E. Falcone. Monument to Peter I
All the activities of Peter I were aimed at creating a strong independent state. The realization of this goal could be realized, according to Peter, only through an absolute monarchy. For the formation of absolutism in Russia, a combination of historical, economic, social, internal and external political reasons was necessary. Thus, all the reforms he carried out can be considered political, since the result of their implementation was to become a powerful Russian state.
There is an opinion that Peter's reforms were spontaneous, thoughtless and often inconsistent. It can be objected that it is impossible in a living society to calculate everything with absolute accuracy for decades to come. Of course, in the process of implementing the transformations, life made its own adjustments, so plans changed and new ideas appeared. The order of the reforms and their features were dictated by the course of the protracted Northern War, as well as the political and financial capabilities of the state in a certain period of time.
Historians distinguish three stages of Peter's reforms:
- 1699-1710 Changes are taking place in the system of state institutions, new ones are being created. The system of local self-government is being reformed. A recruiting system is being set up.
- 1710-1719 The old institutions are liquidated and the Senate is created. The first regional reform is being carried out. The new military policy leads to the construction of a powerful fleet. A new legal system is being approved. State institutions are transferred from Moscow to St. Petersburg.
- 1719-1725 New institutions are beginning to operate and the old ones are finally liquidated. The second regional reform is being carried out. The army is being expanded and reorganized. Church and financial reforms are being carried out. A new system of taxation and civil service is being introduced.
Soldiers of Peter I. Reconstruction
All the reforms of Peter I were fixed in the form of statutes, regulations, decrees that have the same legal force. And when, on October 22, 1721, Peter I was given the title of "Father of the Fatherland", "Emperor of the All-Russian", "Peter the Great", this already corresponded to the legal formalization of an absolute monarchy. The monarch was not limited in powers and rights by any administrative authorities and management. The power of the emperor was wide and strong to such an extent that Peter I violated the customs relating to the person of the monarch. In the military charter of 1716. and the Naval Charter of 1720 proclaimed: “ His Majesty is an autocratic monarch, who should not give an answer to anyone in his affairs, but has his own states and lands, like a Christian sovereign, to rule by his own will and goodwill.. « Monarchic power is autocratic power, which God himself commands for conscience to obey". The monarch was the head of state, the church, the supreme commander in chief, the supreme judge, it was exclusively in his competence to declare war, conclude peace, sign treaties with foreign states. The monarch was the bearer of legislative and executive power.
In 1722, Peter I issued a Decree on the succession to the throne, according to which the monarch determined his successor "recognizing convenient", but had the right to deprive him of the throne, seeing "lewdness in the heir", "seeing a worthy one." Legislation defined actions against the tsar and the state as the most serious crimes. Anyone "who will contemplate what evil", and those who "helped or gave advice or, knowing, did not inform", were punished by death, tearing out their nostrils or deportation to the galleys - depending on the severity of the crime.
Activities of the Senate
Senate under Peter I
On February 22, 1711, a new state body was formed - the Governing Senate. Members of the Senate were appointed by the king from among his inner circle (at first, 8 people). These were the biggest figures of the time. Appointments and dismissals of senators took place according to the decrees of the king. The Senate was a permanent state collegial body. His competence included:
- the administration of justice;
- solving financial issues;
- general issues of management of trade and other sectors of the economy.
In the Decree of April 27, 1722 “On the position of the Senate”, Peter I gave detailed instructions on the activities of the Senate, regulated the composition, rights and duties of senators; the rules for the relationship of the Senate with the collegiums, provincial authorities and the prosecutor general are established. But the normative acts of the Senate did not have the highest legal force of law. The Senate only took part in the discussion of bills and interpreted the law. But in relation to all other organs, the Senate was the highest authority. The structure of the Senate did not take shape immediately. At first, the Senate consisted of senators and the office, and then two departments were formed: the Punishment Chamber (as a special department before the advent of the Justice College) and the Senate Office (which dealt with management issues). The Senate had its own chancellery, which was divided into several tables: provincial, secret, rank, order and fiscal.
The reprisal chamber consisted of two senators and judges appointed by the Senate, who regularly (monthly) submitted reports to the Senate on cases, fines and searches. The verdict of the Punishment Chamber could be canceled by the general presence of the Senate.
