During the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC), the intensive development of ancient society takes place. The population grew, its standard of living rose. It was a period of progress in foundry production, success in the manufacture of pottery. At this time, lively centers of artistic and industrial production of dishes arose (first Corinth and Megara, then Athens), where the famous method of pointing black figures against a brilliant reddish background was developed, achieved by mixing iron oxide.
A characteristic feature of the economy of this period in the history of Hellas is the presence of a fairly developed exchange, which is associated with the process of colonization and the departure of the mass of the population to the colonies, with the importation of products from the colony to the metropolis, with the development of crafts in the metropolis and the export of their products to the colonies.
The development of such forms of economy as mediation in trade, transportation and transportation of goods becomes a source of livelihood for entire communities. Such, for example, was Aegina, whose role was especially significant in transit trade, mediation, since its population delivered products to different parts of Ancient Greece.
The emergence and distribution of coins in the Greek world can serve as the most important indicator of the development of exchange in the era of the colonial expansion of Hellas. At the same time, the Greeks used the experience of the ancient Eastern countries - the weight and monetary units adopted by them reproduce the Babylonian eastern names.
With the development of productive forces and exchange, new working hands appear - imported slaves. The labor of slaves is used in mines, in crafts, in port and ship work. The possession of slaves, their purchase is becoming an important way to expand production and enrichment.
With the use of mass labor, the size of enterprises and the volume of production have changed. Enterprises expanded and took on the character of handicraft workshops. Handicraft separated from agriculture.
New groups of the population appear - shipowners, owners of craft workshops (ergasteria), which over time increasingly determine not only the economic, but also the political nature of the city-states-policies that arose in the 8th-6th centuries. BC. in Greece as a result of the struggle of new social groups and forces with the aristocracy.
The policy included the city and the adjacent rural area and was considered an independent state. The largest policy was Athens, occupying an area of 2500 square meters. km. Other policies were much smaller, their territory did not exceed 350 square meters. km. Even the largest cities numbered no more than a few thousand inhabitants.
By the beginning of the archaic period, most policies were ruled by aristocrats, and the system of government was an oligarchy (the power of a few), but as trade expanded, the middle class of merchants, artisans and bankers began to grow and prosper. Deprived of political rights, it begins to seek the opportunity to participate in decision-making. Unrest arises in the country, and to restore peace, the Greeks choose one ruler, giving him full power.
Such a ruler was called a tyrant. The appearance in Greece of such rulers is attributed to 650 BC. In general, starting from 750 BC. the real power of Greece belonged to the Areopagus (council), whose policy was carried out by three senior officials - the archons, who in their activities conferred with the assembly of elders, i.e. eminent members of aristocratic families.
In 621 BC dissatisfied with the system of government and the laws of the city, the Athenians appointed Draco to the position of tyrant, who created the first written and very rigid set of laws in the history of Greece. Dracont introduced a public trial so that people could see the results of justice. He based his reforms on pre-existing oral laws, but wrote them down and toughened them up, introducing the death penalty for many offenses, even as minor as stealing food. That is why to this day tough measures and laws are called draconian.
In the VI century. BC. the draconian code of laws was significantly revised by the archon Solon (640-635-ca. 559 BC), who proposed a number of very popular measures to the Athenians: he prevented the sale of grain abroad, freed all citizens from land debts, stopped the practice of selling debtors in slavery. The Athenians sold abroad were redeemed by the state. Solon also reformed the system of government, as a result of which representatives of the middle strata could occupy administrative positions, even poor citizens were given the right to vote in the national assembly.
Solon's reforms, being progressive, were at the same time an attempt to reconcile the social groups that were then opposed to each other, an attempt to compromise. For this, as he himself writes in his elegies, he tried to intelligently combine legality with violence.
The struggle between democracy and the aristocracy in the policies in the VIII-VI centuries. BC. contributed to the development of a number of important democratic principles, one of which was local self-government.
For the first time this principle was fixed in the Constitution of Cleisthenes (VI century BC) and in his reform, according to which the smallest social units - demes (communes) were given self-government. In 508 BC Cleisthenes, a member of the Alcmaeonid family, who became the head of Athens as a result of a civil war, introduced a new system of government, which he called democracy.
