prince is concern for the welfare of his state, its unity, strict and strict observance of oaths and treaties. The prince must "Care about Christian souls", "about a bad stink" And "wretched widow". Internecine strife undermines the economic and political power of the state. Only peace leads to the prosperity of the country. Therefore, it is the duty of the ruler to keep the peace.
Another equally important duty of the prince, according to Monomakh, is the care and concern for the good of the church. He understands that the church is a faithful assistant to the prince. Therefore, in order to strengthen his power, the prince must vigilantly take care of the priestly and monastic rank. True, Monomakh does not recommend that his children save their souls in a monastery, that is, become monks. The ascetic monastic ideal is alien to this life-loving energetic person.
In accordance with Christian morality, Vladimir requires a caring attitude towards "wretched"(poor).
The prince himself should be an example of high morality. The main positive quality of a person is diligence. Labor, in the understanding of Monomakh, is, first of all, a military feat, and then hunting, when the body and soul of a person are tempered in the constant struggle against dangers.
Vladimir gives examples from his personal life: he made only 83 large campaigns, and he does not remember small ones, he concluded 20 peace treaties. On the hunt, he was in constant danger, more than once he risked his life: “Tura me 2 threw narozeh and with a horse, a deer me one bol, and 2 elks, one trampled with their feet, and the other a horn bol; ... a fierce beast jumped on my hips and the horse was down with me.
Vladimir considers laziness to be the main vice: “Laziness is the mother of everything: if you know how, you will forget, but you don’t know how, but don’t teach it.”
Monomakh himself appears in his Teaching as an unusually active man: “Even if it was for my child to do, then I did it myself, deeds in war and fishing, night and day, in heat and winter, without milking myself to rest.”
One of the positive qualities of the prince is his generosity, constant concern for increasing and spreading his good name.
In everyday life, the prince should be a model for others: to visit the sick, to see the dead, for everyone is mortal. Family relationships should be built on the respect of husbands for wives: “Love your wife, but do not give them power over you,” he instructs.
Thus, in the "Instruction" Monomakh covers a fairly wide range of life phenomena. He gives clear answers to many social and moral questions of his time.
At the same time, the "Instruction" is a very valuable material for understanding the personality of the author himself - the first secular writer of Ancient Rus' known to us. First of all, this is a well-educated person, who knows the literature of his time well. In his work, he uses the Psalter, Paremiion, teachings of Basil the Great, Xenophon and Theodora to children, placed in the Izbornik 1076, Shestodnev.
The "Instruction" is built according to a certain plan: an introduction addressed to children, with self-abasement characteristic of an ancient Russian writer - do not laugh at his writing, but take it into your heart, do not scold, but say that “on the way, and sitting on a sleigh, I said nonsense,” and finally a request: "... if you don't like the last one, take the front one."
The central didactic part of the "Instruction" begins with a general philosophical discussion about the philanthropy and mercy of God, the need for victory over evil and the possibility of this victory, the guarantee of which is the beauty and harmony of the world created by God.
He gives a kind of diary of military campaigns, in a manner reminiscent of brief annalistic weather records, only without dates. Listing my "paths" Vladimir arranges them in chronological order from 1072 to 1117.
And again comes the conclusion. Addressing children or others, "who will read" Monomakh asks not to condemn him. He does not praise himself, not his courage, but praises God, who "bad and sinful" so many years kept from death and created “not lazy”, “bad”, “human needs for all things”.
In the style of "Instructions" it is easy to detect, on the one hand, its bookish elements associated with the use of literary sources by Vladimir, and on the other hand, elements of a living spoken language, which are especially pronounced in the description "ways" and the dangers to which he was exposed during the hunt. A characteristic feature of the "Instructions" style is the presence of refined, vivid, easy-to-remember aphoristic expressions.
On the whole, the "Instruction" and the letter clearly reveal the image of an outstanding statesman of the Russian Middle Ages, a man in whom the ideal of a prince who cares about the glory and honor of his native land is vividly embodied.
Old Russian literature - literature of the Eastern Slavs of the XI - XIII centuries. Moreover, only from the XIV century can we talk about the manifestation of certain book traditions and the emergence of Great Russian literature, and from the XV - Ukrainian and Belarusian literature.
