The emergence of classicism in architecture. How Russian classicism in architecture differs from European

What is Classicism?

Classicism- This is an artistic direction that has developed in European literature of the 17th century, which is based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest model, ideal, and the works of antiquity as an artistic norm. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature”. The cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot-compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are outlined in a straight line; positive and negative characters are opposed. Active appeal to public, civic issues. Emphasized objectivity of the story. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.

Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its main signs were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau's treatise Poetic Art (1674). Classicism was seen as a direction oriented towards ancient art. In the definition of classicism, they singled out, first of all, the desire for clarity and accuracy of expression, alignment with ancient models and strict obedience to the rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of three unities (the unity of time, the unity of place, the unity of action) were obligatory, which became a symbol of the three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in dramaturgy. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this trend understood their own work not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of true art, addressed to the universal, unchanging, to beautiful nature as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmonious composition, a set of certain themes, motifs, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although such prose genres as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, dramatic works and the theater itself are of particular importance in it, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.

The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of good taste developed by the so-called good society. The taste of classicism prefers brevity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity to extravagant - decent. The main law of classicism is artistic plausibility, which depicts things and people as they should be in accordance with the moral norm, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which should turn them into universal universal types.

The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, the semantic fullness of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.

from lat. classicus, lit. - belonging to the first class of Roman citizens; in a figurative sense - exemplary) - arts. direction and the corresponding aesthetic. theory, the emergence of which dates back to the 16th century, the heyday - to the 17th century, the decline - to the beginning of the 19th century. K. is the first trend in art in the history of modern times, in which aesthetic. theory preceded art. practice and dictated her own laws. Aesthetics K. normative and reduced to the following. provisions: 1) the basis of the arts. creativity is the mind, the requirements of which must be subject to all components of art-va; 2) the purpose of creativity is the knowledge of the truth and its disclosure in an artistic and visual form; there can be no divergence between beauty and truth; 3) art must follow nature, "imitate" it; what is ugly in nature must become aesthetically acceptable in art; 4) the claim is moral by its very nature and by the whole system of arts. works affirm the moral ideal of society; 5) cognitive, aesthetic. and ethical the quality of the claim-va dictate a certain. art system. techniques, to-rye best contribute to practical. implementation of the principles of K.; the rules of good taste determine the features, norms and limits of each type of art and each genre within a given type of art; 6) art. the ideal, according to the theorists of K., is embodied in antique. claim-ve. Therefore the best way to achieve the arts. perfection - to imitate classical models. claims of antiquity. Name "K." comes from the principle of imitation of antique adopted by this direction. classics. K. is partly characteristic of ancient aesthetics: the theorists of imperial Rome came forward with demands to imitate the Greek. samples, be guided in the claim by the principles of reason, etc. The cult of antiquity re-emerges in the Renaissance, when interest in antiquity intensifies. culture, partly destroyed, partly forgotten in the Middle Ages. Humanists studied the monuments of antiquity, seeking to find support in the pagan worldview of antiquity in the struggle against spiritualism and scholasticism of the Middle Ages. feud. ideology. "In the manuscripts saved during the fall of Byzantium, in antique statues dug out of the ruins of Rome, a new world appeared before the astonished West - Greek antiquity; the ghosts of the Middle Ages disappeared before its bright images" (Engels F., see Marx K. and Engels F., Op. , 2nd ed., vol. 20, pp. 345–46). The most important for the formation of aesthetic. The theory of humanism of the Renaissance had the study of treatises on the poetics of Aristotle and Horace, to-rye were accepted as a set of indisputable laws of art. In particular, it received great development already in the 16th century. the theory of drama, especially tragedy, and the theory of epic. poems, to which priority attention is paid in the surviving text of Aristotle's Poetics. Minturpo, Castelvetro, Scaliger, and other commentators on Aristotle laid the foundations for the poetics of Carnival and established the arts typical of this art. directions of the rules of composition of drama and epic, as well as other literature. genres. In picture art-wah and architecture is turning from the Gothic of the Middle Ages to the style of Antich. samples, which is reflected in the theoretical. works on claims, in particular Leon Battista Alberti. In the Renaissance, however, the