The main task of the Senate Office was to prevent the current affairs of Moscow institutions to the Governing Senate, the execution of decrees of the Senate, control over the execution of senatorial decrees in the provinces. The Senate had auxiliary bodies: the racket master, the king of arms, provincial commissars. On April 9, 1720, the Senate established the position of "reception of petitions" (since 1722 - requetmaster), which received complaints about the collegiums and chancelleries. The duties of the king of arms included compiling lists in the state, nobles, observing that there was no more than 1/3 of each noble family in the civil service.
Provincial commissars oversaw local, military, financial affairs, recruitment, maintenance of regiments. The Senate was an obedient tool of autocracy: senators were personally responsible to the monarch, in case of violation of the oath, they were subjected to the death penalty or fell into disgrace, were dismissed from office, and were punished with fines.
Fiscality
With the development of absolutism, the institution of fiscals and prosecutors was established. Fiscality was a special branch of Senate administration. The chief fiscal (head of the fiscals) was attached to the Senate, but at the same time the fiscals were confidants of the tsar. The tsar appointed a chief fiscal who took an oath to the tsar and was responsible to him. The competence of the fiscals was indicated in the Decree of March 17, 1714: to inspect everything that “may be to the detriment of the state interest”; to report “on malicious intent against the person of His Majesty or treason, on indignation or rebellion”, “do not spies creep into the state”, the fight against bribery and embezzlement. The network of fiscals constantly began to be formed according to territorial and departmental principles. The provincial fiscal supervised the city fiscals and once a year "performed" control over them. In the ecclesiastical department, the fiscals were headed by the proto-inquisitor, in the dioceses by the provincial fiscals, and in the monasteries by the inquisitors. With the creation of the College of Justice, fiscal affairs came under its jurisdiction and control of the Senate, and after the establishment of the post of Prosecutor General, the fiscals began to obey him. In 1723 a general-fiscal is appointed - the highest body for fiscals. He had the right to demand any business. His assistant was the Chief Fiscal.
Organization of the Prosecutor's Office
By decree of January 12, 1722, the Prosecutor's Office was organized. Then, by subsequent decrees, prosecutors were established in the provinces and in the courts of the courts. The Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutors were subject to the court of the Emperor himself. Prosecutorial oversight extended even to the Senate. The decree of April 27, 1722 established his competence: presence in the Senate (“look firmly so that the Senate keeps his position”), control over fiscals (“if something bad happens, immediately report to the Senate”).
In 1717-1719. - the period of formation of new institutions - colleges. Most colleges were created on the basis of orders and were their successors. The system of colleges did not take shape immediately. On December 14, 1717, 9 colleges were created: Military, Ingstranny, Berg, Revision, Admiralteyskaya, Yustits, Chambers, State Offices, Manufactories. A few years later there were already 13 of them. The presence of the board: president, vice president, 4-5 advisers, 4 assessors. Collegiate staff: secretary, notary, translator, actuary, copyist, registrar and clerk. The collegiums consisted of a fiscal (later a prosecutor), who exercised control over the activities of the collegiums and was subordinate to the prosecutor general. Colleges received decrees only from the monarch and the Senate, having the right not to execute the decrees of the Senate if they contradicted the decrees of the king.
Board activities
College of Foreign Affairs she was in charge of "all sorts of foreign and embassy affairs", coordinated the activities of diplomats, managed relations and negotiations with foreign ambassadors, carried out diplomatic correspondence.
Military board managed "all military affairs": recruiting the regular army, managing the affairs of the Cossacks, arranging hospitals, and providing the army. Military justice was in the system of the Military Collegium.
Admiralty board managed "the fleet with all naval military servants, to that belonging to maritime affairs and administrations." It included the Naval and Admiralty offices, as well as the Uniform, Waldmeister, Academic, Canal offices and Particular shipyard.
Board of Chambers she was supposed to carry out "higher supervision" of all types of fees (customs, drinking), watched the arable farming, collected data on the market and prices, controlled the salt mines and the monetary business.
Board of Chambers exercised control over public spending, constituted the state staff (the staff of the emperor, the states of all colleges, provinces, provinces). It had its own provincial bodies - renters, which were local treasuries.
Revision Board exercised financial control over the use of public funds by central and local authorities.