Conditions for the emergence of ancient Russian literature
Factors without which no literature could have come into being:
1) The emergence of the state: the emergence of orderly relationships between people (ruler and subjects). In Rus', the state was formed in the 9th century, when in 862 Prince Rurik was called. After that, there is a need for texts proving his right to power.
2) Developed oral folk art. In Rus', by the 11th century, it was formed in two forms: a retinue epic glorifying feats of arms, and ritual poetry intended for the cult of pagan gods, as well as for traditional holidays.
3) Adoption of Christianity- 988 year. There is a need for Bible texts translated into Slavonic.
4) The emergence of writing- the most important condition for the formation of any literature. Without writing, it would forever remain in the status of oral art, because the main feature of literature is that it is written down.
Periods of Old Russian literature (X - XVII centuries)
1. The end of the X - the beginning of the XII century: the literature of Kievan Rus (the main genre is chronicles).
2. The end of the XII - the first third of the XIII century: literature of the era of feudal fragmentation.
3. The second third of the XIII - the end of the XIV century (until 1380): literature of the era of the Tatar-Mongol invasion.
4. The end of the XIV - the first half of the XV century: the literature of the period of the unification of Rus' around Moscow.
5. The second half of the 15th - 16th centuries: the literature of a centralized state (publicism appeared at this time).
6. XVI - the end of the XVII century: the era of transition from ancient Russian literature to the literature of the New Age. At this time, poetry appears and the role of personalities significantly increases (authors begin to be indicated).
Features (difficulties) of studying Old Russian literature
1) Handwritten literature. The first printed book (Apostle) is published only in 1564, before that all the texts were written by hand.
3) The inability to establish the exact date of writing the work. Sometimes even a century is unknown, and all dating is very arbitrary.
The main genres of ancient Russian literature
In the first periods, the main part of the texts was translated, and their content was purely ecclesiastical. Consequently, the first genres of Old Russian literature were borrowed from foreign ones, but similar Russian ones also appeared later:
hagiography (lives of saints)
Apocrypha (lives of the saints presented from a different point of view).
Chronicles (chronographs). Historical writings, ancestors of the chronicle genre. ("
Consider some genres of ancient Russian literature. Let's start with the fact that they appeared along with the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. The intensity of its distribution is indisputable evidence that the emergence of writing was caused by the needs of the state.
History of appearance
Writing was used in various spheres of public and state life, in the legal sphere, international and domestic relations.
After the emergence of writing, the activities of scribes and translators were stimulated, and various genres of ancient Russian literature began to develop.
It served the needs and needs of the church, consisted of solemn words, life, teachings. Secular literature appeared in Ancient Rus', chronicles began to be kept.
In the minds of the people of this period, literature was considered together with Christianization.
Old Russian writers: chroniclers, hagiographers, authors of solemn phrases, they all mentioned the benefits of enlightenment. At the end of X - beginning of XI century. in Rus', a huge amount of work was carried out aimed at translating literary sources from the ancient Greek language. Thanks to such activities, the Old Russian scribes managed to get acquainted with many monuments of the Byzantine period over two centuries, and on their basis create various genres of Old Russian literature. D.S. Likhachev, analyzing the history of the introduction of Rus' to the books of Bulgaria and Byzantium, singled out two characteristic features of such a process.
He confirmed the existence of literary monuments that became common to Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, Rus'.
Such intermediary literature included liturgical books, sacred writings, chronicles, works of church writers, and natural science materials. In addition, this list included some monuments of historical narration, for example, "The Romance of Alexander the Great."
Most of the ancient Bulgarian literature, the Slavic intermediary, was a translation from the Greek language, as well as works of early Christian literature written in the 3rd-7th centuries.
It is impossible to mechanically subdivide ancient Slavic literature into translated and original, they are organically connected parts of a single organism.
Reading other people's books in Ancient Rus' is evidence of the secondary nature of national culture in the field of artistic expression. At first, among the written monuments there were a sufficient number of non-literary texts: works on theology, history, and ethics.
Folklore works became the main type of verbal art. To understand the originality and originality of Russian literature, it is enough to familiarize yourself with works that are “outside the genre systems”: Vladimir Monomakh’s “Instruction”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.