aesthetic K.'s theory experienced only the initial period of its formation. It was not recognized as obligatory, and arts. practice has largely deviated from it. As in literature, drama, and depict. art-wah and architecture, arts. the achievements of antiquity were used to the extent that they corresponded to the ideological and aesthetic. aspirations of figures of art-va humanism. In the 17th century there is a transformation of K. into an indisputable doctrine, following a swarm becomes mandatory. If the initial stage of the formation of K. takes place in Italy, then the design of K. into a complete aesthetic. doctrine took place in France in the 17th century. Socio-political. the basis of this process was the regulation of all spheres of life, carried out by the absolutist state. Cardinal Richelieu created the Academy in France (1634), which was entrusted with monitoring the purity of the French. language and literature. The first document that officially approved the doctrine of K. was "The Opinion of the French Academy on the tragicomedy (P. Corneille)" Cid "" ("Les sentiments de l´Acad? Mie fran? Aise sur la tragi-com? Die du Cid", 1638 ), where the rules of the three unities in drama (the unity of place, time and action) were proclaimed. Simultaneously with the approval of K. in literature and the theater, he also conquered the spheres of architecture, painting and sculpture. In France, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture is being created, at meetings of which the rules of K. are formulated and in plastic. claim-wah. France in the 17th century K. finds its classic. form not only by virtue of state. support, but also due to the general nature of the development of the spiritual culture of that time. The defining moment of the content of the claim-va K. was the idea of ​​establishing statehood. It arose as a counterbalance to feuds. separatism and in this respect was a progressive principle. However, the progressiveness of this idea was limited, because. it boiled down to an apology for the monarchic. autocracy. The bearer of the principle of statehood was the absolute monarch, and in his person the person was embodied. ideal. The seal of this concept lies on the entire claim of K., to-ry was even sometimes called later "court K.". Although the court of the king was indeed the center from where the ideological. directives to the lawsuit, K. as a whole was by no means only a noble-aristocratic. lawsuit. Aesthetics K. is under means. influenced by the philosophy of rationalism. Ch. French representative. rationalism of the 17th century. R. Descartes had a decisive influence on the formation of aesthetic. doctrine K. Ethic. K.'s ideals were aristocratic only in appearance. Their essence was humanistic. ethics, recognizing the need for a compromise with the absolutist state-tion. However, within the limits available to them, the supporters of K. fought against the vices of the nobility and monarchy. society and brought up the consciousness of morals. the responsibility of everyone to society, including the king, who was also portrayed as a person who abandoned personal interests in the name of the interests of the state. Such was the first form of the civic ideal available at that stage of societies. development, when the rising bourgeoisie was still not strong enough to oppose the absolutist state. On the contrary, using its ext. contradictions, primarily the struggle of the monarchy against the willfulness of the nobility and the Fronde, the leading figures of the bourgeois-democratic. cultures supported the monarchy as a centralizing state. beginning capable of moderating feud. oppression, or at least put it into some kind of framework. If in some types and genres of art and literature external pomposity, elation of form prevailed, then in others freedom was allowed. According to the nature of the estate state, art also had a hierarchy of genres, which were divided into higher and lower. Among the lower ones were comedy, satire, fable in literature. However, it was in them that the most democratic ideas were developed. trends of the era (Molière's comedies, Boileau's satires, La Fontaine's fables). But even in the high genres of literature (tragedy), both contradictions and advanced morals affected. ideals of the era (early Corneille, Racine's work). In principle, K. claimed that he created the aesthetic. a theory imbued with an all-encompassing unity, but in practice arts. the culture of the era is characterized by conspicuous contradictions. The most important of these was the constant discrepancy between the modern. content and antich. the shape into which it was squeezed. Heroes of classicist tragedies, despite the antich. names were French in the 17th century. by way of thinking, morals and psychology. If occasionally such a masquerade was beneficial for covering attacks against the authorities, then at the same time it prevented the direct reflection of modern. reality in the "high genres" classic. lawsuit. Therefore, the greatest realism is characteristic of the lower genres, to which the image of "ugly" and "base" was not forbidden. Compared with the many-sided realism of the Renaissance, K. represented a narrowing of the sphere of life covered by art. culture. However, the aesthetic theory K. deserves the merit of revealing the importance of the typical in the art-ve. True, the principle of typification was understood in a limited way, because its implementation was achieved at the cost of losing the individual principle. But the essence of life phenomena and human. characters receives in K. such an incarnation, which makes it really possible both cognitive and educate. the function of works. Their ideological content becomes clear and precise, the intelligibility of ideas gives the works of art a direct ideological. character. The lawsuit turns into a tribune of moral, philosophical, religious. and politic. ideas. Feudal Crisis. monarchy gives rise to a new form of anti-feud. ideologies - enlightenment. There is a new variation of this art. directions - the so-called. educational K., to-ry is characterized by the preservation of all aesthetic. principles of K. 17th century. The poetics of the Enlightenment C., as it was finally formulated by Boileau (the poetic treatise "The Art of Poetry" - "L´art po?tique", 1674), remains a code of inviolable rules for the enlighteners - the classicists, headed by Voltaire. New in K. 18th century. is primarily its socio-political. orientation. An ideal civil hero arises, who cares not for the welfare of the state, but for the welfare of society. Not serving the king, but caring for the people becomes the center of the moral and political. aspirations. The tragedies of Voltaire, Cato by Addison, the tragedies of Alfieri, to some extent, and Russian. 