Berg College supervised the issues of the metallurgical industry, the management of mints and money yards, supervised the purchase of gold and silver abroad, judicial functions within its competence. A network of local Berg Collegiums was created.
Manufactory College dealt with issues of industry, in addition to mining, managed the manufactories of the Moscow province, the central and northeastern parts of the Volga region and Siberia; gave permission to open manufactories, regulated the execution of state orders, and provided benefits. Her competence also included: the exile of those convicted in criminal cases in manufactories, production control, and the supply of enterprises with materials. It did not have its own bodies in the provinces and provinces.
College of Commerce promoted the development of all branches of trade, especially foreign trade, carried out customs supervision, drew up customs charters and tariffs, monitored the correctness of measures and weights, was engaged in the construction and equipment of merchant ships, and performed judicial functions.
Justice College supervised the activities of provincial court courts; exercised judicial functions in criminal offenses, civil and fiscal cases; she headed an extensive judicial system, consisting of provincial lower and city courts, as well as court courts; acted as a court of first instance in "important and contentious" cases. Its decisions could be appealed to the Senate.
patrimonial board resolved land disputes and litigation, issued new land grants, considered complaints about “wrong decisions” in local and patrimonial cases.
secret office engaged in the investigation and prosecution of political crimes (for example, the case of Tsarevich Alexei). There were other central institutions (old surviving orders, medical office).
The building of the Senate and the Holy Synod
Activities of the Synod
The synod is the main central institution for ecclesiastical matters. The synod appointed bishops, exercised financial control, administered its fiefdoms, and exercised judicial functions in relation to heresies, blasphemy, schisms, and so on. Particularly important decisions were made by the general meeting - the conference.
Administrative-territorial division
Decree of December 18, 1708. introduced a new administrative-territorial division. Initially, 8 provinces were formed: Moscow, Ingermanland, Smolensk, Kiev, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian provinces. In 1713-1714. three more: Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan provinces were separated from Kazan, and Riga province from Smolensk. At the head of the provinces were governors, governors-general, who exercised administrative, military and judicial power.
Governors were appointed by royal decrees only from among the nobles close to Peter I. The governors had assistants: the chief commandant regulated the military administration, the chief commissar and the chief provisions master - provincial and other fees, the landrichter - provincial justice, financial boundary and search affairs, the chief inspector - tax collection from cities and counties.
The province was divided into provinces (headed by the chief commandant), provinces into counties (headed by the commandant).
The commandants were subordinate to the chief commandant, the commandant to the governor, and the latter to the Senate. In the counties of cities where there were no fortresses and garrisons, landarts were the governing body.
50 provinces were created, which were divided into districts - districts. The provincial governors were subordinate to the governors only in military matters, otherwise they were independent of the governors. The governors were engaged in the search for runaway peasants and soldiers, the construction of fortresses, the collection of income from state-owned factories, they took care of the external security of the provinces, and from 1722. performed judicial functions.
Voevodas were appointed by the Senate and submitted to collegiums. The main feature of local governments was that they performed both administrative and police functions.
The Burmister Chamber (Town Hall) was created with subordinate zemstvo huts. They were in charge of the commercial and industrial population of cities in terms of collecting taxes, duties and duties. But in the 20s. XVIII century city government takes the form of magistrates. The Chief Magistrate and local magistrates were formed with the direct participation of governors and governors. The magistrates were subordinate to them in matters of court and trade. Provincial magistrates and magistrates of the cities included in the province were one of the links of the bureaucratic apparatus with the subordination of lower bodies to higher ones. Elections to the magistrates of the burmisters and ratmans were entrusted to the governor.
Creation of the army and navy
Peter I turned separate sets of "subjective people" into annual recruitment sets and created a permanent trained army in which the soldiers served for life.
petrovsky fleet
The creation of a recruiting system took place from 1699 to 1705. from the Decree of 1699 "On admission to the service of soldiers from all free people." The system was based on the class principle: officers were recruited from the nobility, soldiers from the peasants and other tax-paying population. For the period 1699-1725. 53 recruitments were carried out, which amounted to 284187 people. Decree of February 20, 1705. garrison internal troops were created, which ensured order within the country. The created Russian regular army showed itself in the battles of Lesnaya, Poltava and in other battles. The reorganization of the army was carried out by the Discharge Order, the Order of Military Affairs, the Order of the Commissar General, the Order of Artillery, etc. Subsequently, the Discharge Table and the Commissariat were formed, and in 1717. created the Military Board. The recruiting system made it possible to have a large combat-ready army.