Wanting to attract the masses to broad participation in political life, Cleisthenes introduced the Council of 500, which became a permanent commission of the people's assembly and, together with officials, was in charge of finance and foreign affairs and prepared the decisions of the people's assembly.
With the name of Cleisthenes, history connects the appearance in Athens of a political custom - otracism, which consisted in the fact that every year, during the spring meeting, the people were asked whether a decision should be made this year on the expulsion of a person suspected of tyrannical plans.
The poll was held by secret written voting, and in the case of an affirmative answer, a special meeting was convened for ostracization, in which at least 6,000 citizens were to participate. The convict was temporarily deprived of only his political, but not civil rights and went into exile.
archaic period
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | archaic period |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Literature |
Pre-literary period
The form of folklore that passed into literature
Greek mythology. Myth captures a phenomenon, a stage of development. Bears echoes of the communal system. The concept of ʼʼthe way of the heroʼʼ is spreading
Genres: dedactic, heroic, genealogical epics, poetry, novels, tragedies, mythographic literature
The tale is undeniably unbelievable.
Features of the Greek: there are almost no samples, except for the plot from Cupid and Psyche. (2nd century BC) in Roman literature. Disregard for the story.
Elements of a fairy tale: epic, classic comedy (in stories about a hero who descends into Hades, a place where life goes according to an ideal principle that differs sharply from reality)
Labor and ritual songs
Labor In epics, epigrams, lyrics, comedies.
Ritual in the heroic epic and early Greek lyrics.
Riddles, aphorisms, proverbs - a small form of folklore
The fable retained the features of the archaic era. Her heroes were most often animals and birds. They were used for allegory, explanation of something, turned into an element of the social struggle between the aristocracy and the masses.
The earliest dates back to the 8th century BC. Hesiod ʼʼFable of the Nightingale and the Hawkʼʼ
5th century BC The appearance of a collection of Greek fables by Aesop. Includes about 400 fables of different centuries of 7-4 centuries of writing. Translated in the 1st century AD. Phaedrom, became part of Roman culture. Fables of Barbius 2nd century AD Lafantin France (17th century), Krylov (the chain of passage of fables from one culture to another)
Chronology. Began with epic poems (heroic epos).
Created on the basis of a mythological plot (does not coincide with the mythological cycle, only an episode) Reflected the oral tradition of the pre-literary period.
The Trojan cycle began a quarrel of three goddesses, the end of the return and the fate of the surviving heroes of the Trojan War
Homer (problems dedicated to the authenticity of Homer's personality, his life time and authors were called the Homeric question. 2 stages: in Antiquity (He was considered a real person, the author of a number of works of the Iliad, the Odyssey, Homeric hymns, Some Kiklik poems, early epigrams) (Main issues: time life of Homer (2nd half of the 10th century BC or 9th century BC. Or 9-8 centuries BC); place of birth (about 20 cities of Asia Minor (Colophon, Smyrna, Chios, Argos, Athens)), how real the travels described by Homer are, in our time).
The place of creation of the poem Ionia (region of Asia Minor). In the root of the Ionian dialect.
The meter is the size in which epic works are written. Became obligatory, as was the Ionian dialect.
They were performed by the Aeds to the lyre or cithara.
In the 6th century BC Aeds were replaced by rhapsodists (performers)
Homerids - rhapsodes from the island of Chios, descended from Homer
Distribution of the Homeric Poems. Balkans, because episodes of the Iliad and the Odyssey were reflected in the Greek vase painting. In the 6th century BC. The emergence of competitions of rhapsodes in the heroic epic. Pesestratus ordered that the Homeric poems be recorded in Athens for the rhapsodic competition. Athenian version.
The playwrights treated Homer like a god.
The emergence of criticism of the works of Homer in the 6th century BC. Interpretation of the episodes of Homer's poems, from the point of view of the reality of what is happening.
In the 5th century BC. Herodotus and Thucydites seriously considered the texts of Homer.
Xenovan from Colophon, the poet, philosopher, was the first to criticize Homer for reducing the image of the gods, for their depiction as people (Plato develops this theme)
The most vicious criticism of Homer in ʼʼBiche on Homerʼʼ Zoilus of Amphipolis (Zailov's criticism)
In the era of Elinism, the Library of Alexandria was formed. From the 3rd century BC There is a study of manuscripts of early Greek and Homer, attracting scientists Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus of Samothrace. The library contains many versions of Homer's manuscript. Named for location.