Primary genres
The genres of ancient Russian literature include such works that have become building material for other areas. They include:
- teachings;
- stories;
- word;
- life.
Such genres of works of Old Russian literature include annalistic story, weather record, church legend, and chronicle legend.
life
It was borrowed from Byzantium. Life as a genre of ancient Russian literature has become one of the most beloved and widespread. Life was considered an obligatory attribute when a person was ranked among the saints, that is, they were canonized. It was created by people who directly communicate with a person, able to reliably tell about the bright moments of his life. The text was composed after the death of the one about whom it was said. He performed an essential educational function, since the life of the saint was perceived as a standard (model) of a righteous existence, imitated by him.
Life helped people overcome the fear of death, the idea of the immortality of the human soul was preached.
Canons of Life
Analyzing the features of the genres of ancient Russian literature, we note that the canons according to which the life was created remained unchanged until the 16th century. First, the origin of the hero was discussed, then a place was given to a detailed story about his righteous life, about the absence of fear of death. The description ended with a glorification.
Arguing over which genres of ancient Russian literature considered the most interesting, we note that it was the life that made it possible to describe the existence of the holy princes Gleb and Boris.
Old Russian eloquence
Answering the question about what genres existed in ancient Russian literature, we note that eloquence was in three versions:
- political;
- didactic;
- solemn.
teaching
The system of genres of ancient Russian literature distinguished him as a variety of ancient Russian eloquence. In teaching, the chroniclers tried to single out a standard of behavior for all ancient Russian people: a commoner, a prince. The most striking example of this genre is the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh from The Tale of Bygone Years, dated 1096. At that time, disputes for the throne between the princes reached their maximum intensity. In his lecture, Vladimir Monomakh gives recommendations on how to organize his life. He offers to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion, calls to help people in need, to serve God.
Monomakh confirms the need for prayer before a military campaign with an example from his own life. He proposes to build social relations in harmony with nature.
Sermon
Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we emphasize that this oratory church genre, which has a peculiar theory, was involved in historical and literary study only in the form that was indicative of the era at some stages.
The sermon called "fathers of the church" Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, Gregory the Dialogist. Luther's sermons are recognized as an integral part of the study of the formation of New German prose, and the statements of Bourdalou, Bossuet, and other speakers of the 17th century are the most important examples of the prose style of French classicism. The role of sermons in medieval Russian literature is high; they confirm the originality of the genres of ancient Russian literature.
Historians consider the “Words” of Metropolitan Hilarion and Kirill Turvosky to be examples of Russian old pre-Mongolian sermons, which give a complete picture of the creation of the composition and elements of the artistic style. They skillfully used Byzantine sources, based on them they created quite good works of their own. They use a sufficient amount of antitheses, comparisons, personifications of abstract concepts, allegory, rhetorical fragments, dramatic presentation, dialogues, partial landscapes.
The following examples of a sermon, designed in an unusual stylistic design, are considered by professionals to be the "Words" of Serapion Vladimirsky, the "Words" of Maxim the Greek. The heyday of the practice and theory of preaching art came in the 18th century, they dealt with the struggle between Ukraine and Poland.
Word
Analyzing the main genres of Old Russian literature, we will pay special attention to the word. It is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. As an example of its political variability, let's call The Tale of Igor's Campaign. This work of many historians causes serious controversy.
The historical genre of ancient Russian literature, to which The Tale of Igor's Campaign can be attributed, is striking in its unusual methods and artistic means.
In this work, the chronological traditional version of the narrative is violated. The author is first transferred to the past, then mentions the present, uses lyrical digressions that make it possible to enter various episodes: Yaroslavna's lament, Svyatoslav's dream.
The "Word" contains various elements of oral traditional folk art, symbols. It contains epics, fairy tales, and there is also a political background: the Russian princes united in the fight against a common enemy.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is one of the books that reflect the early feudal epic. It is on a par with other works:
- "Song of the Nibelungs";
- "The Knight in the Panther's Skin";
- "David of Sasun".
These works are considered one-stage, belong to the same stage of folklore and literary formation.
The Lay combines two folklore genres: lamentation and glory. Through the whole work there is a lamentation of dramatic events, the glorification of the princes.