18th century classicists (A. Sumarokov) affirm life concepts and ideals that conflict with the principles of feuds. statehood and abs. monarchy. This civic stream in France is transformed in France on the eve of and during the first bourgeoisie. revolution in K. Republican. The reasons that led to the renewal of K. in the period of Franz. bourgeois revolutions were deeply revealed by Marx, who wrote: “In the classically strict traditions of the Roman Republic, the gladiators of bourgeois society found the ideals and artistic forms, the illusions they need in order to hide from themselves the bourgeois-limited content of their struggle in order to keep their inspiration at the height of a great historical tragedy" ("The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte", see p. Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 8, p. 120). For republican K. period of the first bourgeois. Revolution was followed by K. Napoleonic Empire, who created the Empire style. All this was a historical masquerade covering the bourgeois. content of the social upheaval then taking place. K. 18th century freed from certain features of dogmatism inherent in the poetics of the 17th century. It was during the Enlightenment, in connection with a deeper study of art, the classic. antiquity cult of antiquity in plastic. the lawsuit is gaining especially great development. In Germany, Winckelmann, and then Lessing, establish that the aesthetic. the charm of the monuments of antiquity is connected with the political. building the Greek polis: only democracy and the psychology of a free citizen can give rise to such a beautiful art. Since that time in it. theoretical thought affirms the idea of ​​a connection between the aesthetic. ideal and political freedom, which was most clearly expressed in F. Schiller's "Letters on Aesthetic Education" ("?ber die? sthetische Erziehung lier Menschen, in einer Reihe von Briefen", 1795). However, for him this idea appears in an idealistically perverted form: civil freedom is achieved through aesthetic. education. This formulation of the question was associated with the backwardness of Germany and the lack of prerequisites for the bourgeois. coup. However, in this form, the late German. classicism, the so-called. Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller was a progressive, albeit limited, ideological art. phenomenon. In general, K. was an important stage in the development of artistic practice and theoretical. thoughts. In antique the shell was clothed with the advanced bourgeois-democratic. the ideology of the rise of the bourgeoisie. society. The fettering nature of the doctrinaire teachings of the classicists was already clear at the end of the 17th century, when Saint-Evremond rebelled against it. In the 18th century Lessing inflicted crushing blows precisely on the dogmatic. elements of K., while protecting, however, the “soul” of K., his beautiful ideal of a free, harmoniously developed person. This was the core of the Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller. But in the first third of the 19th century, after the victory and approval of the bourgeois. building in the West. Europe, K. is losing its significance. The collapse of enlightenment illusions about the advent of the kingdom of reason after the victory of the bourgeoisie. revolution makes clear the illusory nature of the classic. ideal in the realm of bourgeois. prose. Historical the role of the overthrow of K. was performed by the aesthetics of romanticism, which opposed the dogmas of K. The struggle against K. reached its greatest acuteness in France at the end of 1820 - early. 1830, when the romantics won graduate. victory over K. like art. direction and aesthetic. theory. This, however, did not mean the complete disappearance of K.'s ideas in the claim. At the end of the 19th century, as well as in the 20th centuries. aesthetic movements Zap. Europe there are relapses. ideas, the roots of which go back to K. They are anti-realistic. and aesthetic character ("neoclassical" tendencies in French poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century) or serve as a mask for ideological. reactions, eg. in the theories of the decadent T. S. Eliot after the 1st World War. The most stable were aesthetic. K.'s ideals in architecture. Classic the style of architecture was repeatedly reproduced in architectural construction in the 1930s and 40s, for example. in the development of architecture in the USSR. Lit.: Marx K. and Engels F., On Art, vol. 1–2, M., 1957; Plekhanov G. V., Art and Literature, [Sat. ], M., 1948, p. 165–87; Kranz [E. ], Experience in Philosophy of Literature. Descartes and French Classicism, trans. [from French. ], St. Petersburg, 1902; Lessing G. E., Hamburg dramaturgy, M.–L., 1936; Pospelov G. N., Sumarokov and the problem of Russian. classicism, "Uch. Zap. Moscow State University", 1948, no. 128, book. 3; Kupreyanov E. H., On the issue of classicism, in the book: XVIII century, Sat. 4, M.–L., 1959; Ernst F., Der Klassizismus in Italien, Frankreich und Deutschland, Z., 1924; Peyre H., Qu'est-ce que le classicisme?, P., 1942; Kristeller P. O., The classics and Renaissance thought, Camb., (Mass.), 1955. A. Anikst. Moscow.