Peter and Menshikov
The Russian fleet was also formed from drafted recruits. At the same time, the Marine Corps was created. The navy was created during the wars with Turkey and Sweden. With the help of the Russian fleet, Russia established itself on the shores of the Baltic, which raised its international prestige and made it a maritime power.
Judicial reform
It was held in 1719 and streamlined, centralized and strengthened the entire judicial system of Russia. The main task of the reform is to separate the court from the administration. At the head of the judicial system was the monarch, he decided the most important state affairs. The monarch, as the supreme judge, dealt with and decided many cases on his own. On his initiative, the Office of Investigative Affairs arose on his initiative, they helped him to carry out judicial functions. The Prosecutor General and the Chief Prosecutor were subject to the court of the king, and the Senate was the court of appeal. Senators were subject to trial by the Senate (for malfeasance). The Justice Collegium was the court of appeal in relation to the court courts, it was the governing body over all the courts. Regional courts consisted of court courts and lower courts.
The presidents of court courts were governors and vice-governors. Cases moved from the lower court to the court court on appeal.
Chamberlains judged cases concerning the treasury; governors and zemstvo commissars tried peasants for the escape. Judicial functions were performed by almost all collegiums, excluding the Collegium of Foreign Affairs.
Political cases were considered by the Preobrazhensky Prikaz and the Secret Chancellery. But since the order of passing cases through the instances was confused, governors and governors intervened in court cases, and judges in administrative ones, a new reorganization of the judiciary was carried out: the lower courts were replaced by provincial ones and passed to the disposal of governors and assessors, court courts and their functions were eliminated were given to the governors.
Thus, the court and the administration again merged into one body. Court cases were most often resolved slowly, accompanied by red tape and bribery.
The adversarial principle was replaced by the investigative one. In general, the judicial reform was especially unplanned and chaotic. The judicial system of the period of Peter's reforms was characterized by the process of strengthening centralization and bureaucratization, the development of estate justice and served the interests of the nobility.
The historian N. Ya. Danilevsky noted two aspects of the activity of Peter I: state and reform (“changes in everyday life, mores, customs and concepts”). In his opinion, "the first activity deserves eternal grateful, reverent memory and the blessing of posterity." By the activities of the second kind, Peter brought "the greatest harm to the future of Russia": "Life was forcibly turned upside down in a foreign way."
Monument to Peter I in Voronezh
Started in the second half of the 17th century. transformations found their logical conclusion in the reign of Peter I (son of Alexei Mikhailovich).
Peter was proclaimed king in 1682 BC, but in reality there was a so-called “triarchal government”, i.e. together with his brother Ivan and Princess Sophia, who concentrated all power in her hands. Peter and his mother lived in the villages of Preobrazhensky, Kolomensky, Semenovsky near Moscow.
IN 1689 Mr. Peter, with the support of many boyars, nobles, and even the Moscow Patriarch, deprived Sophia of power, imprisoning her in a monastery. Until 1696 (until his death), Ivan remained a “ceremonial king”, i.e. formally shared power with Peter.
From the 90s of the XVII century. a new era begins, associated with the transformations of Peter I, which affected all aspects of the life of Russian society. As the ardent admirers of Peter figuratively noted, in fact the 18th century began before the grandiose fireworks arranged in Moscow on January 1, 1700 on the occasion of the new century.
Military reforms
The reforms of Peter I were guided by the conditions of his time. This king did not know the world, he fought all his life: first with his sister Sophia, then with Turkey, Sweden. Not only to defeat the enemy, but also to take a worthy place in the world, Peter I began his transformations. The starting point for the reforms was Azov campaigns (1695-1696).