Similar techniques are typical for other works of Ancient Rus'. For example, "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" is a combination of the lamentation of the dying Russian land with the glory of the mighty past.
The Sermon on Law and Grace, authored by Metropolitan Hilarion, serves as a solemn variation of ancient Russian eloquence. This work appeared at the beginning of the 11th century. The reason for writing was the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The work contains the idea of the complete independence of Rus' from the Byzantine Empire.
Under the "Law" Illarion notes the Old Testament, given to the Jews, not suitable for the Russian people. God gives a New Covenant called "Grace". Illarion writes that, as Emperor Constantine is revered in Byzantium, the Russian people also respect Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus'.
Tale
Having considered the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will also pay attention to the stories. These are texts of an epic type, telling about military exploits, princes, and their deeds. Examples of such works are:
- "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky";
- "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan";
- The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River.
The most common genre in ancient Russian literature was the genre of the military story. Various lists of works relating to him have been published. Many historians paid attention to the analysis of stories: D. S. Likhachev, A. S. Orlova, N. A. Meshchersky. Despite the fact that traditionally the genre of the military story was considered the secular literature of Ancient Rus', it inalienably belongs to the circle of church literature.
The versatility of the themes of such works is explained by the combination of the heritage of the pagan past with the new Christian worldview. These elements give rise to a new perception of a military feat that combines heroic and worldly traditions. Among the sources that influenced the formation of this genre at the beginning of the 11th century, experts single out translated works: “Alexandria”, “Deed of Devgen”.
N. A. Meshchersky, who is engaged in a deep study of this literary monument, believed that the “History” had an influence on the formation of the military story of Ancient Rus' to the maximum extent. He confirms his opinion with a significant number of quotations used in various ancient Russian literary works: "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", the Kyiv and Galicia-Volyn chronicles.
Historians admit that Icelandic sagas and military epics were used in the formation of this genre.
The warrior was endowed with courageous valor and holiness. The idea of him is similar to the description of the epic hero. The essence of the military feat has changed, the desire for death for great faith comes first.
A separate role was assigned to the princely ministry. The desire for self-realization passes into humble self-sacrifice. The implementation of this category is carried out in connection with the verbal and ritual forms of culture.
chronicle
It is a kind of narration about historical events. Chronicle is considered one of the first genres of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', it played a special role, because it not only reported on some historical event, but was also a legal and political document, it was a confirmation of how to behave in certain situations. The Tale of Bygone Years, which has come down to us in the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 16th century, is considered to be the most ancient chronicle. It tells about the origin of the Kyiv princes, about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.
Chronicles are considered "unifying genres", which subjugate the following components: a military, historical story, the life of a saint, laudatory words, teachings.
Chronograph
These are texts that contain a detailed description of the time of the XV-XVI centuries. One of the first such works historians consider "Chronograph according to the great presentation." This work has not reached our time in full, so information about it is rather contradictory.
In addition to those genres of ancient Russian literature that are listed in the article, there were many other directions, each of which had its own distinctive characteristics. The variety of genres is a direct confirmation of the versatility and originality of literary works created in Ancient Rus'.
Old Russian literature... How can it be of interest to us, people of the 21st century? First of all, the preservation of historical memory. It is also the source of all our spiritual life. Our written culture originates from the literature of Ancient Rus'. Much in modern life becomes clear if there is a historical retrospective. At the same time, a number of efforts must be made to understand what they believed in, what they dreamed about, what our distant ancestors wanted to do.
It is advisable to start a conversation with students with a description of the era.
Ancient Rus'… How do we imagine it? What is the peculiarity of the perception of man and the world of a certain era? What is the difficulty in understanding it? First of all, the reader, researcher or teacher faces the problems of adequate understanding of the era itself, and since the era is shown through the prism of a literary work, this is a problem of reading and interpretation. This task becomes especially complicated if the time in question is several centuries away from the reader. Other times, other customs, other concepts... What should the reader do in order to understand the people of a distant time? Try to figure out the intricacies of this time period yourself.
What is the world of medieval man? To answer this question, it is necessary to get away from the interpretation of Medieval Rus' given in the Soviet period. The fact is that the starting point of Soviet science was the pre-revolutionary book by P.N. Accordingly, in many works of Soviet researchers, the Middle Ages are presented as a time where senseless barbarian customs and mores reigned, and the domination of the church was perceived as evil.