Classicism - the direction of European culture of the late 17th - early 19th centuries. The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means "exemplary". A distinctive feature of classicism is considered to be a strictly developed system of artistic norms that had to be observed, the manifestation of creative imagination was considered unacceptable. The ideas of classicism were present in all spheres of cultural life. Classicism in art, literature, painting, architecture, music was supposed to express universal harmony.

The basic principles of classicism were formulated in a treatise by Nicolas Boileau (France 1674). In it, he convincingly substantiated a number of artistic requirements that were made to literary creativity. Dramatic works had to be sustained in a strict way. The unity of place implies a fixed space where events take place, the unity of time - a certain, limited time period, the unity of action - one central storyline.

Also, according to F. Fenelon and M. V. Lomonosov, representatives of classicism in literature are required to observe a strict hierarchy of genres and styles. "High calm" - sublime vocabulary, genres: odes, heroic poems. "Middle Calm" - elegies, satirical works, dramas. "Low calm" - private and everyday life, genres: fables, comedies, letters. was prohibited. By the beginning of the 19th century, classicism began to be displaced from the pedestal by such styles as sentimentalism and romanticism. The pursuit of rigor and clarity has stopped.

In Russia, classicism appeared only at the beginning of the 18th century. The impetus for its development was the theory of "Three Calms" by Lomonosov, the reform of Trediakovsky. The most famous representatives of classicism in Russia: Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (comedy), Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir (satire), Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin and Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (ode), Ivan Ivanovich Khemnitser and Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (fable). The central problem of the society of that time was the problem of power, therefore Russian classicism has its own peculiar aspects, unlike Western classicism. Since after that not a single emperor came to power legally, the problem of intrigues, palace coups, and the monarch's inconsistency with the expectations of the courtiers and the people was relevant. It is these problems that are reflected in Russian classicism.

Representatives of classicism in music, for example, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, entered world history forever. Their works became a guideline for the development of further musical composition. Musical works began to have a clearer structure, all parts of one work were balanced.