In 1695, Russian troops besieged Azov (a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don), but due to a lack of weapons and a lack of a fleet, they failed to take Azov. Realizing this, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. It was decided to organize the Kumpanstvo, which would be engaged in the construction of ships. A single Kumpanstvo, which consisted of merchants and townspeople, was obliged to build 14 ships; Admiralty - 16 ships; one ship - an obligation from every 10,000 landlord peasants and 8,000 monastery peasants. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. In 1696, the Russian naval forces won their first victory - Azov was taken. The following year, Peter sends to Europe the so-called Great Embassy of 250 people. In its composition, under the name of the sergeant of the Preobrazhensky regiment, Peter Mikhailov, was the tsar himself. The embassy visited Holland, England, Vienna. As he believed, the idea of \u200b\u200btraveling abroad (the Great Embassy) arose from Peter I as a result of the transformations that had begun. For knowledge and experience, the king went to Europe in 1697-1698. Researcher A.G. Brikner, on the contrary, believed that it was after a trip to Europe that Peter I came up with a reform plan.
In the summer of 1698, the trip was interrupted due to a report received about the rebellion of the archers. The king took a personal part in the executions, Sophia was tonsured a nun. The Streltsy army was to be disbanded. The king began to reorganize the army and continued building the fleet. It is interesting to note that in addition to general leadership, Peter was directly involved in the creation of the fleet. The tsar himself, without the help of foreign specialists, built the 58-gun ship "Predestination" ("God's foresight"). Back in 1694, during a sea campaign arranged by the tsar, the Russian white-blue-red flag was raised for the first time.
With the outbreak of war with Sweden, the construction of the fleet was also started in the Baltic. By 1725, the fleet in the Baltic consisted of 32 ships of the line armed with 50 to 96 guns each, 16 frigates, 85 galleys, and many other smaller vessels. The total number of Russian military sailors was about 30 thousand. Peter personally compiled Marine charter, where it was written "Only that sovereign has both hands, who has both the land army and the fleet."
Peter I chose a new principle for manning the army: recruiting kits. From 1699 to 1725 53 recruits were carried out, giving the army and navy more than 280 thousand people. Recruits underwent military training, received state-owned weapons and uniforms. The army also recruited "eager people" from free peasants with a salary of 11 rubles a year.
Already in 1699, Peter formed, in addition to two guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - 29 infantry and 2 dragoons. By the end of his reign, the total number of the Russian army was 318 thousand people.
Peter strictly obliged all the nobles to carry out military service, starting with the soldier's rank. In 1716 was published Military charter, which regulated the order in the army in wartime and peacetime. Training of officers was carried out in two military schools - Bombardier (artillery) and Preobrazhenskaya (infantry). Subsequently, Peter opened naval, engineering, medical and other military schools, which allowed him at the end of his reign to completely refuse to invite foreign officers to the Russian service.
Public Administration Reform
Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution to the most important problem - victory in. Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state mechanism of government, the main elements of which were orders and districts, did not provide for the growing needs of the autocracy. This was manifested in the lack of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of regional reform- creation of new administrative formations - provinces, uniting several counties. IN 1708. was formed 8 provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything necessary: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the regiments of the armies, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of krieg commissars (the so-called military commissars).
An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created on the ground. The former system "order - county" was doubled: "order (or office) - province - province - county".
IN 1711 Senate was created. The autocracy, which had grown considerably in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed institutions of representation and self-government.
At the beginning of the XVIII century. in fact, the meetings of the Boyar Duma are stopped, the control of the central and local state apparatus is transferred to the so-called “Consilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of the heads of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in the state system of Peter. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was prosecutor general, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of Prosecutor General laid the foundation for a whole institution of the Prosecutor's Office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.
IN 1718 - 1721. the system of command administration of the country was transformed. was established 10 colleges, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - with foreign relations, the Military - with ground armed forces, the Admiralty - with the fleet, the Collegium of Chambers - with the collection of revenues, the Collegium of State Offices - with state expenditures, the Collegium of Commerce - with trade.
Church reform
It became a kind of board Synod, or the Spiritual College, established in 1721 The destruction of the patriarchate reflected the desire of Peter I to eliminate the "princely" system of church authority, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter the Great's time. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of the institutions of the church to carry out his policies.
Supervision of the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special state official - chief prosecutor.
Social politics
Social policy was pro-noble and feudal in nature. Decree of 1714 on uniform inheritance established the same order of inheritance of immovable estates, without distinction between estates and estates. The merging of two forms of feudal landownership - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidating the class of feudal lords into a single class - estate nobles and strengthened its dominant position (often in the Polish manner, the nobility was called the gentry).