Currently, a new direction in science is being developed - historical anthropology. In the center of her attention is a person with his inner world and the totality of the relationship of a person with the surrounding space, natural, public, domestic. Thus, the image of the world is revealed both as a microcosm (through the person of a given era himself) and as a macrocosm (through social and state relations). The teacher bears a great responsibility for the formation in the mind of the student of the image of the world of the Middle Ages. If the space of the past is distorted, then the space of the present is thereby distorted. Moreover, the historical past becomes an arena of ideological battles, where there is a distortion of facts, and juggling, and "fantastic reconstruction" that is so fashionable at the present time. That is why the position of the teacher in the process of teaching Old Russian literature is so important.
What should the reader pay attention to in order to understand the world of medieval Russian people, to learn to respect the significance and self-understanding of this world? It is important to understand that the meaning of some words and concepts for a person of the 10th-15th centuries is different than for a person of the 21st century. Accordingly, in the light of these meanings, some actions can be considered and evaluated quite differently. So, one of the basic concepts of the Middle Ages is the concept of truth. For a modern person, truth is “a sphere of deep feelings, artistic comprehension, eternal scientific searches. Medieval man was different in that his mood was different: the truth for him was already open and defined in the texts of Holy Scripture.
In addition to the concept of "truth", it is important to reveal the ancient meanings of the words "truth" and "faith". Under the "truth" in ancient Rus' was meant the Word of God. "Faith" is the Word of God in the flesh. This is the truth given in God's commandments, apostolic and sacred canons. In a narrower sense, "faith" is the ritual side of religion. Trying to translate this concept into modern language, let's say that "truth" is an idea, and "faith" is a technology for bringing this idea to life.
The teacher's task is especially difficult, when he has to immerse himself not only in the past, which in itself is fraught with the dangers of misunderstanding, but in another spiritual world, the world of the Church, where the opposite perspective is characteristic: the distant faces are larger than the near ones. The most important thing that a teacher should remember is the covenant handed down to us from the depths of the Middle Ages: “Let it not be merciful to lie against a saint!”
The images of the saints excited and excite now. However, it is difficult for a modern person to understand the full depth of the deeds of these people. We must make efforts, devote time to this, and then the world of Russian holiness will appear before us.
Old Russian literature differs in many respects from modern literature. In it, a number of specific features can be distinguished that determine its dissimilarity with the literature of our days:
1) historicism of the content;
2) syncretism;
3) voluntariness and didacticity;
4) etiquette of forms;
5) anonymity;
6) the handwritten nature of the narrative and existence.
In Ancient Rus', fiction was attributed to diabolical instigation, therefore only those events that actually happened and were known to the author were depicted. The historicism of the content is manifested in the fact that there were no fictional heroes, no events. All persons, all events referred to in the narrative are real, authentic, or the author believes in their authenticity.
Anonymity is inherent primarily in chronicles, lives, military stories. The author proceeded from the idea that it is immodest to put your signature when you talk about historical events or talk about the life, deeds and miracles of a saint. As for sermons, teachings, prayers, they most often have specific authors, because a very authoritative person, respected and revered by others, could pronounce or write them. The very genre of preaching and teaching made special demands on the author. His name, his righteous life influenced the listener and the reader.
In the Middle Ages, great importance was attached to the form of relations between people, scrupulous adherence to tradition, observance of ritual, detailed etiquette. Therefore, literary etiquette was predetermined by the world order and rigid limits of behavior. Literary etiquette presupposed how the course of events should have taken place, how the character should have behaved, what words should describe what happened. And if the behavior of a person did not correspond to the generally accepted norm, then it was either a negative character, or it was necessary to keep silent about this fact.
In general, all written works in Old Russian literature are voluntarily and didactic. The author writes his works with the idea that he will certainly convince the reader, have an emotional and volitional impact and lead him to the generally accepted norms of morality and morality. This is typical for translated literature, including scientific literature. So "Physiologist", a translated monument, known even to Vladimir Monomakh, introduced real and mythical animals. At the same time, this text is an insistence to readers: “The lion has three properties. When the lioness gives birth, she brings a dead and blind cub, she sits and guards for up to three days. Three days later, a lion comes, blows into his nostrils and the cub comes to life. The same with faithful peoples. Before baptism they are dead, but after baptism they are cleansed by the holy spirit.” The synthesis of science and religious ideas are combined in one text.