Systematization of texts, an attempt to remove new fictional characters, the destruction of inconsistencies, the identification of the earliest version. Arist. Samofr.
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He tried to return the original meaning to the Homeric text. Soma (body, but then corpse) Phobos (fear, later flight)
Broken into songs in order to make it easier to store. Title alphabetically.
Modern translations are based on the version of Aristarchus of Samothrace.
3rd century BC Gelannik and Xenon Horizons (separators), having analyzed the texts, found different interpretations of images and events and said that the Iliad and the Odyssey were written by different authors. Criticized by Aristarchus of Samothrace (stated that this may be due to different versions or due to a change in the age and views of Homer)
Came in the form of scholia (comments on Homer)
The most valuable version is the Venetian 10th century BC.
In modern times, the Homeric question:
In the 16th century, the first discussion ʼʼDisputes between old and newʼʼ between fans of the epic talent of Homer and fans of Virgil. Arguments about who is better. Mainly in France (Homer won silently)
1664 François Daubignac defended his dissertation on the Iliad, in which he declared that Homer did not exist. Homer is not a proper name, but the term ʼʼblindʼʼ' referred to the early storytelling poets, denoting Aeda or a group of Aeds. The Iliad is a collection of songs by several singers. Collection of songs of blind singers. Whence then the unity of the text? The reason for everything is the revision of the 6th century BC.
1715 edition of Daubignac's dissertation
1713 - the work of Bentley, who did not deny the existence of Homer, but said that the Iliad was based on the songs of several singers, and Homer edited them
1795 - Fiedrich August Wolf from gave ʼʼIntroduction to Homerʼʼ. He argued that there was no unity of the poem and the common text, there was no written language yet, but in oral form there were small songs created by several aeads. He did not deny Homer, but this is only one of the Aeds, the rest of the names have been erased from memory. Poems are artificially combined from songs.
1. The theory of small songs (Karl Lachmann) tried to find the original components.
2. Unitary or the theory of Unity (Heinrich Nitsch) said that then there was already a written language and believed that the Odyssey and the Iliad were single poems. He considered Homer a real person, one of the aeds who took part in the creation and gave unity.
3. The Theory of the Main Core (George Grott) they were expanded by other aeds.
The heroic epic is written on the basis of myth, except for some of the later ones. At the root of the Iliad and the Odyssey are the episodes of the Trojan mythological cycle. The content is dedicated not to the hero, but to the action. The poem is not about Achilles, but about the wrath of Achilles.
The Iliad is a war poem. Dedicated to the second part of the cycle, the course of the Trojan War, the last year of the siege of Troy. There is a detailed list of all heroes. Later it becomes obligatory (on the basis of the catalog of ships of the Iliad) The most important thing is the description of the war. The war is shown through individual fights and exploits of the heroes, and not through large battle scenes. Detailed description of the weapon.
There is an image of the Homeric warrior. War from the main occupation, for the sake of the glory of descendants, prey
Odyssey - a post-war poem, describing a peaceful life. The War of Remembrance.
Many descriptions of feasts, on which you can see the figure of Aed.
Women shown: Elena, Penelope, Kirk. The domestic life and work of women is shown. Many labor and ritual songs.
Fairy tale elements.
The poem ends with the return and reprisal against the suitors.
The main features of the heroic epic of Homer: the large size of the poem, necessarily about the past, usually the distant past; it is on behalf of the author, there is a layering of epochs due to the fact that life and rituals are taken from the contemporary era; the obligatory participation of the Olympic gods, the scene of the meeting of the gods and their active participation in the lives of the heroes; lack of an author's position on events and characters, an objective presentation, the author does not analyze, does not judge, only narrates; deliberate archaization, the ancientization of terms and rituals, detailed descriptions of objects, weapons, everyday life, the heroes themselves are god-like, strong, beautiful; retardation - a detailed description of an object or event (a kind of plug-in design); repetitions of the most important events in several lines with the same words; epithets (shows attitude towards the hero) firmly fixed for the heroes of the definition, there must be a huge number; the epithets of the gods are associated either with their functions or with cult nicknames; comparisons are associated with actions, and not with a person or thing, have an independent meaning, are used for an emotional impact on the listener, are associated with the desire for clarity; chronological incompatibility of individual events (the author cannot show the simultaneity of two actions, in this regard, he jumps from describing one event to another (the duel of Paris and Menelaus and Helen and Priam are discussing the Achaean warriors)); uneven description of events (due to the oral creation of the poem. Preparation for action is described longer than the action itself); common places (stencil verses showing repetitive actions (sunrise, sunset, arrival, departure of the hero) 2-3 lines)
The language of the Homeric poems:
Formed in Ionia. Written in the literary language (the earliest Greek literary) is cut off from the Greek colloquial speech, practically did not reflect it. Metonymy is the replacement of one word with two or three others, similar in meaning (spear - sharp copper).