Classicism strongly influenced such a branch of culture as architecture. Antique forms were used, Greek, Roman motifs are visible. Pastel shades predominate. In Russia, a mixture of Russian baroque is also very noticeable. Representatives of classicism in Russian architecture: Kazakov, Eropkin, Zemtsov, Korobov, Rossi, Stasov, Montferrand.

As a rule, it emphasizes the smoothness of forms, and the main elements of the form are line and chiaroscuro. N. Poussin and K. Lorrain are recognized as one of the best painters. Poussin created masterpieces depicting heroic deeds, plots in a historical style. Lorrain, in turn, was engaged in landscapes, where the connection between man and nature, the harmony of their interaction is noticeable. Representatives of classicism in Russian painting: the unsurpassed master of the subject A.P. Losenko, his students (I. A. Akimov, P. I. Sokolov and others).

Classicism(from lat. classicus - exemplary), a style and trend in literature and art that turned to the ancient heritage as a norm and an ideal model.

The emergence of classicism

In 1755, Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in Dresden: "The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients." This call to renew contemporary art, taking advantage of the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, found active support in European society. The progressive public saw in classicism the necessary opposition to the court baroque. But the enlightened feudal lords did not reject the imitation of ancient forms. The era of classicism coincided in time with the era of bourgeois revolutions - English in 1688, French - 101 years later.

Historical characteristics of the classicism style

From the forms of Rococo, marked at first by Roman influence, after the completion of the construction of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in 1791, a sharp turn was made towards Greek forms. After the wars of liberation against Napoleon, this "Hellenism" found its masters in K.F. Schinkele and L. von Klenze. Facades, columns and triangular pediments became the architectural alphabet.

The desire to translate the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art into modern construction led to the desire to completely copy the ancient building. What F. Gilly left as a project for a monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and was called Walhalla (Walhalla "The Hall of the Dead").

The centers of construction in the style of classicism were the princely palaces - residences, Marktplatz (trade square) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt, became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam built mainly in the classical style. But the palaces were no longer the main object of construction. Villas and country houses could no longer be distinguished from them. Public buildings were included in the sphere of state building - theaters, museums, universities and libraries. They were supplemented by social buildings - hospitals, houses for the blind and deaf and dumb, as well as prisons and barracks. The picture was complemented by country estates of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages.

Church building no longer played a primary role, but remarkable structures were created in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a discussion about whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for a Christian monastery.

Building features of the classicism style

After the collapse of the great historical styles that survived the centuries, in the XIX century. there is a clear acceleration of the process of development of architecture. This becomes especially evident if one compares the past century with all the previous thousand-year development. If early medieval architecture and Gothic cover about five centuries, the Renaissance and Baroque together - already only half of this period, then it took less than a century for classicism to master Europe and penetrate across the ocean.

Characteristic features of the classicism style

With a change in the point of view of architecture, with the development of construction technology, the emergence of new types of structures in the 19th century. there was also a significant shift in the center of world development of architecture. In the foreground are countries that have not survived the highest stage of baroque development. Classicism reaches its peak in France, Germany, England and Russia.

Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism, the ideology and art of a new class - the bourgeoisie. The concept of classicism was to use ancient systems of shaping in architecture, which, however, were filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were put in opposition to the randomness, non-strictness of the architectural and artistic manifestations of the worldview of the dying aristocracy.

Classicism stimulated archaeological research, which led to amazing discoveries and new knowledge about advanced ancient civilizations. The results of the work of archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid the theoretical foundations of the movement, whose participants considered ancient culture to be the pinnacle of perfection in the art of building, a model of absolute and eternal beauty. Numerous albums containing images of architectural monuments contributed to the popularization of ancient forms.

Types of buildings in the style of classicism

The nature of the architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls are divided from the outside and from the inside by small pilasters and cornices. Symmetry prevails in the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans. The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to reveal architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant town-planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, resorts are laid. A new organization of settlement, aimed at overcoming social inequality and creating a new social harmony, was proposed at the end of the 19th century by utopian socialists.

