The development of English literature in the 19th century

In the English literature of the 19th century, as in other national literatures of this century, 2 trends are struggling: romanticism and realism. Romanticism came to England from France (influenced by the revolution of 1789-1794) and subjugated the first half of the 19th century, although some literary scholars believe that true romanticism existed for only a quarter of a century. The beginning of romanticism in England is associated with 1798, when W. Wordsworth and S. Coleridge published a book of poems "Lyrical Ballads". The decline of this direction causes numerous disputes. Some believe that Byron's death in 1824 drew a line under romanticism, others associate this phenomenon with the work of W. Hazlitt, W. Landor and T. Carlyle, and this is already the middle of the century. Romanticism as a method was most clearly manifested in poetry, and in prose both features of romanticism and features of realism were invariably present.

In English romanticism, 3 main currents (generations) can be distinguished:

• 1. poets of the "Lake School" ("leukists") - W. Wordsworth, S. Coleridge, R. Southey romanticism culture idealism being
• 2. revolutionary romantics - J.G. Byron, P.-B. Shelley, J. Keats
• 3. "London romantics" - C. Lam, W. Hazlitt, Lee Hunt

William Blake (1757-1827) is the father of English Romanticism. Blake created his main works back in the 18th century (“Songs of Innocence”, “Songs of Experience”, “The Marriage of Heaven and Hell”). In the 19th century, “Milton”, “The Ghost of Abel”, etc. were written. Blake is considered the founder of the cosmic worldview.

The development of French literature in the 19th century

Novelistics of Prosper Merimee

In his short stories, Merimee tries to embody the positive ideal that he wants to find among the people and in countries that have not yet been spoiled by bourgeois civilization (for example, in Corsica, in Spain). However, unlike the romantics, Merimee does not idealize the heroes and their way of life. He objectively portrays the heroes: on the one hand, he shows the heroic and noble sides of their character, on the other hand, he does not hide their negative sides, due to their savagery, backwardness and poverty. Thus, in Merimee, the character of the hero is determined by the external environment. And in this the writer continues the traditions of realism. At the same time, Merimee pays tribute to romanticism, and this is manifested in the fact that an exceptionally strong personality always stands at the center of the writer's short stories.

Unlike the romantics, Merimee does not describe in detail the emotions of the characters. The writer is very concise and draws the psychology of a person, his experiences through external signs - gestures, facial expressions, actions. The narration is conducted on behalf of the narrator, who does it carelessly, reluctantly, as if bored, that is, the manner of narration is always somewhat detached.

The composition of the short stories is always very clear, logically built. As a realist writer, Merimee depicts not only the climax, but also tells the background of the events, gives concise but rich descriptions of the characters. The contrast in Merimee's short stories is manifested in the clash of reality and dramatic, extraordinary events unfolding against the backdrop of this reality. In general, all short stories are built on contrast: on the one hand, human vices and base interests, and on the other, disinterested feelings, the concept of honor, freedom, and nobility.

American literature of the 19th century

Creativity O "Henry (real name - William Sidney Porter)

The work of this writer begins to take shape in the late 90s. 19th century - early 20th century. Initially, O "Henry had nothing to do with literature - he worked as a bank teller, but already at that time he was interested in the people around him, and people were completely different. However, gradually the future writer's powers of observation and a good sense of humor lead to the fact that he begins to publish weekly comic magazine Rolling Stone. But soon the serene life of O "Henry was turned over by a shortage in the bank, and in order to avoid arrest, the writer sets off to travel and begins to professionally engage in journalistic activities. Subsequently, these materials will form the basis of the plots of many works. After some time, his wife's illness forces O "Henry to return, the jury finds the writer guilty and sends him to prison for 5 years. It is there that O" Henry is actively engaged in writing stories during night shifts.

The first story was written in 1899 under the title "Dick the Whistler's Christmas Stocking". In total, O "Henry wrote 287 stories, which were included in such collections as "4 Million" (1906), "Burning Lamp" (1907), "Voice of the City" (1908), "Business People" (1910), "The Rotation of Life "(1910). In 1904, he writes an adventurous and humorous novel "Kings and Cabbage".

"The Rider on the White Horse" (1888) is the result and pinnacle of T. Storm's work, a true gem of German prose of the 19th century. The story about the courageous and talented dam builder Hauke ​​Hayen, whimsically combining the features of romantic tradition and realism, reveals many parallels with Ibsen's dramas and, first of all, with Goethe's Faust. The legends and superstitions of Friesland, one of the northern lands of Germany, are so skillfully woven into the complex fabric of the short story that this author's work is itself perceived as a folk poetry full of drama and poetry ...

Who touched my Blackberry? Lucy Kellaway

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The Dark Side of the Sun Emilia Prytkina

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Villages John Updike

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Spider House PAUL BOWLES

The heroes of the novel - the cynical writer Stenham, the American tourist Lee and the young potter's apprentice Amar - find themselves in the center of a political hurricane - an uprising of Moroccans against the French colonizers in the ancient city of Fes. Soon there will be no trace of their measured life. Recognized as one of the most important achievements of American prose of the 20th century, the novel by Paul Bowles (1910-1999) has gained particular relevance today, as it shows the origins of Islamic extremism that has fascinated the whole world.

Batu's invasion. The Tale of the Russian Death ... Viktor Porotnikov

If the merciless Horde stands at the gates of your city, if the prince and his retinue have already fallen in battle, when the Mongol arrows eclipse the sun, battering rams destroy walls, and countless hordes of enemies, like locusts, climb into gaps and climb ladders, they rise to protect their homes both old and young, and even women take up the sword. There will be no fleeing, no begging for mercy, no surrendering. This city will fight to the last drop of blood and die with honor - like its princess, who threw herself with her baby son in her arms from the bell tower. ...

This is us, Lord! ... Konstantin Vorobyov

The stories of Konstantin Vorobyov can be called the first big truth about the war, which broke through to us through literature. Vorobyov's stories about the war are written in the tradition of the great Russian prose of the 19th century, and with a terrible, unvarnished truth, they turn the soul.

Rat King China Mieville

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Blade Stephen King

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My century, my youth, my friends and girlfriends Anatoly Mariengof

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"The Worlds of the Strugatskys: Time for Students, XXI Century" is a unique project that allows you to once again plunge into the unique atmosphere of the works of the Strugatsky brothers. The first collection of the project, "The Most Important of the Arts", is a kind of response of modern science fiction writers to restless filmmakers and is dedicated to the release of the film "Inhabited Island". A good dozen films have already been shot based on the books of the Strugatsky brothers. Such well-known film directors as Andrei Tarkovsky, Alexander Sokurov, Fyodor Bondarchuk, Alexei German and ...

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1. Jerome Salinger - "The Catcher in the Rye"
A classic writer, a mystery writer, at the peak of his career, he announced his retirement from literature and settled away from worldly temptations in a remote American province. Salinger's only novel, The Catcher in the Rye, was a watershed in the history of world literature. Both the title of the novel and the name of its protagonist, Holden Caulfield, have become codes for many generations of young rebels.

2. Nell Harper Lee - To Kill a Mockingbird
The novel, first published in 1960, was a resounding success and immediately became a bestseller. This is not surprising: Harper Lee, having learned the lessons of Mark Twain, found her own style of narration, which allowed her to show the world of adults through the eyes of a child, without simplifying or impoverishing it. The novel was awarded one of the most prestigious US literature prizes - the Pulitzer Prize, and was printed in millions of copies. It has been translated into dozens of languages ​​around the world and continues to be reprinted to this day.

3. Jack Kerouac - "On the Road"
Jack Kerouac gave voice to a whole generation in literature, in his short life he managed to write about 20 books of prose and poetry and became the most famous and controversial author of his time. Some branded him as a subverter of foundations, others considered him a classic of modern culture, but all the beatniks and hipsters learned to write from his books - to write what you know, but what you see, firmly believing that the world itself will reveal its nature. It was the novel "On the Road" that brought Kerouac worldwide fame and became a classic of American literature.

4. Francis Scott Fitzgerald - The Great Gatsby
The best novel by American writer Francis Scott Fitzgerald, a poignant story of eternal dreams and human tragedy. According to the author himself, “the novel is about how illusions are wasted, which give the world such brilliance that, having experienced this magic, a person becomes indifferent to the concept of true and false.” The dream, which Jay Gatsby is in captivity, coming into direct contact with the ruthless reality, breaks and buries the hero who believed in it as the truth under its debris.