Pleonasm - an abundance of synonyms, conspicuous (he said a word and said).
Hexameter 6-foot verse, created for the heroic epic. Each line begins with a long syllable. Became mandatory for all epic poetry.
A number of other works were attributed to Homer, for example, the Homeric hymns. Appeal to the Olympic gods (34 appeals). Hymn here is a conditional concept, mini-epics. Also in the Ionian dialect in clear imitation of Homer (epithets, stenciled verses). Themes: the birth of the gods, description of the deeds and battles of the gods. Possibly used in rhapsodic competitions as an introduction. ʼʼStarting with you, I will move on to another songʼʼ was listed at the end of each hymn. Created (7 (1-5 Apollo (2), Demeter, Aphrodite, Hermes) -5 (god Pnau) centuries BC). The traditional image of the gods is described in terms of the ascension of the images of the gods (strong, mighty, beautiful).
A number of cycle poems (kikly) are also attributed to kikl - ʼʼcircleʼʼ. Practically not preserved (8-6 centuries BC). They were collected by Alexandrian scientists. They closed the circle of some big mythological cycle (the Trojan cycle. Starting from Cyprus, Iliad, Ethiopia (the Amazons and the army of the Ethiopian king Memnon come to the aid of the Trojans, ends with the death of Achilles) Small Iliad (the burial of Achilles and the dispute over his armor (between Odysseus and Ajax Talamanidom) Destruction of Ilion (Feloctetes kills Paris, the Trojan horse and the fire of Troy) Poems of the Return (Odyssey, about Agamemnon, Menelaus, Ajax the Small, Nestor, Deamed, Neaptolen, son of Achilles) Theban cycle (Edipodia, (about the murder of Oedipus' father) Thebaid ( struggle for power), Epigones (second campaign against Thebes), Alcmaeonides (Alcmaeon's campaign against Thebes)). The Cycles did not have unity, had several storylines. The authors tried to include as many characters as possible. as confirmation of various histories.
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events.
Parody of the heroic epic. (9-7 centuries BC) were written in the Ionian dialect, in hexameter with classic Homeric epithets and comparisons, but the characters are present in a different context (Margid (7th century BC is poorly preserved. In the center of the parody is a cowardly, greedy glutton , cat does not want to fight, but glorifies himself as a hero) and the War of mice and frogs (5th century BC Parody of the Iliad)
Translations of Homer in Russian literature:
12th century mention in the manuscripts of Metropolitan Klement Slavyatich.
17th century, the first translations were related to the War of Mice and Frogs, and not to the Iliad and Odyssey.
18th century fragmentary translation of Tredyakovsky, Lomonosov. An attempt to create a Russian gezmeter
1760 Konstantin Kondratovich first translated the Iliad from the Latin version. Not published.
1820-30 first prose translation by Dmitry Lykov
1829 translation by Gnedich translated for 20 years. Approached as a researcher, together with historians. He tried to accurately convey customs, weapons, clothes, terms. Archaization of the language. He translated fragments and songs, presenting the translation in magazines and salons. Discovered ancient literature for Russia
1842-49 translation of the Odyssey by Zhukovsky. Translated without knowing Greek. I ordered an interlinear and gave this interlinear a poetic form. Free translation of the poem. 1850s. Vasily Ordynsky made an attempt to translate the Iliad in the language of epics
1896 ᴦ. Nikolai Minsky new translation of the Iliad in more modern language, but it was believed that he was inferior to Gnedich.