In order to force the nobles to think of service as the main source of wealth, they introduced primogeniture- It was forbidden to sell and mortgage land holdings, including ancestral ones. The new principle reflected in Tables of ranks 1722. strengthened the nobility due to the influx of people from other classes. With the help of the principle of personal service, strictly stipulated conditions for promotion up the ranks, Peter turned the mass of servicemen into a military-bureaucratic corps, completely subordinate to him and dependent only on him. The table of ranks divided the military, civil and court services. All posts were divided into 14 ranks. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility.
urban reform
Significant was the reform in relation to the inhabitants of cities. Peter decided to unify the social structure of the city by introducing Western European institutions into it: magistrates, guilds and guilds. These institutions, which had deep roots in the history of the development of a Western European medieval city, were brought into Russian reality by force, by administrative means. The chief magistrate supervised the magistrates of other cities.
The townspeople were divided into two guilds: the first was made up of the “first class”, which included the top tenants, rich merchants, artisans, citizens of intelligent professions, and in second guild included small shopkeepers and artisans, who, in addition, were united in workshops on a professional basis. All other townspeople who were not included in the guilds were subject to verification in order to identify runaway peasants among them and return them to their former places of residence.
tax reform
The war absorbed 90% of government spending, peasants and townspeople bore numerous duties. In 1718 - 1724. A head-to-head census of the male population was carried out. Landlords and monasteries were ordered to submit "tales" (information) about their peasants. The government instructed the guards officers to revise the submitted statements. Since then, censuses have been called audits, and the “soul” has become the unit of taxation instead of the peasant household. The entire male population had to pay poll tax.
Development of industry and trade
As a result of the transformations of Peter I, manufactory production began to actively develop, and industry was created. By the end of the XVII century. there were about 30 manufactories in the country. During the years of Peter's reign, there were more than 100 of them. A movement began in the direction of overcoming the technical and economic backwardness of Russia. Large-scale industry is growing in the country, especially metallurgical (in the Urals), textile and leather (in the center of the country), new industries are emerging: shipbuilding (Petersburg, Voronezh, Arkhangelsk), glass and earthenware, paper production (Petersburg, Moscow).
Russian industry was created in conditions of serfdom. Worked in factories sessional(bought by breeders) and ascribed(paying taxes to the state not with money, but with work at the factory) peasants. Russian manufactory was in fact like a serf estate.
The development of industrial and handicraft production contributed to the development of trade. The country was in the process of creating an all-Russian market. In order to encourage the merchants, in 1724 the first trade tariff was introduced, which taxed the export of Russian goods abroad.
Reforms of Peter the Great
During the reign, reforms were carried out in all areas of the state life of the country. Transformations covered almost all aspects of life: the economy, domestic and foreign policy, science, life, and the political system.
Basically, the reforms were not aimed at the interests of individual estates, but the country as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The purpose of the reforms was to acquire the role of Russia as one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries in military and economic terms. Consciously used violence has become the main instrument of reform. In general, the process of reforming the state was associated with an external factor - the need for Russia to access the seas, as well as with an internal one - the process of modernizing the country.
Military reform of Peter 1
Since 1699
The essence of transformation: The introduction of recruitment, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which controlled all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "Table of Ranks" military ranks, common for all of Russia. Severe discipline was established in the troops and navy, and corporal punishment was widely used to maintain it. Introduction of military regulations. Military-industrial enterprises were created, as well as military educational institutions.
The result of the reform: reforms, the emperor was able to create a strong regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725, and a strong navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. A large number of military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by various historians) created a springboard for the further success of Russian weapons.
Reforms of public administration of Peter 1
(1699-1721)
The essence of transformation: Creation of the Near Office (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Establishment of 12 collegiums, with a certain scope of activity and powers.
The result of the reform: The system of government has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory bodies were created.
Provincial (regional) reform of Peter 1
(1708-1715 and 1719-1720)
The essence of transformation: Peter 1, at the initial stage of the reform, divided Russia into eight provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were under the control of the governors, who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. And also the governors had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces, which were ruled by governors, and those, in turn, were divided into districts, under the leadership of zemstvo commissars. The governors lost their administrative power and decided on judicial and military issues.
The result of the reform: There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost their influence.