5. Margaret Mitchell - "Gone with the Wind"
The great saga of the American Civil War and the fate of the wayward and ready to go over the heads of Scarlett O'Hara was first published 70 years ago and has not become outdated to this day. Gone with the Wind is the only novel by Margaret Mitchell for which she - a writer, emancipe and advocate for women's rights - received a Pulitzer Prize. This book is about how the love of life is more important than love; then, when the spurt to survival is successfully completed, love becomes preferable, but without love of life, she also dies.

6. Ernest Hemingway - "For Whom the Bell Tolls"
Full of tragedy is the story of a young American who arrived in Spain, engulfed in civil war.
A brilliant and sad book about war and love, true courage and self-sacrifice, moral duty and the enduring value of human life.

7. Ray Bradbury - Fahrenheit 451

History of American Literature

America, as you know, was officially discovered by the Genoese Columbus in 1492. But by chance, she received the name of the Florentine Amerigo.

The discovery of the New World was the greatest event in the global history of mankind. Not to mention the fact that it dispelled many false ideas about our planet, which contributed to significant changes in the economic life of Europe and caused a wave of emigration to a new continent, it also affected the change in the spiritual climate in countries with a Christian faith (i.e., Christians). to. at the end of the century, Christians, as always, expected the "end of the world", "the Last Judgment", etc.).

America provided abundant food for the most enthusiastic dreams of European thinkers about a society without a state, without the social vices common to the Old World. A country of new opportunities, a country where you can build a completely different life. A country where everything is new and clean, where a civilized person has not yet spoiled anything. But there you can avoid all the mistakes made in the Old World - so thought European humanists in the 16th and 17th centuries. And all these thoughts, views and hopes, of course, found a response in literature, both European and American.

However, in reality, everything turned out quite differently. The history of the settlement of the newly discovered lands by immigrants from Europe was bloody. And not all writers of that time decided to show this truth of life (the Spaniards Las Casas and Gomara reflected this in their works).

In today's speech, the name "America" ​​usually refers to only a part of that huge continent that was discovered at the end of the 16th century, namely the United States. This part of the American continent will be discussed.

Since the 17th century, the settlement of this territory by immigrants from Europe began. It continued in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the 17th century, a state arose called New England and subordinate to the English king and parliament. And only in the 70s of the XVIII century, 13 states gained strength in themselves to force England to recognize their independence. Thus, a new state appeared - the United States of America.

Fiction in the proper sense of the word, and in a capacity that allows it to enter the history of world literature, begins in America only in the 19th century, when such writers as Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper appeared on the literary scene.

During the period of the first settlers, in the 17th century, when the development of new lands was just beginning, the foundation of the first settlements was not yet up to literature. Only a few settlers kept diaries, records, chronicles. Although the soul of their authors still lived in England, its political and religious problems. They are not of particular literary interest, but are more valuable as a living picture of the first settlers of America, a story about the difficult days of settling in new places, ordeals, etc. Here are some famous diaries: Jan Winthrop 1630-1649, A History of New England, William Bradford's A History of the Settlement at Plymouth (1630-1651), John Smith's A General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624) .

Of the purely literary works, one should perhaps mention the poems of the poetess Anna Bredstreet (1612-1672), religiously edifying, very mediocre, but amusing the hearts of the first settlers (poem-dialogues "Quartets").

18th century

The 18th century in America passes under the flag of the struggle for independence. The central place is occupied by the ideas of the Enlightenment, which came from England and France. Cities grew in New England, universities were founded, newspapers began to appear. The first literary swallows also appeared: novels created under the influence of English enlightenment literature and the "Gothic" novel, Henry Breckenridge (1748-1816) - "Modern Chivalry, or the Adventures of Captain John Farrato and Tig O ^ Reegen, his servant", Brockden Brown ( 1771-1810) - Wieland, Ormond, Arthur Mervin; poems Timothy Dwight (1752-1818) - "The Conquests of Canaan", "Greenfield Hill".

The second half of the century was marked by the appearance of a large group of poets who reflected the political passions of the era in their works. Conventionally, they were divided into sympathizers with the federalists (the most famous group is the “university poets”) and supporters of the revolution and democratic government. One of the most significant poets, an associate of Payne and Jefferson, is Philip Frenot (1752 - 1832). In his poems, he vividly reflected the political events in the country, although he later became disillusioned with the new American reality. In his best poems, he sang of nature and reflected on eternal life. Already in the work of Freno, it is easy to catch the beginnings of romanticism, which was fully formed in the USA only in the 19th century.

However, the main asset of American literature of the 18th century was its educational journalism with the names of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine. These three people entered the history of American social thought, they left a noticeable mark in the history of world literature.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), the author of the Declaration of Independence, the third President of the United States, is an undeniably talented and original person. A scientist, philosopher, inventor, possessing great and versatile knowledge, he should be mentioned in the history of literature as a brilliant stylist, who possessed a clear, precise and figurative language of a writer. His "Notes on Virginia", his "General Survey of the Rights of the British Empire" were valued by contemporaries not only for their expression of thought, but also for their literary merit. Mathematics, architecture, astronomy, natural sciences, linguistics (compiling dictionaries of Indian languages), history, music - all this was the subject of this person's hobbies and knowledge.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was one of the brilliant and versatile minds of the 18th century. Public thought in America was formed under the influence of this powerful mind, a self-taught genius.

For 25 years, Franklin published the famous calendar "The Simpleton Richard's Almanac", which in America served as a kind of encyclopedia, a collection of scientific information and, at the same time, witty everyday instructions. He printed a newspaper. He organized a public library in Philadelphia, a hospital, and wrote philosophical essays. He described his life in his Autobiography (published posthumously in 1791). His Teachings of the Simpleton Richard went around Europe. Many European universities gave him an honorary doctorate. Well, and, finally, he is a politician who carried out responsible diplomatic missions in Europe.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) is a talented, selfless revolutionary and educator. Published the pamphlet Common Sense. On January 10, 1776, the pamphlet became the sensation of the day. He called Americans to the war for independence, to the revolution. During the French bourgeois revolution, T. Payne fought on the side of the rebels. In addition, Payne wrote the book "Age of Reason" - an outstanding work of American enlightenment thought of the 18th century. The book, part of which was written in a Parisian prison, contains in rather harsh terms a condemnation of Christianity.

The American Enlightenment did not produce authors of such magnitude as the enlighteners of England, France, and Germany distinguished themselves. We will not find in the writings of Franklin, Jefferson, Paine and others the brilliance and wit of Voltaire, the depth of thought of Locke, the eloquence and passion of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the poetic imagination of Milton. These were more practitioners than thinkers and. Of course, least of all artists. They mastered the ideas of the European Enlightenment and tried, taking into account the possibilities, to apply them to their country. Thomas Paine was the boldest and most radical of them all.

American educators emphasized the issues of society, the individual and the state. Society is above the state. It can change its political system if the new generation finds it useful, they reasoned.

Thus, the American educational journalism of the 18th century theoretically substantiated the tasks of the bourgeois revolution. Thus, the American Enlightenment contributed to the development of emancipatory ideas and historical progress.

19th century

A priority direction in US policy in the XIX century. was the expansion of territories (attached: Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Upper California and other territories). One of the consequences of this is the military conflict with Mexico (1846-1848). As for the internal life of the country, the development of capitalism in the United States in the XIX century. was uneven. The "slowdown", the postponement of its growth in the first half of the 19th century, prepared for its especially wide and intensive development, a particularly violent explosion of economic and social contradictions in the second half of the century.

When studying the history of American culture and literature, one cannot but pay attention to the fact that such an uneven development of capitalism left a characteristic imprint on the ideological life of the United States, in particular, it caused the relative backwardness, “immaturity” of social thought and the social consciousness of American society. The provincial isolation of the United States from European cultural centers also played its role. The social consciousness in the country was largely dominated by obsolete illusions and prejudices.

Disappointment with the results of the post-revolutionary development of the country leads American writers to search for a romantic ideal that opposes inhumane reality.