Veresaev 19-20 centuries. Iliad, based on Gnedich's translation. Attracts historians and folklores. Translation of the Odyssey.
Archaic period - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Archaic period" 2017, 2018.
- early development of art. Translated from the Greek "archaikus" - ancient, ancient. art can be called any ancient art, starting with rock paintings, but most often this term refers to the art of ancient Greece.
Archaic period of Greece from 650 to 480 BC e. - this is an unusual flowering of science, culture and art, which became the basis of all world art. Many, however, criticize the name of Greek culture as "archaic", since this term hides precisely a certain primitiveness, while the "archaic period" of Greece is high art and a developed culture that is quite comparable to modern.
The archaic period of Greece contributed to the emergence of many types of fine and applied arts. The cultural surge of this time is comparable to the Renaissance in Europe, which also contributed to the emergence of many genres, trends, turned the world around and made life much more interesting and richer. Archaic is the period of formation, the period of birth and the beginning of prosperity. There was a marked shift in the visual arts, ceramics, sculpture and architecture. Doric and Ionic architectural styles emerged. To decorate houses, palaces, temples, tombstones, sculptures from various materials are being created, which today are considered real masterpieces of archaic art. In addition, Ancient Greece became famous for its writers, poets, philosophers, whose work is also considered literary archaic, that is, the period of the origin of the foundations.
Archaic, as an early stage in the development of culture and art, plays the most important role in the history of mankind. It is thanks to those figures who laid the foundations and proved their necessity to all people, today we have our world heritage - hundreds of styles and genres of painting, graphics, literature, sculpture, architecture, music, philosophy, creative activities and much, much more.
Examples of archaic art
Ancient Greece, which covers the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., served as the beginning of the most important stage in the history of this state. For all three centuries - in a short, in general, period - Greece has moved far ahead in its development and has overtaken many countries and states of the Ancient East, which developed quite quickly. Ancient Greece of the archaic period was a place of awakening of spiritual forces after four centuries of stagnation in development. This time was the heyday of creative activity.
Restoration of former greatness
During the archaic period in ancient Greece, such types of art as architecture, painting, and monumental sculpture are being revived. The most talented sculptors build the first Greek temples from marble and limestone, which have survived to this day. In the archaic period, sculpture in ancient Greece is experiencing an unprecedented rise. It is at this time that timeless works of art appear. Monumental statues of marble and bronze are created. It was during the archaic period in ancient Greece that the famous works of Homer and Hesiod were written, which amaze with their depth. It is also worth noting the amazing verses of Archilochus, Alcaeus and Saffo, written at this particular time. Literature of the archaic period of ancient Greece and in our time is published and translated in almost all countries. Famous to this day philosophers Thales, Anaximenes and Anaximander wrote their philosophical works, giving answers to questions about the origin of the universe and the world.
Art
The archaic period in the history of Ancient Greece, in particular the unprecedented rise of Greek culture in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., was due to the Great Colonization taking place at that time. She brought Greece out of the state of isolation in which she had been after the Mycenaean culture ceased to exist. Another feature of the archaic period in the history of Ancient Greece is the interchange of cultures of Hellas and the Ancient East. The Phoenicians brought writing and the alphabet to ancient Greek culture, which was made even more convenient in Greece with the introduction of vowels. It was from this moment that the culture of writing and speech began to develop, alphabets began to appear, including Russian. The Syrians told and showed the Greeks a lot of new things, for example, how to process sand into glass, and also showed how to make paint from shells. The Greeks adopted the basics of astronomy and geometry from the Egyptians. During the archaic period of ancient Greece, the sculpture of the Egyptians had a strong influence on Greek art that was just beginning to appear. The Lydians also had a huge impact on Greece - it was thanks to them that the Greeks learned to mint coins.
Despite the fact that many elements of Greek culture were borrowed from other cultures, Greece still remained an original country.
Colonization
Colonization made the Greek people, numerous at that time, more mobile and ready for change. Now every person could self-realize, regardless of tribal affiliation, respectively, society became more developed and progressive, many new phenomena appeared. In short, art in the archaic period of ancient Greece is not the only thing that has received an incredible degree of development. Now navigation and maritime trade come to the fore and move the country forward. Initially, most of the colonies that were on the periphery became largely dependent on their mother countries. But over time, this situation has changed.