Judicial reform of Peter 1
(1697, 1719, 1722)
The essence of transformation: The formation of Peter 1 new judicial bodies: the Senate, the College of Justice, the Hofgerichts, the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except for Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (similar to a jury trial) was abolished, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
The result of the reform: many judicial bodies and persons who carried out judicial activities (the sovereign himself, governors, governors, etc.) added confusion and confusion to the proceedings, the introduced possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created fertile ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, they established the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the verdict to be based on specific articles of the law, in accordance with the case under consideration.
Church reform of Peter 1
(1700-1701; 1721)
The essence of transformation: After Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was essentially liquidated. 1701 - the management of church and monastery lands was reformed. The Emperor restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastery peasants. 1721 - the Spiritual Regulations are adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod is created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the sovereign.
The result of the reform: Church reform led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many of the bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The church was no longer able to pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.
Financial reform of Peter 1
The essence of transformation: A lot of new (including indirect) taxes were introduced, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (minting a coin of lesser weight and a decrease in the content of silver in it) coins. The penny became the main coin. The introduction of a poll tax, which replaced the household tax.
The result of the reform: Increase in income of the state treasury several times. But first, it was achieved at the expense of the impoverishment of the bulk of the population. Second, most of these incomes were stolen.
The results of the reforms of Peter 1
The reforms of Peter 1 marked the formation of an absolute monarchy.
The transformations significantly increased the efficiency of state administration and served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. Russia has become a Europeanized country and a member of the European Community of Nations. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements began to appear in technical education and science. Authoritarian rule is emerging, the role of the sovereign, his influence on all spheres of society and the state has increased tremendously.
The price of the reforms of Peter 1
Repeatedly increased taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population.
In Russia, a cult of institutions has developed, and the race for ranks and positions has turned into a national disaster.
The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church at the end of the 17th century was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its significance.
Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia by the end of the reign of Peter the Great represented a military-police state with a state-owned monopolized feudal economy.
Weakening of contact between the government and the people. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly.
The price of the transformations turned out to be prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the monarch did not consider either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or national traditions, or the memory of ancestors.
Reforms of Peter I: a new page in the development of the Russian Empire.
Peter I can be safely called one of the greatest Russian emperors, because it was he who began the reorganization of all spheres of society, the army and the economy, which was necessary for the country, which played an important role in the development of the empire.
This topic is quite extensive, but we will talk about the reforms of Peter I briefly.
The emperor carried out a number of important reforms at that time, which should be discussed in more detail. And so what reforms of Peter I changed the empire:
Regional reform
Judicial reform
Military reform
Church reform
financial reform
And now it is necessary to talk about each of the reforms of Peter I more separately.
Regional reform
In 1708, the order of Peter I divided the entire empire into eight large provinces, which were led by governors. The provinces, in turn, were divided into fifty provinces.This reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of imperial power, as well as to improve the provision of the Russian army.
Judicial reform
The Supreme Court consisted of the Senate, as well as the College of Justice. Courts of appeal still existed in the provinces. However, the main reform is that now the court has been completely separated from the administration.Military reform
The emperor paid special attention to this reform, since he understood that the army of the latest model is something without which the Russian Empire cannot become the strongest in Europe.The first thing to be done is to reorganize the regimental structure of the Russian army according to the European model. In 1699, a mass recruitment was made, after which the teachings of the new army followed by all the standards of the strongest armies of European states.
Perth I began a vigorous training of Russian officers. If at the beginning of the eighteenth century foreign specialists stood on the officer ranks of the empire, then after the reforms, domestic officers began to take their place.
No less important was the opening of the first Naval Academy in 1715, which later gave Russia a powerful fleet, but before that moment it did not exist. One year later, the emperor issued the Military Charter, which regulated the duties and rights of soldiers.
As a result, in addition to a new powerful fleet, consisting of battleships, Russia also received a new regular army, not inferior to the armies of European states.
Church reform
Quite serious changes also took place in the church life of the Russian Empire. If earlier the church was an autonomous unit, then after the reforms it was subordinate to the emperor.The first reforms began in 1701, but the church finally came under the control of the state only in 1721 after the release of a document called "Spiritual Regulations". This document also said that during the hostilities for the needs of the state, church property can be seized.
The secularization of church lands began, but only partially, and only Empress Catherine II completed this process.
financial reform
The wars started by Emperor Peter I required huge funds, which at that time were not in Russia, and in order to find them, the emperor began to reform the financial system of the state.First, a tax was imposed on taverns, where they sold a huge amount of moonshine. In addition, lighter coins began to be minted, which meant damage to the coin.