American romantics are the creators of the national literature of the United States. This, above all, distinguishes them from their European counterparts. While in Europe at the beginning of the XIX century. national literatures have secured for themselves qualities that have evolved over almost a whole millennium and have become their specific national features, American literature, like the nation, was still being defined. And in the New World, not only at the beginning of the 19th century, but also later, several decades later. The book market was dominated mainly by the works of English writers and literature translated from other European languages. The American book hardly made its way to the domestic reader. At that time, literary clubs already existed in New York, but English literature and an orientation towards European culture reigned in tastes: American in the bourgeois environment was considered "vulgar".

The American Romantics were entrusted with a rather serious task, in addition to the formation of national literature, they had to create the entire complex ethical and philosophical code of the young nation - to help it form.

In addition, it should be noted that for its time, romanticism was the most effective method of artistic exploration of reality; without it, the process of the nation's aesthetic development would be incomplete.

The chronological framework of American romanticism is somewhat different from European romanticism. The romantic trend in US literature took shape between the second and third decades and maintained its dominant position until the end of the Civil War (1861-1865).

Three stages can be traced in the development of romanticism. The first stage is early American Romanticism (1820-1830s). His immediate predecessor was pre-romanticism, which developed as early as within the framework of enlightenment literature (the work of F. Freno in poetry, C. Brockden Brown in the novel, etc.). The largest writers of early romanticism - V. Irving, D.F. Cooper, W.K. Bryant, D.P. Kennedy and others. With the appearance of their works, American literature for the first time receives international recognition. There is a process of interaction between American and European romanticism. An intensive search for national artistic traditions is underway, the main themes and problems are outlined (the war for independence, the development of the continent, the life of the Indians). The worldview of the leading writers of this period is painted in optimistic tones associated with the heroic time of the war for independence and the grandiose prospects that opened before the young republic. There is a close continuity with the ideology of the American Enlightenment. It is significant that both Irving and Cooper actively participate in the social and political life of the country, seeking to directly influence the course of its development.

At the same time, critical tendencies are ripening in early romanticism, which are a reaction to the negative consequences of the strengthening of capitalism in all spheres of life in American society. They are looking for an alternative to the bourgeois way of life and find it in the romantically idealized life of the American West, the heroism of the War of Independence, the free sea, the country's patriarchal past, and so on.

The second stage is mature American romanticism (1840-1850s). This period includes the work of N. Hawthorne, E.A. Poe, G. Melville, G.W. Longfellow, W.G. Simms, transcendental writers R.W. Emerson, G.D. Toro. The complex and contradictory reality of America in these years led to noticeable differences in the worldview and aesthetic position of the romantics of the 1940s and 1950s. Most of the writers of this period are deeply dissatisfied with the course of the country's development. The gap between reality and the romantic ideal deepens, turns into an abyss. It is no coincidence that among the romantics of the mature period there are so many misunderstood and unrecognized artists rejected by bourgeois America: Poe, Melville, Thoreau, and later the poetess E. Dickinson.

In mature American romanticism, dramatic, even tragic tones predominate, a sense of the imperfection of the world and man (Hawthorne), moods of sorrow, longing (Poe), consciousness of the tragedy of human existence (Melville). A hero with a split psyche appears, bearing the stamp of doom in his soul. The balanced-optimistic world of Longfellow and the transcendentalists about universal harmony in these decades stand apart.

At this stage, American romanticism is moving from the artistic development of national reality to the study of the universal problems of man and the world on the basis of national material, and acquires philosophical depth. In the artistic language of mature American romanticism, symbolism penetrates, rarely found among the romantics of the previous generation. Poe, Melville, Hawthorne in their works created symbolic images of great depth and generalizing power. Supernatural forces begin to play a noticeable role in their creations, mystical motifs intensify.

Transcendentalism is a literary and philosophical trend that appeared in the 30s. The Transcendental Club was organized in September 1836 in Boston, Massachusetts. From the very beginning it included: R.U. Emerson, J. Ripley, M. Fuller, T. Parker, E. Olcott, in 1840 they were joined by G.D. Toro. The name of the club is associated with the philosophy of "Transcendental Idealism" by the German thinker I. Kant. Club from 1840 to 1844 published his own magazine, Dial. The teaching of American transcendentalism raised questions of a global nature for contemporaries - about the essence of man, about the relationship between man and nature, man and society, about the ways of moral self-improvement. As for their views on their country, the transcendentalists argued that America had its own great destiny, but at the same time they were sharply critical of the bourgeois development of the United States.

Transcendentalism marked the beginning of American philosophical thought and influenced the formation of national character and self-consciousness. And what is more remarkable, transcendentalism was used in the ideological struggle in the 20th century. (M. Gandhi, M. L. King). And the controversy around this trend has not subsided so far.

The third stage is late American romanticism (60s). The period of crisis phenomena. Romanticism as a method is increasingly unable to reflect the new reality. Those writers of the previous stage who are still continuing their path in literature enter a period of severe creative crisis. The most striking example is the fate of Melville, who went into voluntary spiritual self-isolation for many years.

During this period, there is a sharp division among the romantics, caused by the Civil War. On the one hand, the literature of abolitionism stands out, protesting against slavery from aesthetic, general humanistic positions within the framework of romantic aesthetics. On the other hand, the literature of the South, romanticizing and idealizing "southern chivalry", stands up in defense of a historically doomed wrong cause and a reactionary way of life. Abolitionist motifs occupy a prominent place in the work of writers whose work developed in the previous period - Longfellow, Emerson, Thoreau, etc., become the main ones in the work of G. Beecher Stowe, D.G. Whittier, R. Hildreth and others.

There were also regional differences in American Romanticism. The major literary regions are New England (Northeastern States), the Middle States, and the South. Romanticism in New England (Hawthorne, Emerson, Thoreau, Bryant) is characterized primarily by the desire for a philosophical understanding of the American experience, for an analysis of the national past, and for the study of complex ethical problems. The main themes in the work of the romantics of the middle states (Irving, Cooper, Paulding, Melville) are the search for a national hero, interest in social issues, a comparison of the past and present of America. Southern writers (Kennedy, Simms) often sharply and justly criticize the vices of America's capitalist development, but at the same time they cannot get rid of the stereotypes of glorifying the virtues of "southern democracy" and the advantages of the slave-owning order.

At all stages of development, American romanticism is characterized by a close connection with the socio-political life of the country. This is what makes Romantic literature specifically American in content and form. In addition, there are some other differences from European romanticism. American romantics express their dissatisfaction with the country's bourgeois development and do not accept the new values ​​of modern America. The Indian theme becomes a cross-cutting theme in their work: American romantics show sincere interest and deep respect for the Indian people.

The romantic trend in US literature was not immediately replaced by realism after the end of the Civil War. A complex fusion of romantic and realistic elements is the work of the greatest American poet Walt Whitman. A romantic worldview - already outside the chronological framework of romanticism - is imbued with Dickinson's work. Romantic motifs organically enter the creative method of F. Bret Hart, M. Twain, A. Beers, D. London and other US writers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Peculiar swallows of realism appeared in America already in the middle of the century. One of these - the most striking - is Rebecca Harding's story "Life in the Foundries" (1861). In which, without any embellishment and with almost documentary detail, the living conditions of American workers in the eastern region of the United States are drawn.

The transitional period was marked by the work of writers (W.D. Howells, H. James, etc.), whose method was called “soft”, “gentle realism”, or, according to the definition of Gowells himself, “restrained” (reticent) realism. The essence of their views was the exclusivity and "enduring advantages" of American life over the life of the Old World; in their opinion, the problems that arose in the works of European realism and Russian (the most popular at that time) had no points of contact with American ones. This was the reason for their attempt to limit critical realism in the United States. But later the injustice of these views became so obvious that they had to abandon them.

Boston School. One of the most important places in the literature of the United States after the Civil War is given to the trend known as the "literature of conventions and decorum", "traditions of refinement", etc. This trend includes writers who lived mainly in Boston and associated with the journals published there and with Harvard University. Therefore, the writers of this group are often referred to as "Bostonians". This included such writers as Lowell ("The Biglow Papers"), Aldrich, Taylor, Norton, and others.