Export
The inhabitants of many colonies experienced an acute shortage of even the most necessary things. For example, wine and olive oil, which the Greeks loved so much, did not enter the colony at all. Huge ships delivered tons of wine and oil to many countries. The metropolises exported to the colonies not only food - they supplied pottery and other household utensils, various fabrics, weapons, jewelry, and so on. Of course, these items are very popular with the locals, and they exchange them for grain, livestock, slaves and non-ferrous metals. Unpretentious crafts from Greece, of course, did not immediately compete with Phoenician souvenirs, which were hunted by merchants around the world. Despite this, there was a huge demand for them where the Phoenician ships did not reach - the Black Sea, Thrace, and the Adriatic.
Progress
Nevertheless, despite the fact that the crafts and art objects of the archaic period of Ancient Greece are significantly inferior in quality to goods of oriental origin, the Greeks managed to establish mass production and sell their goods even in the "promised land" for all merchants - Sicily.
The colonies gradually become the most important centers of industry and trade between many developed countries of antiquity. And in Greece itself, the so-called policies become the centers for the development of the economy and trade, with the help of which the management of the colonization movement becomes more convenient. The largest and most developed of them are Corinth and Megara in the Northern Peloponnese, Aegina, Samos and Rhodes in the Aegean archipelago, Miletus and Ephesus on the western coast of Asia Minor.
Changes in society and craft
Gradually, markets began to appear in the colonies, which served as a powerful impetus for the development and improvement of crafts, agriculture, art and architecture in ancient Greece of the archaic period, briefly described above. Craftsmen from Greece are progressing noticeably and equipping their workshops with the latest technology of the time. Analyzing the characteristics of the archaic period of ancient Greece, we can say that it was the most fruitful period in every sense for the country. What are innovations such as the invention of new ways of soldering iron or the improvement of bronze casting worth! Greek ceramics of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. staggers the imagination with luxury and an abundance of forms, a variety of decoration. The most beautiful vessels made by the hands of talented Corinthian craftsmen, which are painted in oriental style, stand out in particular. It can be distinguished by the colorfulness and incredible quirkiness of ornate patterns that resemble patterns on oriental carpets. Also worth noting are vases in the black-figure style, which were produced mainly in Athenian and Peloponnesian policies. Clay products of Greek potters and bronze casters show not only that in Greece of that time the division of labor was practiced, but also that responsibilities were divided even within a single industry. The culture of the archaic period of Ancient Greece experienced an incredible rise.
Separation of craft from agriculture
Most of the ceramic products exported by Greece abroad were made in special workshops by experienced craftsmen and vase painters. Numerous artisans are no longer alone without rights and freedoms. The time has already passed when they did not even have a permanent place of residence. Now they are a very significant and influential class of the population. The quality of their products was getting higher, as well as the prices for the work of craftsmen. Entire neighborhoods appeared where artisans of a certain profession lived. In one of the large cities called Corinth from the 7th century. BC e. there was a so-called quarter of potters - Keramik. In the capital of Greece, Athens, a similar area, located in an impressive part of the city, appeared in the 6th century. BC e. These historical facts indicate that during the archaic period in Greece a fundamentally new period in the development of the state began: the craft became a separate type of activity and completely separated from agriculture as a separate, absolutely abstract part of production and activity. The fundamental changes did not bypass agriculture, which now had to take into account not only the needs of the community, but also the demand in the market. Now the market dictates the rules to all branches of production. The first beginnings of entrepreneurship also appeared among farmers - those who had boats brought their goods to the markets of nearby cities. They did not move along the road because there were much more robbers and robbers with the development of trade. Since grain crops in Greece took a bad turn, they cultivated mainly grapes and olives, because delicious Greek wine and high-quality olive oil were in incredible demand in the East. In the end, the Greeks realized that it was much cheaper to bring grain from abroad than to grow it at home.
State structure and political system of the archaic period of Ancient Greece
Most, excluding numerous colonies, emerged from the centralized settlements of the era of Homer - policies. However, archaic and Homeric policies are completely different concepts. They differed quite significantly: the policy of the era of Homer was at the same time a city and a village, since there were no other settlements that could compete with it. The archaic polis, on the contrary, was a kind of capital of a small state, which, in addition to itself, included small villages (Greek comas) located on the outskirts of the polis and dependent on it both politically and economically.