In 1704, the penny became the main currency, and not money as it was before.
If earlier courts were taxed, then after the reforms, every soul was already taxed - that is, every male inhabitant of the Russian Empire. Such layers as the clergy, the nobility and, of course, the Cossacks were exempted from paying the poll tax.
The financial reform can be quite called successful, as it significantly increased the size of the imperial treasury. From 1710 to 1725, income increased by as much as three times, which means quite a lot of success.
Reforms in industry and trade
The needs of the new army increased significantly, because of which the emperor was forced to begin the active construction of manufactories. From abroad, the emperor attracted qualified specialists to reform the industry.In 1705, the first silver-smelting plant began to operate in Russia. In 1723, an ironworks began to operate in the Urals. By the way, the city of Yekaterinburg now stands in its place.
After the construction of St. Petersburg, he became the trading capital of the empire.
Education reform
The emperor understood that Russia had to become an educated state, and paid special attention to this.From 1701 to 1821, a large number of schools were opened: mathematical, engineering, artillery, medical, navigation. The first maritime academy was opened in St. Petersburg. The first gymnasium was opened already in 1705.
In each province, the emperor built two completely free schools, where children could receive primary, compulsory education.
These were the reforms of Peter I and this is how they influenced the development of the Russian Empire. Many reforms are now considered not entirely successful, but one cannot deny the fact that after their implementation, Russia has taken a big step forward.
The table "Reforms of Peter 1" briefly outlines the features of the transformational activities of the first emperor of Russia. With its help, one can concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life in Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this is the best way for middle-level students to learn this difficult and rather voluminous material, which is very important for analyzing and correctly understanding the features of the historical process in our country in the following centuries.
Features of the emperor's activities
One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, a table on this topic demonstrates all the data necessary for schoolchildren.
In the introductory lesson, it should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all sectors of society and determined the further history of the country. This is the uniqueness of the era of his reign. However, he was a very practical man and innovated based on specific needs.
This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, the authorities made significant changes to the social structure, the economic sphere, diplomacy, and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.
Transformations in the army
At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic "Peter 1's Reforms". Briefly, a table on this problem helps students to familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. Almost all of his reign, the emperor waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.
One of the most interesting sections in the topic being studied is the "Military reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.
The Importance of Military Innovation
It can be seen from it that the steps of the emperor were dictated by the specific needs of his contemporary time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that earlier there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the reviews along with several servants who were also supposed to serve with him.
However, by the beginning of the 18th century, this principle had become obsolete. By this time, serfdom had finally taken shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers from the peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and commanders.
Transformations of power structures
Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is "Peter 1's political reforms." Briefly, the table on this issue clearly demonstrates how deep the transformational activity of the emperor was in the governing bodies. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead, which had previously performed advisory functions under the king, he created the Senate on the model of Western European countries. Instead of orders, colleges were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucracy.
New administrative division
No less complex is the topic and “State reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the cardinal changes that have taken place in the organization of local government. Provinces were created, which were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. Such a structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and counties - the governor.
Changes in industry and commerce
Of particular difficulty is often the study of the topic “Economic reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time acted almost feudal methods, which could not contribute to the development of market relations in our country. Peter Alekseevich was not as effective as the transformation in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in the development of trade according to the Western European model.
Transformations in the social structure
The theme “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems to be simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that have occurred in Russian society of the studied time. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and state spheres, depending not on tribal affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous "Table of Ranks" introduced a new principle of service. From now on, a person, in order to get a promotion or rank, had to achieve any success.
It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formalized. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the tribal aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this estate, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.
The study of this problem can be completed by summarizing the results. What was the significance of the reforms of Peter the Great in the history of Russia? A table, a summary on a given topic, can serve as an effective means of summing up. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the demands of his time, when the principle of parochialism was outdated, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to fulfill the new tasks that the country faced in connection with the Northern War and Russia's entry into the international arena.
The role of the transformational activity of the emperor
The topic “Basic reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary of which is an important component in the study of the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that schoolchildren have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and to indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in the future fate of Russia.
The measures taken by the ruler brought our country to the European arena and brought it into the ranks of the leading European states. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, having received access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.