Widespread at the end of the 19th century. received the genre of historical novel and short story. There were such works as "Old Creole Times" by D. Cable (1879), "Colonel Carter of Cartersville" by Smith, "In Old Virginia" by Page. Some of them were not devoid of artistic merit, such as "Old Creole Times", which vividly reproduced the life and customs of the American South at the beginning of the century. In this regard, Cable will act as one of the representatives of "regional literature".

On the whole, the development of the historical genre had a rather negative significance for American literature of that time. The historical novel led away from the pressing problems of our time. In most books of this genre the past was idealized, nationalistic and racist aspirations were kindled, and that historical truth, which is the main condition for a truly artistic historical novel, was almost completely absent.

Many creators of the historical novel sought only to entertain the reader. It was this task that D.M. Crawford, author of many pseudo-historical novels. That is why realist writers fought against pseudo-historical novels, seeing them as one of the most important obstacles to the development of realistic literature.

Along with the historical and adventurous-adventure novel, the genre of "business story" became widespread. Works of this type usually told about a poor, but energetic and enterprising young man who, through his work, perseverance and perseverance, achieved success in life. The sermon of businesslikeness in literature (S. White "Conquerors of the Forests", "Companion"; D. Lorrimer "Letters of a self-created merchant to his son") was reinforced by the teachings of pragmatists in American philosophy. W. James, D. Dewey and other American pragmatists laid a philosophical foundation for businessmanship, contributed to the development of the cult of individualism and business among the broad strata of the American population.

The development of American literature is largely associated with the American Dream. Some writers believed in it, propagandized it in their works (the same "delicious literature", later - representatives of apologetic, conformist literature). Others (most of the romantics and realists) sharply criticized this myth, showed its underside (for example, Dreiser in "An American Tragedy").

American novel of the 19th century.

Quite a strong position in American literature of the XIX century. occupied by the novel. American writer Bret Hart even said that the short story is "the national genre of American literature." But one cannot, of course, assume that interest in the novel was the exclusive privilege of the Americans. Quite successfully, the short story (story) developed in Europe as well. However, the main form of European literary development in the XIX century. was a realistic social novel. It was different in America. Due to the historical circumstances of the country's social and cultural development, the critical-realist novel did not find its proper embodiment in American literature. Why? The main reason for this, like many other anomalies of American culture, must be sought in the backwardness of public consciousness in the United States during the 19th century. The failure of American literature to create in the nineteenth century a great social novel is explained, firstly, by its unpreparedness, lack of historical experience and unwillingness to perceive this experience in European literature, and, secondly, by those significant objective difficulties that any social reality presents for the artist’s understanding, “shrouded in a fog of immature economic relations” (Engels). A great critical-realistic novel appeared in the USA, but with a significant delay, only at the beginning of the 20th century.

American literature in each of its generations puts forward outstanding master storytellers like E. Poe, M. Twain, or D. London. The form of a short entertaining narrative becomes typical of American literature.

One of the reasons for the prosperity of the novel is the rapidity of life in America at that time, as well as the "magazine way" of American literature. A prominent role in American life, and hence in literature, XIX century. still plays the oral story. American oral history goes back originally to the legends (which survive for almost the entire nineteenth century) of trappers.

The main component of the novel is "American humor". The humorous life-descriptive short story of the 1930s is formed mainly on the basis of folklore. And an essential element of American folklore was the oral tradition of the Negroes, who brought with them the traditions of the African primitive epic (The Tales of Uncle Remus by Joel Harris).

A typical feature of American short stories is such a construction of the story, where there is always a sharpened plot leading to a paradoxical, unexpected denouement. It should be noted that it was in this that he saw the advantages of E. Poe's short story, as well as in its size, which makes it possible to read it at once, thus. not lose the integrity of the impression, which, in his opinion, is impossible in the case of the novel.

The short story also plays an outstanding role in the art of American romanticism (Poe, Hawthorne, Melville).

In the 60s and 70s, the development of the American short story is associated with the names of such writers as Bret Hart, Twain, Cable. Their main theme is public and private relations in the colonized lands. One of the most striking works of this period is "California Tales" by Bret Garth.

In the 1980s and 1990s, a new generation of writers appeared (Garland, Norris, Crane), who are characterized as representatives of American naturalism. Their naturalistic short story depicts American life in sharp and harsh terms, groping for its fundamental social contradictions and not being afraid to draw experience from European socio-political and fiction. But the social protest of the American naturalists was nowhere reduced to a rejection of the capitalist system as a whole. And yet the role of these writers in the movement of American literature towards social realism is much more significant than it can be limited within the framework of naturalism.

20th century

In the new, twentieth century, the problems of American literature are determined by a fact of tremendous significance: the richest, most powerful capitalist country, leading the whole world, is producing the most gloomy and bitter literature of our time. Writers have acquired a new quality: they have become characterized by a sense of tragedy and doom of this world. Dreiser's "An American Tragedy" expressed the desire of writers for great generalizations, which distinguishes the literature of the United States of that time.

In the XX century. the short story no longer plays such an important role in American literature as in the 19th century, it is replaced by a realistic novel. But all novelists continue to pay considerable attention to it, and a number of prominent American prose writers devote themselves mainly or exclusively to the short story.

One of them is O. Henry (William Sidney Porter), who made an attempt to outline a different path for the American short story, as if “bypassing” the already clearly defined critical-realist direction. O. Henry can also be called the founder of the American happy ending (which was present in most of his stories), which later will be very successfully used in American popular fiction. Despite the sometimes not very flattering reviews of his work, it is one of the important and turning points in the development of the American short story of the 20th century.

A peculiar influence on American novelists of the 20th century. provided by representatives of the Russian realistic story (Tolstoy, Chekhov, Gorky). The features of the construction of the plot of the story were determined by essential life patterns and were fully included in the general artistic task of a realistic depiction of reality.

At the beginning of the XX century. new trends appeared that made an original contribution to the formation of critical realism. In the 900s, a current of "mudrakers" arose in the USA. "Mudrakers" - an extensive group of American writers, publicists, sociologists, public figures of a liberal orientation. In their work there were two closely interconnected streams: journalistic (L.Steffens, I.Tarbell, R.S. Baker) and literary and artistic (E.Sinclair, R.Herrick, R.R.Kauffman). At certain stages of their career, such major writers as D. London and T. Dreiser came close to the muckrakers movement (as President T. Roosevelt called them in 1906).

The performances of the "mudrakers" contributed to the strengthening of socio-critical tendencies in US literature, the development of a sociological variety of realism. Thanks to them, the journalistic aspect becomes an essential element of the modern American novel.

The 10s were marked by a realist take-off in American poetry, called the "poetic renaissance." This period is associated with the names of Carl Sandberg, Edgar Lee Master, Robert Frost, W. Lindsay, E. Robinson. These poets addressed the life of the American people. Relying on the democratic poetry of Whitman and the achievements of realist prose writers, they, breaking outdated romantic canons, laid the foundations of a new realistic poetics, which included updating the poetic vocabulary, prose prose, and in-depth psychologism. This poetics met the requirements of the time, helped to display American reality in its diversity by poetic means.

The 900s and 10s of our century were marked by the long-awaited appearance of a great critical-realistic novel (F. Norris, D. London, Dreiser, E. Sinclair). It is believed that critical realism in the latest US literature has developed in the process of the interaction of three historically determined factors: these are the real elements of the protest of American romantics, the realism of Mark Twain, which grew up on an original folk basis, and the experience of American writers of a realistic direction, who perceived in one way or another tradition of the 19th century European classic novel.

American realism was the literature of public protest. Realist writers refused to accept reality as a natural result of development. Criticism of the emerging imperialist society, the depiction of its negative sides, became the hallmarks of American critical realism. New themes appear, brought to the fore by the changed conditions of life (the ruin and impoverishment of farming; the capitalist city and the little man in it; the denunciation of monopoly capital).

The new generation of writers is connected with the new region: it relies on the democratic spirit of the American West, on the elements of oral folklore and addresses its works to the widest mass readership.

It is appropriate to say about the stylistic diversity and genre innovation in American realism. The genres of the psychological and social short story, the socio-psychological novel, the epic novel, and the philosophical novel develop, the genre of the social utopia becomes widespread (Bellamy's Looking Back, 1888), and the genre of the scientific novel is created (S. Lewis's Arrowsmith). At the same time, realist writers often used new aesthetic principles, a special look “from the inside” at the surrounding life. Reality was portrayed as an object of psychological and philosophical understanding of human existence.