Architecture
Pay attention to the fact that the archaic policies became much larger than the policies built in the era of Homer. There were two reasons for this: natural population growth and the unification of several villages into one large city. This phenomenon is called synoykism, the unification took place in order to repulse the neighboring hostile villages and towns. Despite the unprecedented progress, there were no truly large cities in Greece yet. The largest policies were settlements with a population of several thousand people. On average, the population did not exceed a thousand people. A good example of a typical Greek archaic polis is ancient Smyrna, recently found by archaeologists. A significant part of it was located on the peninsula, which closed the entrance to a deep bay, where numerous ships were stationed. The central part of Smyrna was surrounded by a protective fence made of bricks on a stone plinth. Numerous gates and viewing platforms are arranged in the wall. All residential buildings were parallel to each other. Of course, several temples were built in the city. Residential buildings were very spacious and comfortable, in the homes of wealthy citizens there were even terracotta baths.
Agora
The heart of the archaic city was the so-called agora, where citizens gathered and lively trade was conducted. Basically, the inhabitants of the city spent all their free time here. It was possible to sell your goods and purchase the necessary products, learn important city news, take part in matters of national importance and just chat with the townspeople. Initially, the agora was an ordinary open area, on which there were no buildings. Later, wooden steps appeared there, on which people sat down during events. When the archaic period came to an end, fabric canopies were hung over the steps, designed to protect people from heat and sun. On weekends, idle people and merchants of various small goods liked to settle down on them. State institutions were built on the agora or not far from it: the bouleuterium - the city council (bule), the pritanei - the place where the members of the ruling college of the pritans met, the dicastery - the courthouse. It was on the agora that the city dwellers could get acquainted with the new laws and decrees that were put on public display.
sports
Athletic competitions have been a significant part of the life of the Greeks since ancient times. In ancient Greek cities, from time immemorial, grounds for strength exercises were built. They were called palestras and gymnasiums. Every self-respecting young man spent most of his time training. Sports disciplines include running, freestyle wrestling, fisticuffs, jumping, javelin and discus throwing. Each big holiday in the policy was accompanied by a sports competition called agon, in which all free-born citizens of the policy, as well as guests from other countries who received an invitation to the holiday, could take part.
Some agons earned special popularity among the people, gradually becoming interpolis pan-Greek festivals. It was from there that the tradition of organizing the Olympic Games began, for participation in which they came even from the most remote colonies. They prepared for participation in the Olympic Games as seriously as for military operations. Each policy considered it a matter of honor to win the event. Joyful fellow citizens presented the winner of the Olympic Games with truly royal privileges. In some cases, it was necessary to dismantle a huge city wall so that the triumphal column of the winner solemnly entered the city: the townspeople believed that a person of such rank could not pass through an ordinary gate.
It was from such moments that the life of an ordinary inhabitant of an ancient Greek polis of the archaic era developed: trade and purchases in the agora, solving issues of national importance at a national assembly, participation in religious ceremonies of various orders, exercises and trainings in gymnasiums and palestras and, of course, participation in the Olympic games.
With the history of Greece archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC) There are several major problems associated with the first colonization Mediterranean and Black Seas, the second - "old" tyranny(“senior” tyranny of the archaic period is called in contrast to the “younger”, which arose in the era of the late classics (IV century BC)), the third - formation of the Greek polis, fourth - the emergence of the first laws.
Poetry. Poetry is an important part of the culture of the archaic era, since it reflects almost all of the above events. In poetry, the Greeks rethought the reality around them.
The era of heroes left with Homer, but the memory of it remained, and many poets have a desire to imitate the bygone past - this is how cyclic poems . Their authors practically did not bring anything new to poetry, therefore the Greeks in the later era called mediocre writers "cyclic poets". On the other hand, thanks to them, the myth of the Trojan War was fully described.
In such a mediocre poetic environment, a remarkable personality stands out - Hesiod (end VIII- Start VII centuries BC). He wrote works fundamental to certain genres of Greek literature. His "Theogony"- a poem about the origin of the gods - lays the foundation for the works cosmogonic describing the origin, family ties, life and fate of the gods. Second poem "Works and Days" carried didactic character, becoming the first in a series of books of instructive content. In it, Hesiod narrated about the everyday life of ordinary Greek farmers, about which he had a real idea, since he himself lived in Boeotia and worked all his life on the ground.