The original written works in Old Russian literature, as a rule, belonged to the genres of the journalistic style. Life, preaching, teaching as a genre predetermined the vector of thought, showed moral norms and taught the rules of behavior. Thus, the works of Metropolitan Hilarion are theological treatises in content, sermons in form. In them, he cares about the prosperity of the Russian people, about their morality and morality. Hilarion has a very definite idea of what the people need, for he became a teacher and shepherd "by the grace of a philanthropic God."
The syncretism of genres is generally characteristic of the era of the emergence of art and literature. It appears in two forms. Firstly, a vivid manifestation of syncretism can be traced in the chronicles. They contain both a military story, and legends, and samples of contracts, and reflections on religious topics. Secondly, syncretism is associated with the underdevelopment of genre forms. In the "Journeys", for example, there are descriptions of specific geographical and historical places, and a sermon, and teaching. Elements of military stories can be introduced into life. And military stories can end with teachings or religious reflections.
In order to understand the peculiarities of the culture of Ancient Rus', it is also necessary to say about the significance of Byzantine culture and literature for the formation of Old Russian literature. Along with baptism, books came to Rus'. The most famous and revered were the works of the Byzantine theologians John Chrysostom (344-407), Basil the Great (330-379), Gregory the Theologian (320-390), Ephrem the Syrian (died 343). They interpreted the foundations of Christianity, people were instructed in Christian virtues.
Of the translated stories and novels, the most popular was the novel "Alexandria", which tells about the life of Alexander the Great. This novel about historical events with an entertaining plot, with interweaving of fictional events and fantastic inserts, with a colorful description of India and Persia, was a favorite work in medieval Europe. The Russian translator dealt with this novel quite freely, he supplemented it with episodes from other sources, adapting it to the tastes of Russian readers. Moreover, he believed that all the events of the novel are genuine, and not fictional.
In addition to these books, Russian people were interested in The Tale of the Destruction of Jerusalem by Josephus Flavius, the story of Basil Digenis Akritus (it was known to ancient Russian readers as the Deed of Devgen), the story of the Trojan deeds, the story of Akira the Wise. Even a simple enumeration gives an understanding of the breadth of interests of the translators of Ancient Rus': they introduce historical events in Jerusalem, admire the exploits of a warrior guarding the eastern borders of the Byzantine Empire, show the history of the Trojan War and talk about the distant past, about the life of the wise adviser to the Assyrian and Nineveh king Sennacherib-Akihar (Akira).
Translators are also interested in works about the natural world. These books included the Six Days with information about the Universe, the Physiologist, which described real and imaginary animals, fantastic stones and amazing trees, and the Christian topography of Cosmas Indikoplova, "a voyager to India."
The Middle Ages, tragically, appear dark, harsh, and unproductive. It seems that people thought differently, imagined the world differently, that literary works did not correspond to great achievements. Chronicles, teachings, lives and prayers... Will it all be interesting? After all, now other times, other customs. But can there be another representation of the native land? In his prayer, Metropolitan Hilarion asks the Savior to “show meekness and mercy” to the Russian people: “… cast out enemies, establish the world, pacify tongues, quench famines, create our rulers with the threat of tongues, make wise the boyar, spread cities, grow your Church, keep your heritage save husbands and wives with babies who are in slavery, in captivity, in captivity on the way, in swimming, in dungeons, in hunger and thirst and nakedness - have mercy on everyone, grant consolation to everyone, rejoice everyone, giving them joy and bodily, and sincere!
Despite the peculiarities of the vision of the world, the attitude towards God and man, the form of expression of thought remains almost the same for people of the 10th and 21st centuries. We convey thought by the same substances of language. Types of speech and genres exist in time, changing and adapting to a particular era in content rather than in form.