The typological feature of American realism was authenticity. Starting from the traditions of late romantic literature and the literature of the transition period, realist writers sought to portray only the truth, without embellishment and omissions. Another typological feature was the social orientation, the markedly social nature of novels and short stories. Another typological feature of American literature of the XX century. - its inherent publicity. Writers in their works sharply and clearly delineate their likes and dislikes.

By the 1920s, the formation of American national dramaturgy, which had not previously received significant development, dates back to the 1920s. This process proceeded in conditions of acute internal struggle. The desire for a realistic reflection of life was complicated by modernist influences among American playwrights. Eugene O^Neill occupies one of the first places in the history of American drama. He laid the foundations of the American national drama, created vivid psychological plays; and all his work had a great influence on the subsequent development of American drama.

An eloquent and peculiar phenomenon in the literature of the 1920s was the work of a group of young writers who entered literature immediately after the end of the First World War and reflected in their art the difficult conditions of post-war development. All of them were united by disappointment in bourgeois ideals. They were especially concerned about the fate of a young man in post-war America. These are the so-called representatives of the "lost generation" - Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, John Dos Passos, Francis Scott Fitzgerald. Of course, the term “lost generation” itself is very approximate, because the writers who are usually included in this group are very different in political, social and aesthetic views, in the characteristics of their artistic practice. And yet, to some extent, this term can be applied to them: the awareness of the tragedy of American life had a particularly strong and sometimes painful effect on the work of these young people who had lost faith in the old bourgeois foundations. F.S. Fitzgerald gave his name to the Lost Generation era: he called it the Jazz Age. In this term, he wanted to express the feeling of instability, the transience of life, a feeling that is characteristic of many people who have lost faith and hastened to live and thereby escape, albeit illusory, from their loss.

Around the 1920s, modernist groups began to appear that fought against realism, propagated the cult of "pure art", and engaged in formalist research. The American school of modernism is most vividly represented by the poetic practice and theoretical views of such masters of modernism as Ezra Pound and Thomas Stearns Eliot. Ezra Pound also became one of the founders of the modernist movement in literature, called Imagism. Imagism (from image) tore literature from life, defended the principle of the existence of "pure art", proclaimed the primacy of form over content. This idealistic conception, in turn, underwent minor changes over time and laid the foundation for another variety of modernism, known as vorticism. Vorticism (from vortex) is close to Imagism and Futurism. This movement made it an obligation for poets to figuratively perceive the phenomena they were interested in and depict them through words that took into account only their sound. Vorticists tried to achieve visual perception of sound, tried to find such words-sounds that would express movement, dynamics, without regard to their meaning and meaning. Freudian theories, which were widespread at that time, also contributed to the emergence of new trends in modernist literature. They became the basis of the stream of consciousness novel and various other schools.

Although the American writers who were in Europe did not create the original modernist schools. They were actively involved in the activities of various modernist groups - French, English and multinational. Among the "exiles" (as they called themselves), the majority were writers of the younger generation, who had lost faith in bourgeois ideals, in capitalist civilization, but could not find real support in life. Their confusion was expressed in modernist quests.

In 1929, the first John Reed Club arose in the USA, uniting proletarian writers and advocating revolutionary art and literature, and in the 30s there were already 35 such clubs, and later the League of American Writers was created on their basis, which existed from 1935 to 1942. During its existence, four congresses were convened (1935, 1937, 1939, 1941), which laid the foundation for the unification of US writers around democratic social tasks, contributed to the ideological growth of many of them; this association has played a prominent role in the history of American literature.

"Pink Decade" It can be said that in the 1930s literature of a socialist orientation in the USA took shape as a trend. Its development was also facilitated by the stormy socialist movement in Russia. Among its representatives (Michael Gold, Lincoln Steffens, Albert Maltz, and others) there is a distinct desire for the socialist ideal, strengthening ties with social and political life. Very often in their works there was a call for resistance, for the struggle against the oppressors. This feature has become one of the important features of American socialist literature.

In the same years, a kind of “explosion of documentaryism” takes place; it was associated with the desire of writers to promptly, directly respond to current socio-political events. Turning to journalism, primarily to the essay, writers (Anderson, Caldwell, Frank, Dos Passos) turn out to be pioneers of new topics that later receive artistic comprehension.

At the end of the 1930s, there was a clear rise in the critical-realist trend after a noticeable decline at the beginning of the decade. New names appear: Thomas Wolfe, Richard Wright, Albert Maltz, D. Trumbo, E. Caldwell, D. Farrell and others. And the development of the epic genre, which was formed in the atmosphere of the popular struggle against monopolies and the fascist threat, became an outstanding achievement of critical realism in USA. Here, first of all, it is necessary to name the names of such authors as Faulkner, Steinbeck, Hemingway, Dos Passos.

During World War II, American writers joined the fight against Hitlerism: they condemned Hitler's aggression and supported the fight against the fascist aggressors. Publicistic articles and reports by war correspondents are published in large numbers. And later, the theme of World War II will be reflected in the books of many writers (Hemingway, Mailer, Saxton, etc.). Some writers, creating anti-fascist works, saw their task in unconditional support for the actions of the US ruling circles, which sometimes could lead to a departure from the truth of life, from a realistic depiction of reality. John Steinbeck took a similar position in those years.

After World War II, there is a slight decline in the development of literature, but this does not apply to poetry and drama, where the work of poets Robert Lowell and Alan Ginsberg, Gregory Corso and Lawrence Ferlinghetti, playwrights Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams and Edward Albee gained worldwide fame.

In the post-war years, the anti-racist theme, so characteristic of Negro literature, deepened. This is evidenced by the poetry and prose of Langston Hughes, the novels of John Killens ("Young Blood, and Then We Heard Thunder"), and the fiery publicism of James Baldwin, and the dramaturgy of Lorraine Hensberry. One of the brightest representatives of Negro creativity was Richard Wright ("Son of America").

Increasingly, literature is created "under the order" of the ruling circles of America. The novels of L. Nyson, L. Stalling, and others, depicting in a heroic halo the actions of American troops during World War I and other "benefits" of America, are thrown into the book market in huge numbers. And during the years of World War II, the ruling circles of the United States managed to subjugate many writers. And for the first time on such a scale, US literature was put at the service of government propaganda. And as many critics note, this process had a detrimental effect on the development of US literature, which, in their opinion, was clearly confirmed in its post-war history.

The so-called mainstream fiction, which sets itself the goal of transporting the reader to a pleasant and iridescent world, is gaining wide popularity in the United States. The book market was flooded with novels by Kathleen Norris, Temple Bailey, Fenny Hearst, and other purveyors of "women's literature," producing lightweight, patterned novels with an indispensable happy ending. In addition to love books, popular literature was also represented by detective stories. Pseudo-historical works have also become popular, combining entertainment with an apology for American statehood (Kenneth Roberts). However, the most famous work in this genre was the American bestseller - the novel Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell (1937), depicting the life of the southern aristocracy during the era of the war between the North and the South and Reconstruction.

In the 1960s and 1970s in the United States, on the basis of the mass Negro and anti-war movement in the country, there was an obvious turn of many writers towards significant social problems, the growth of socially critical sentiments in their work, and a return to the traditions of realistic creativity.

The role of John Cheever as the leader of US prose is becoming increasingly significant. Another representative of the literature of that time, Saul Bellow, was awarded the Nobel Prize and won wide recognition in America and beyond.

Among the modernist writers, the leading role belongs to the "black humorists" Barthelme, Bart, Pynchon, in whose work irony often hides the absence of their own vision of the world and who are more likely to have a tragic feeling and misunderstanding of life than its rejection.

In recent decades, many writers have come to literature from universities. And so the main themes became: memories of childhood, youth and university years, and when these topics were exhausted, the writers ran into difficulties. To a certain extent, this also applies to such remarkable writers as John Updike and Philip Roth. But not all of these writers remained in their perception of America at the level of university impressions. By the way, F. Roth and J. Updike in their latest works go far beyond these problems, although this is not so easy for them.