"Class!" - we talk about what arouses our admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin, the word classicus and means "exemplary".

Classicismcalled the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the XVII-XIX centuries.

What about as a sample? Classicism developed the canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict trend in art, it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical, random signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect C. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When you can only like this and nothing else? Do not rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, to give direction, to show samples and to sweep aside everything insignificant and not deep.
But the canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. in the visual arts and in music: the norms that had taken root over the course of several centuries had outlived their usefulness and were torn apart.
However, we have already jumped ahead. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of genres of classicism. We will only say that as a certain trend, classicism was formed in France in the 17th century. A feature of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.

Hierarchy of genres of classicism

In classicism, a strict hierarchy of genres is established, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Consider the hierarchy of genres on the examples of various types of art.

Literature

Nicolas Boileau is considered the greatest theorist of classicism, but the founder is Francois Malherba, who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art".

Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy had to be respected three unities: the unity of time (the action must take place within one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (there must be one storyline in the work). The French tragedians Corneille and Racine became the leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy. The main idea of ​​their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov at the monument "1000th Anniversary of Russia" in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of "three calms".

"The theory of three calms" M.V. Lomonosov

The doctrine of the three styles, i.e. The classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, which distinguishes between high, medium and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three "styles" according to Lomonosov:
1. High - solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Medium - elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly compositions.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: the ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism, an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. This we find in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires A.D. Cantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, odes to M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin.
At the end of the XVIII century. the tendency to see in art the main force of human education intensified. In this regard, a literary trend arises sentimentalism, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared the main thing in human nature. The French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin - let's remember his famous "Poor Liza"!
But in the direction of classicism, works were created in the 19th century. For example, "Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboyedov. Although in this comedy there are already elements of romanticism and realism.

Painting

Since the definition of "classicism" is translated as "exemplary", then some kind of model is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. It was the highest example. There was also a reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance, which also saw a model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected the conflicts of the individual and society, the ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which testify to the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors. So wrote, for example, N. Poussin.

Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin "Self-portrait" (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings are based on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.

N. Poussin "Dance to the Music of Time" (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. It circles (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the two-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of the fleeting human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, while the old face is turned to the past. The winged, gray-bearded old man, to the music of which the round dance is spinning, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby who holds an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, the goddess of dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers in her path.

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin, State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist depicted in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a formal portrait, traditional for classicism. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a statesman, this is evidenced by his uniform and awards.
But at the same time, this is a famous poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which have already been actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, it is Karl Bryullov. His work came at a time when classical works of form were filled with the spirit of romanticism, this combination was called academism. In the middle of the XIX century. the young generation gravitating towards realism began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was facilitated, among other things, by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many sculptures of Hellenism became known.
Classicism reached its highest incarnation in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1757-1822)

A. Canova "Self-portrait" (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Louvre in Paris and in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Canova "Three Graces". Saint Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group "Three Graces" refers to the late period of creativity of Antonio Canova. The sculptor embodied his ideas of beauty in the images of the graces - ancient goddesses personifying female charm and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two extreme faces face each other (and not the viewer) and the girlfriend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged into an embrace, they are united by the interweaving of hands and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II legislators and others.

F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator, he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a bone carver of the Kholmogory carved bone.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition, it was customary to depict models naked, while the norms of morality modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.

B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order- a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. It includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of the elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

London's Osterley Park mansion. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov.

Carl Barthalomeo-Rossi(1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
Rossi's outstanding architectural and urban planning skills are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with its adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff building and the triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the Senate and Synod buildings (1829). -1834), Alexandrinsky Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two uniform long buildings of Theater Street (now the street of the architect Rossi).

The building of the General Staff on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)

Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. It was required from her: the balance of parts of the work, the careful finishing of details, the development of the main canons of the musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, the classical composition of parts of the sonata and symphony was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the XVII century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the works of I.S. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reformist operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are nevertheless associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart and L. van Beethoven.

Note

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of "classical music" is much broader. It includes not only the music of the period of the era of classicism, but also the music of the past in general, which has withstood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.