Genre is the primary speech form of the existence of a language. If speech genres did not exist, then they would have to be created anew at the moment of speech. This would impede communication, impede the transfer of information. Each time creating a genre for the first time, and not using its form, would be very difficult. M.M. Bakhtin in the book "Aesthetics of Verbal Creativity" defined the following criteria for a speech genre: subject content, style decision and the speaker's speech will. All these moments are interconnected and determine the specifics of the genre. However, the genre is not only a speech statement, but also a historically formed type of literary work, which has features, distinctive features and patterns.
The genre is determined not only by the laws of language, but also by the paradigm of consciousness and the paradigm of behavior. Therefore, the primary genres are those that reflect the simplest things: a biography, a memorial speech, a sermon as a reasoning on moral and religious topics, a lesson as a reasoning on moral and ethical topics, a parable, a description of a journey. Genres at the beginning of their appearance exist as some kind of unity, distinguished by a rigid structure of the presentation of dominant views. As a result of rethinking life, changing semantic values, the genre also changes. There is no unity of content, and the form of presentation of the material is also destroyed.
Genres are not stable in and of themselves. They interact with each other, enriching each other. They can change, can form new combinations.
Over a certain period, the genre changes, acquires new features. We can trace the features of the development of such a genre as the description of travel over the centuries. "Journeys", pilgrimages - this is a religious description of a journey to the Holy Land, to Tsargrad, to Palestine. "Journey Beyond Three Seas" by Afanasy Nikitin is already a secular description, to some extent geographical. In the future, trips of scientific, artistic and journalistic styles are distinguished. In the latter style, the travel essay genre is especially common.
Of course, in ancient Russian literature, the subject content depended on the religious worldview and historical events. The theocentric vision of the world largely determined the self-consciousness of man. The human person is nothing before the power and majesty of the Lord. Thus, the style decision was determined by the place of a person in the world. The author's beginning should not play any role. The image of historical figures should initially be far from reality. The lack of original style was to be the rule rather than the exception. But all this did not become a dogma for ancient Russian literature. In it, on the contrary, we see works filled with the author's worldview, pain for the fate of the country, they give preference to certain events and people. The chronicler is proud, elevates or brings down and condemns his princes, he is not an impartial observer.
In the works of this period, the reader is introduced to religious wisdom. That is why fiction is not allowed, but only facts are transmitted, on their basis Christian truths are revealed. The speech will of the speaker in the works of that time was subordinated to the state and religious idea.
The parameters that determine the genre features of a speech utterance are considered at several levels: at the subject-semantic, at the structural-compositional, at the level of style and language design.
The thematic content of any speech statement is determined by "subject-semantic exhaustion". The author of the speech statement thinks over how the subject of speech will be presented in the texts and what needs to be said in order for the topic to be revealed within these genre frameworks.
The structural and compositional level prescribes a fairly rigid genre scheme. The parable is characterized by its own structure, oratory is not like a lesson, and the lives of the saints are like military stories. Compositional organization is the external and internal manifestations of textual material, this is its division into semantic parts. The genres of Old Russian literature were created according to a certain canon, which largely dictated a rigid structure and characteristic composition.
Speech utterance requires special stylistic resources. Firstly, it is the style of the era, in this case, Old Russian. Secondly, the style of the genre, parables, walks, etc. The genre itself determines which stylistic features are prioritized in a given work. And, thirdly, the author's style. The monk does not speak as the prince speaks.
The genre nature of any statement is specific, therefore, in each genre, one can single out the unique, original, characteristic only for this type. The content depends on the speech will of the speaker, i.e. the subject of speech, the idea, how this subject of speech is defined and what is the attitude of the author to it, and the style in which all this is presented. This unity determines the genre of a literary and journalistic work, including Old Russian literature.
In ancient Russian literature, there was a division of genres into secular and state-religious.
Secular works are works of oral art. In ancient Russian society, folklore was not limited by class or class. Epics, fairy tales, songs were of interest to everyone, and they were listened to both in the princely palace and in the dwelling of the smerd. Oral creativity filled the aesthetic needs in the artistic word.
Written literature was publicistic. She responded to religious, moral, ethical needs. These are parables, lives of saints, walks, prayers and teachings, chronicles, military and historical stories.
Thus, oral and written literature covered all spheres of human activity, showed his inner world, satisfied religious, moral, ethical and aesthetic needs.