Among the middle generation of American writers, the most popular and significant are Kurt Vonnegut, Joyce Carol Oates, and John Gardner. The future belongs to these writers, although they have already said their special and original word in American literature. As for the developing concepts, they express various varieties of contemporary bourgeois currents in American literary criticism.

But, of course, modern US literature, already time-tested, will be studied, evaluated and comprehended, maybe from other positions only after a certain amount of time has passed - which will most likely be more reliable from the point of view of the development of American literature as a whole.

Bibliography

S.D. Artamonov, History of foreign literature of the XVII-XVIII centuries, M.: 1988

History of foreign literature of the 19th century, ed. M.A. Solovieva, M.: 1991

History of foreign literature of the 19th century, Part I, ed. A.S. Dmitrieva, M.: 1979

M.N. Bobrova, Romanticism in American Literature of the 19th Century, M.: 1991

History of foreign literature of the XX century 1871-1917, ed. V.N. Theological, Z.T. Civil, M.: 1972

History of foreign literature of the XX century 1917-1945, ed. V.N. Theological, Z.T. Civil, M.: 1990

History of foreign literature of the XX century, ed. L.G. Andreeva, M.: 1980

B.A. Gilenson, American literature of the 30s of the XX century, M.: 1974

A. Startsev, From Whitman to Hemingway, Moscow: 1972

Literary History of the United States of America, Volume III, ed. R. Spiller, W. Thorpe, T.N. Johnson, G.S. Kenby, M.: 1979

Introduction

Philosophy of literary criticism

1Relationship between philosophy and science

2Literary criticism in the system of scientific knowledge

2 US literature of the early 20th century

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Romantic and socially acute, unique in its history and original approach to problems, persecuted at home and recognized in other countries - American literature is of particular interest for philosophical reflection.

Literary criticism as a scientific discipline considers not only creative methods, but also pays a lot of attention to the history of literature. This interest can be expressed in different ways: the history of a particular literary movement, the history of the literature of a particular country, and so on.

The turn of the 19th-20th centuries was in many ways a landmark moment for US literature - new authors received recognition, the public's gaze fell on problems that had been hidden or hushed up for a long time, new cultural and literary trends emerged.

The relevance of this work is due to the need to obtain theoretical knowledge in the field of American literature.

The object of the study is the literature of the XIX - XX centuries. The subject is US literature of this period.

The purpose of the work: to structure knowledge about the literature of the United States of the specified period, fill in the gaps and identify the main development trends.

In the course of achieving this goal, the following tasks were identified and solved:

)Search for information on a given topic;

)Analysis and processing of the received information;

)Identification of the main features of American literature of the XIX-XX centuries.

The abstract consists of two chapters, introduction, conclusion and list of references.

1. Philosophy of literary criticism

1 Relationship between philosophy and science

For the most complete understanding of the connection between philosophy and science, it is necessary to define these concepts. Philosophy is a special form of social consciousness and knowledge of the world. It develops a system of knowledge about the fundamental principles and foundations of human existence, explores and generalizes the most essential characteristics of human relationships with the world. In the Modern Encyclopedia, the following definition of philosophy is given - it is a worldview, a system of ideas, views on the world and on the place of man in it. Philosophy explores various forms of human relationship with myoma: cognitive, socio-political, value, ethical and aesthetic. Based on theoretical and practical knowledge about these relationships, philosophy reveals the relationship between subject and object. Similar definitions can be found in other sources.

Summarizing many definitions, we can say that philosophy is a generalized knowledge about the world and about the place of man in it. Philosophy is engaged in the search and establishment of the most general laws and patterns in the world: in nature, in society, in relation to a person with the surrounding reality.

Science can be defined as a special kind of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about the world. In the Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary we find the following definition: science is a sphere of human activity, the main task of which is the development and theoretical schematization of objective knowledge about reality; a branch of culture that did not exist at all times and not among all peoples.

Particular sciences are turned to the phenomena and processes of real reality that exist objectively, independently of either man or mankind. They are not interested in the moral aspect of human life, in their search they do not take into account the categories of good and evil. Science formulates its conclusions in theories, laws and formulas, excluding from the spectrum of research the attitude of the scientist to the phenomena under study and the social consequences that this or that discovery may lead to.

According to B. Russell, all private sciences are faced with unknown facts about the world, but "when a person enters the border areas or goes beyond them, he falls out of science into the sphere of speculation." The sciences are characterized by an orientation towards everyday life, the solution of specific issues that determine the quality of life. While philosophy considers the most general forms of human experience, not always giving specific practical results.

Obviously, no scientific discipline, including philosophy, can absorb the entire body of knowledge about the world. This fact determines the deep continuity between the particular sciences and philosophy. At a certain stage, philosophy has the characteristics of science: it forms its principles and patterns on the basis of specific scientific material obtained empirically from specific sciences; philosophy, in turn, forms the methodological foundation for further scientific growth. Special sciences, on the other hand, need a philosophical understanding of the knowledge accumulated by them.

In the XIX century there was a special direction of philosophical research, the so-called. philosophy of science. The need to develop a special philosophical methodological base for a particular science appears as the theoretical component of scientific knowledge grows. Elements of the problematics of the philosophy of science are found already in ancient philosophy, but the own problems of this discipline are indicated only from the New Age.

The subject of studying the philosophy of science is the structure and development of scientific knowledge as a whole. The philosophy of science chooses as its basis the problems of science as an epistemological (epistemology - theory of knowledge) and sociocultural phenomenon.

The place of the philosophy of science in the structure of scientific knowledge is determined by the ability to realize the epistemological and sociocultural needs of science with the help of its internal, historically formed concepts and problems. The philosophy of science gives consciousness constructive-critical functions in relation to the existing scientific and cognitive practice.

The own problems of the philosophy of science, as a separate discipline, are formed in the works of W. Whewell, J.S. Mill, O. Comte, G. Spencer, J. Herschel. Due to the fact that in the 19th century the social role of scientific work increases so much that it becomes a form of professional activity, the works of these and other authors led to the formulation of a specific normative-critical task: to bring scientific and cognitive activity in line with some philosophical and methodological ideal.

The path traveled by the philosophy of science from the moment of self-determination as a separate scientific discipline has become the basis of the modern image of science. Its most important feature is that scientific knowledge, without differences in subject and method, turns out to be socially and culturally relative (relative), as well as historically changeable. On this basis, it is supposed to overcome the confrontation between the natural sciences and the humanities. The search for the unity of scientific knowledge is now taking place not only on the basis of the natural sciences, but also on the basis of the humanities. However, at the same time, such concepts as truth and objectivity practically disappear from the reasoning of philosophers of science. The main thing in the philosophy of science is the central concept of the methodology of the humanities - the concept of interpretation, and in this case, philosophical hermeneutics begins to claim the role of a single methodological foundation of modern science.

The current state of the philosophy of science is determined by two reductionist tendencies. The naturalistic trend implies the dissolution of the philosophy of science in interdisciplinary research, such as synergetics, cognitive science, science of science. The humanitarian trend leads to the transformation of the discipline into literary criticism, anthropology, and cultural studies. Preservation of belonging to the sphere of philosophical research is possible only taking into account the heuristic potential of the scientific field, critical reflection against the background of a deeper development of those fundamental goals and values ​​that form the core of a rationalistic worldview.

2 History of literary criticism

As mentioned above, the development of the philosophy of science tends to expand the "functional field". Not only applied, natural sciences, but also the humanities are turning to the solution of global philosophical issues. In the system of philosophical knowledge about the humanities, such areas as the philosophy of consciousness and the philosophy of language can be distinguished separately. These directions stand apart because, due to the interdisciplinary approach, they are wider in scope than the philosophy of psychology and the philosophy of linguistics.

Within the framework of the philosophy of language, one can single out literary criticism as a discipline capable of forming philosophical knowledge. This scientific field is so authoritative that now it is often possible to find reference to literary works as the most striking examples in the field of sociology, political science, and history. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia gives the following definition of literary criticism: it is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. According to the authors of the encyclopedia, literary criticism is currently one of the most complex and dynamically developing systems of scientific knowledge. The composition of literary criticism includes the so-called. auxiliary disciplines: textual criticism, or text criticism, paleography, book science, bibliography.

It is worth saying that the boundaries of the science that studies literature are quite wide. In addition to general issues related to the process of development of literature, the work itself, the laws of its construction, the specifics of a particular text, etc., become the subject of research for literary critics. Literary criticism is conditionally divided into two main parts - theoretical and historical literary criticism. Theoretical literary criticism deals with the theory of literature, or poetics. It explores the main elements of fiction: image, genera and types, styles, etc.

The history of literature, on the other hand, is primarily interested in the specific elements of literary criticism. The subject of her research is the originality of various national literatures, literary periods, trends and trends, and the work of individual authors. The history of literature considers any literary phenomenon in historical development.

Features of the two above directions - the theory and history of literature - are possessed by historical poetics. Like literary theory, it has separate literary forms: genres, styles, types of plots and characters, etc. But unlike literary theory, historical poetics considers these forms in development (for example, changes in the novel as a genre are traced).

The history of literary criticism has its roots in the deep past. Arguments about art are found in the most ancient monuments that have come down to our days - in the Indian Vedas (10-2 centuries BC), in the Chinese "Book of Traditions" (12-5 centuries BC), in ancient Greek "Iliad" and "Odyssey" (8-7 centuries BC), etc. In Europe, the first concepts of art and literature were developed by ancient thinkers. Already in the works of Aristotle "Rhetoric" and "Metaphysics" there is a formation of literary disciplines proper - the theory of literature, stylistics and poetics. His work "On the Art of Poetry" contains the first systematic exposition of the foundations of poetics. It opened a centuries-old tradition of special treatises on poetics, which over time acquired an ever stronger normative character. In the XVIII century. the first historical and literary courses were published: "The History of Italian Literature" (1772-82) by G. Tiraboschi, "The History of English Poetry" (1774-81) by T. Wharton, as well as the "Lyceum, or Course" built on the historical consideration of the types of poetry ancient and new literature” (1799-1805) J. Laharpe.

Over time, the large-scale field of literary criticism gives rise to a number of pan-European methodological schools. One of the first among them was the mythological school. Its philosophical basis was the works on aesthetics by F. Schelling and br. A. and F. Schlegel.

The influence of the romantic theory about art as a way of self-expression of the creative spirit served as the basis for the biographical method (Sh.O. Sainte-Beuve, Literary-Critical Portraits, 1836-39). It is worth noting that this method, to one degree or another, passes through all the latest literary criticism. The biographical method gave rise to the psychological theories of creativity that were widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the 2nd half of the XIX century. especially influential was the cultural-historical school, which was based, among other factors, on determinism in literary criticism.

At the end of the XIX century. in Western European literary criticism, there are tendencies towards the emergence of a comparative approach in the study of literature. This is facilitated by the development of cultural-historical and psychological methods ("Scientific Criticism", 1888, E. Enneken, France; "The Main Trends in European Literature of the 19th Century", 1873-1890, G. Brandes, W. Wundt, D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky).

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. a spiritual-historical (or cultural-philosophical) school took shape. In their theory, representatives of this school (W. Dilthey) neglected the social class motives of experience, developing the principle of "historicism" (in relation to the change of artistic styles and forms). The moments of the artistic structure were not taken into account either, since art was dissolved in the stream of the general worldview inherent in the era.

A special place in the Western literary tradition was occupied by currents based on the philosophy of existentialism. Existentialists interpreted a poetic work as a self-contained, self-contained truth; the existentialist "interpretation" avoids the traditional genetic approach, pulling the work out of the socio-historical context.

Modern literary criticism is a science that comprehensively studies fiction, its origin and social ties; the specifics of verbal-figurative artistic thinking, the nature and functions of artistic creativity, general and local patterns of the historical and literary process. In recent decades, research in the field of poetics has revived, which is characterized by a clear orientation towards the knowledge of the formative, content principles of literature; this brought to the fore the problem of the work as a complex system capable of being included in a changing historical and social context.

Modern literary criticism faces the main task - to develop mechanisms for an adequate interpretation of a literary text. A literary critic should be able to establish a dialogue with a work of verbal art and make this dialogue interesting for the reader or listener. Simply put, the researcher must see and understand something in a literary text that a non-specialist will not notice or be unable to explain. The level of qualification of a literary critic is precisely determined by the ability to solve these problems. The more extensive the knowledge, the more subtle and non-standard the comment, the higher the level of the philologist-literary critic.

US Literature at the Turn of the 19th-20th Centuries

In the beginning, I would like to make a short digression into the history of the United States of interest to us during the period. without knowledge of the main historical events, it is impossible to understand literary processes and analyze texts.

The United States of America is one of the youngest states. The development of the continent by Europeans began in the 16th century; before their appearance, the territory of the future world power was inhabited by Indian tribes. By the 18th century, the entire North American continent had been colonized by Europeans. In 1774, 13 British colonies began hostilities in the struggle for independence. The result of their victory on July 4, 1776 was the formation of a new sovereign state.

During the 19th century, the territory of the United States increased due to the acquisition of Louisiana from the French, Florida from the Spaniards and the conquest of other lands. The capture of local states was accompanied either by the forced eviction of the Indian people in the reservation, or by the complete destruction of the population.

In 1861, disagreements arose between the southern and northern states related to economic and cultural issues, as a result of which the Confederation of 11 southern states arose, declaring its separation. At the beginning of the civil war, the southerners won several victories, but in the end it ended with the victory of the northern states and the preservation of the federation.

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century is marked by a grandiose economic recovery in the United States due to the influx of immigrants from other continents. April 4, 1917 America entered the First World War. Until that time, the state preferred to take a neutral position in relation to events in Europe. At this point, the United States was engaged in the creation of zones of influence in the countries of the Pacific Ocean, the Caribbean and Central America. After the war in 1929, a sharp jump in the country's economy gave way to a terrible crisis. During the Great Depression, production dropped significantly and unemployment increased. On December 7, 1941, as a result of the bombing of the American base at Pearl Harbor by Japanese fighters, the US Army entered World War II with Japan. After December 11, 1941, America entered into a military conflict with Italy and Germany. The Americans deployed all their military operations mainly in the Pacific. After the Tehran Conference on June 6, 1944, the US Army figured in the defeat of the German army on the Atlantic coast of France. The fighting against Japan successfully took place in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. On August 6, 1945, the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, and on August 9, a bomb was dropped on another Japanese city - Nagasaki. On September 2, 1945, the Japanese Emperor Hirohito signed an act of surrender.

1 US literature of the late 19th century

Literary scholars call the end of the 19th century late American romanticism. During this period, a sharp division took place in the literary space of the country, caused by the Civil War between the North and the South. On the one hand, there is the literature of abolitionism, which, within the framework of romantic aesthetics, protests against slavery from ethical and general humanistic positions. On the other hand, the literature of the South, idealizing the traditions of the slave system, stands up for the historically doomed and reactionary way of life.

The motives of opposition to anti-humanistic laws occupy a significant place in the works of such writers as Longfellow, Emerson, Thoreau, and others. We can observe the same motives in the works of G. Beecher Stowe, D. G. and realistic elements is the work of the greatest American poet Walt Whitman. Dickinson's work is permeated with a romantic worldview - already outside the chronological framework of romanticism. Romantic motifs organically enter the creative method of F. Bret Hart, M. Twain, A. Beers, D. London and other US writers of the late 19th - early 20th century.

It should be noted that American romanticism differs significantly from European romanticism. The assertion of national identity and independence, the search for a "national idea" run through all the art of American romanticism. The culture of the United States did not have the centuries-old experience that Europe had at that time - by the end of the 19th century, the new nation had not yet managed to “acquire” objects and realities that romantic associations could be attached to (such as the tulips of Holland and the roses of Italy). But gradually, in the books of Irving and Cooper, Longfellow and Melville, Hawthorne and Thoreau, phenomena and facts of American nature, history, and geography acquire a romantic flavor.

No less significant for American romanticism was the theme of the Indians. Indians in America from the very beginning a factor that is associated with a very complex psychological complex - admiration and fear, hostility and guilt. The image of the "noble savage", the life of the Indians, its freedom, naturalness, closeness to nature could become a romantic alternative to capitalist civilization in the books of Irving and Cooper, Thoreau and Longfellow. In the works of these authors, we see evidence that the conflict between the two races was not fatally inevitable, but the cruelty and greed of the white settlers were to blame for it. The work of American romantics makes the life and culture of the Indians an important component of the national literature of the United States, conveying its special imagery and coloring. The same applies to the perception of another ethnic minority - black Americans in the southern states.

Within American Romanticism, within a single creative method, there were notable regional differences. The main literary regions are New England (northeastern states), the middle states, the South.

The atmosphere of the American South is conveyed by the works of J. P. Kennedy and W. G. Simms. It is worth noting that the authors could not completely get rid of the stereotypes of glorifying the virtues of "southern democracy" and the advantages of the slave-owning order. With all these features of limitations, "southern" romanticism paves the way for the formation of a complex, multidimensional, but undoubtedly fruitful "southern tradition" in US literature, which in the 20th century. represented by the names of W. Faulkner, R. P. Warren, W. Styron, C. McCullers, S. E. Grau, and others. political reactionary positions, arguing that "joyfully, knowing no worries, the slave lives on the plantation."

The middle states are distinguished from the beginning by great ethnic and religious diversity and tolerance. Here American bourgeois democracy is being laid down and capitalist relations are developing especially rapidly. The work of Irving, Cooper, Paulding, and later Melville is associated with the middle states. The main themes in the work of the romantics of the middle states are the search for a national hero, interest in social issues, reflections on the path traveled by the country, a comparison of the past and present of America.

Romanticism in New England (Hawthorne, Emerson, Thoreau, Bryant, and others) is characterized primarily by the desire for a philosophical understanding of the American experience, for an analysis of the national past, its ideological and artistic heritage. Inherent in this literature is the exploration of complex ethical issues; An important place is occupied by the revision of the Puritan complex of religious and moral ideas of the Puritan colonists of the 17th-18th centuries, with which a deep successive connection is preserved. New English Romanticism has a strong tradition of moral-philosophical prose, rooted in America's Puritan colonial past. After the end of the Civil War in the literature of the United States, a realistic trend in literature began to develop. The new generation of writers is connected with the new region: it relies on the democratic spirit of the American West, on the elements of folk oral folklore and addresses its works to the widest, mass readership. From the point of view of the new aesthetics, romanticism ceased to meet the requirements of the times. Romantic "impulses" were sharply criticized by M. Twain, F. Bret Hart and other young realist writers. Their contradictions with the romantics are caused, first of all, by a different understanding of the truth of life and ways of expressing it in art. American realists of the second half of the 19th century. strive for maximum historical, social and everyday concreteness, they are not satisfied with the language of romantic allegories and symbols.

It must be said that this denial is purely dialectical in nature. In the literature of the USA of the XX century. there are romantic motives and they are associated, as a rule, with the search for lost high ideals and true spirituality, the unity of man and nature, with the moral utopia of extra-bourgeois human relations, with a protest against the transformation of the individual into a cog in the state machine. These motifs are clearly visible in the work of the greatest American word artists of our century - E. Hemingway and W. Faulkner, T. Wilder and D. Steinbeck, F. S. Fitzgerald and D. D. Salinger. US writers of recent decades continue to turn to them.

american literature novel realistic

2.2 US literature in the early 20th century

The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by significant artistic achievements of American literature, which received wide recognition throughout the world. In many ways, this was facilitated by the influx of immigrants from Europe and strong economic development. At the beginning of the century, the conflict between popular literature, philistine fiction and pseudo-romantic prose in the style of "refined tradition", on the one hand, and literature that seeks to convey life in its dynamics and contradictions, on the other, became more tangible. Important for the development of literature during this period was the growth of social movements: first - anti-war, then - anti-monopoly. Already in the first decades of the twentieth century, three new trends in American literature were distinguished: critical realism, experimental and socialist literature.

An important stage in the literary life of America was Dreiser's novel "Genius". This work shows the conflict between true creativity and external circumstances that prevent it from being realized. Dreiser believed that in American society the romance of profit prevails, the minds are confident that the existing system is the best. In his opinion, Hollywood has captured not only cinematography, but also literature: the heroes in American literature have stopped working, poverty has become a myth, and difficulties are resolved with the help of various intrigues.

The growing realist literature was represented by such authors as Mark Twain, E. Sinclair, J. London and others. Many of them supported the movement of the so-called. "scrappers of dirt". This group of writers became the founders of the American sociological novel, combining journalistic research with artistic reflection in their work.

In April 1917, the United States announced its entry into World War I. America never fought on its own territory, but its literature was also shaken by the theme of the “lost generation”. The problems associated with the war were included not only in the books of those writers who fought on the fronts of Europe, such as, for example, E. Hemingway. The war, intertwined with other semantic lines in different works, touches upon problems specific to America - big money and the collapse of the American dream - helps to see clearly and see the true value of things, the lies and selfish artificiality of official slogans. The economic crisis of the 20-30s. pulled all the contradictions into a single knot, exacerbating social conflicts: in the South and West, farms were ruined en masse, in the North and Northeast, fierce clashes unfolded in mines and factories. T. Dreiser writes about the disasters of the miners of Garlan, Steinbeck told the whole world about the tragedy of the farmers of California and the Far West. Its most truthful and profound reflection of the turbulent 30s. are found in the works of E. Hemingway, W. Faulkner, J. Steinbeck, A. Miller, S., Fitzgerald.

The beginning of the century was also marked by new trends in the development of ethnic cultures. Interest in the work of Indian writers is growing, the number of publications of works by black Americans is increasing, among which are William Dubois, P.L. Dunbar, C.W. Chesnut. They capture a wide American audience. The influx of immigrants to the United States gave rise to a kind of literature, both in English and in the languages ​​​​of immigrants who came to America from different countries. This phenomenon gave impetus to a new stage in the development of not only US literature, but also culture in general.

A characteristic feature of American realists was that, while borrowing some of the formal features of the modernist novel, they retain the aesthetic principles of critical realism: the ability to create types of great social significance, to show the circumstances of provincial and metropolitan life deeply typical of American reality; the ability to depict life as a contradictory process, as a constant struggle and action, in contrast to the decadent novel, which replaces the depiction of social contradictions with a retreat into the hero's inner world.

The masters of American prose of the early 20th century consciously created simple plots, depriving them of the elements of entertainment inherent in novels of the 19th century. In their opinion, such an approach to creativity is better able to emphasize the tragedy of the position of the protagonist. Traditional autobiographicalism continued to feed the realistic elements of American literature, such as factualism and documentaryism. The authors believed that in the 20th century the aesthetics of reading should become more intense, so they do not strive, like their predecessors, to tell in the exposition everything basic about their characters; an additional effort is required from the reader to assimilate and comprehend the components of the complex composition of the novel.

The beginning of the 20th century in the United States not only opened great names to the world community, but also became a difficult transition period for the country from the state of “arrogant youth” to a more mature understanding of things. The "Great Depression" of the 1930s was officially overcome in 1933, but its presence in literature goes far beyond the indicated limits. The experience of these difficult years has forever remained in Americans as immunity against complacency, carelessness and spiritual indifference. It formed the basis for the further development of the national formula for success, and contributed to the strengthening of the moral foundation of American business, which was reflected in the literature.

Conclusion

The literary life of the United States at the turn of the century was intense. Political events taking place in the world, social upheavals and cultural changes were soon reflected in fiction. It must be said that many reactionary works eventually laid the foundation for entire currents of literature.

I would like to note the main trends that developed in American literature at the beginning of the twentieth century. Three of them have been identified in this work.

The dissonance in writers' circles regarding themes, ideas and forms of works naturally led to a change in the period of romantic literature to realistic. The conflict between popular and "noble" literature, based on the rethinking of the nation itself, led to the formation of the American social novel.

The second trend in US literature was military prose. Despite the fact that the hostilities of the First World War did not affect the territory of America, the American public reacted sharply to them. The authors who touched on this topic have received recognition not only in their own country, but also abroad.

I would like to note another trend that emerged at the beginning of the 20th century and has been actively developed to this day - this is the recognition of ethnic authors. For a long time, this area of ​​literature was forgotten due to the internal policy of the United States regarding the colored population. The beginning of the century was marked by the "discovery" of ethnic literature. This fact greatly enriched the literary space of America. Many non-American writers are now world-famous.

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