The era of archaic - the time of formation lyric poetry . Greek poets did not read poetry, but sang, so music left a special imprint on their work. The famous poet was Anacreon , who lived on the island of Teos, near Asia Minor (middle VI V. BC). In imitation of him in Roman times arose anacreontic poetry celebrating the joy of life associated with refined pleasures.
Poets Alcay AndSappho – lived on the island of Lesbos (end VII–VI V. BC). Alcaeus created bravura military marches ( embateria) and drinking songs ( scolia). Sappho relied heavily on folklore, she has a lot of love lyrics. According to the legendary legend, Alcaeus was in love with Sappho, but did not achieve reciprocity. The poetess herself committed suicide because of an unhappy love for another man.
In Sparta, the poet lived Tirtaeus . The Spartans did not pay enough attention to the fine arts, so Tirteus is not a typical example for Spartan culture - he was almost the only one among his fellow tribesmen who wrote talented poems on military topics beloved by the Lacedaemonians.
In the archaic era appears choral lyrics . She was based on three elements: poetry, music and dance. Choral lyrics become the prototype of Greek theatre, since in this genre the structure is being developed on which the works of tragedians will be built.
Philosophy. Early Greek philosophy arose in the eastern region, in the Ionian cities and experienced a great influence of the East - this is the so-called "philosophy of nature", natural philosophy , in which there is an awakening of ancient Greek thought, testing the essence of the emergence of the world. Three major philosophers of this time lived in Miletus. Thales believed that the world and all living things come from water. By doctrine Anaximenes , The universe consists of air: when it condenses, water appears, and when it is discharged, fire. The third thinker Anaximander, singled out some infinite primordial substance ( apeiron) from which everything originated.
Art. The line between the Homeric and archaic eras in art is characterized by geometric style , a prime example of which is Dipylon amphora , found in Athens. Such vases were tombstones and their size reached human height. The surface of the vase is divided into a number of ribbons isolated from each other; in the center of the composition, a funeral procession is depicted, in which human figures are extremely schematized. The geometric style could not lead to the flourishing of vase painting, emerged in VI–V centuries BC, and was supposed to end in a dead end of decorativeism. There is a sharp leap between the geometric style and the vase painting of the subsequent time, impossible without external influence, most likely from the East, which gave impetus to the development of Greek art. The East, despite its strong influence in the field of philosophy and culture of Greece, did not become the basis of Greek art, which was formed in its own way as original and independent.
New style vase painting originates in VI V. b.c., this black-figure painting applied to the vessel with black paint. Initially, the subjects of the murals are associated with mythology. Then there is red-figure vase painting, when the images on the vessel are formed by coloring the background, and the figures retain the original color of the walls of the vessel. This painting, more complex in technique, makes it possible to depict small details. In later times, black-figure and red-figure pottery coexisted.
IN sculpture appear "archaic apollos" , or kouros - naked young people depicted with their legs outstretched, their hands at their sides, their fists sometimes clenched. The figures have a frontal setting, the anatomical structure of the body is clearly visible. Kouros are a general type of person without individual traits. The most famous statue of Hera from Fr. Samos(VII–VI centuries BC). The famous mysterious “archaic smile” was depicted on the faces of all the sculptures, emphasizing not the specific features of the statues, but the idealized image of a person embodied in them, which becomes a measure of the main values for the era of the classics.
High Classic period ( V V. BC)
Theater. Theatrical performances go back to cult performances in honor of Dionysus, at which the founders of dithyrambs (songs in honor of God) performed. From 534 B.C., the display of tragedies (joking performances of the “song of the goats”) was officially included in the festivities of Dionysius. When the plots of productions go beyond Dionysian festivities and playwrights turn to heroic tales, tragedies lose their cheerful character and become part of public life.
Rise of the Greek theater falls on the period of high classics and is associated with the names of three great playwrights: Aeschylus , Sophocles And Euripides .
In the 5th century BC, after the tragedies, a new dramatic genre appears - comedy (from the Greek "make a procession"), also dating back to the Dionysian festivals, at which playful and sometimes obscene songs were performed. The greatest comedian of the high classic era was Aristophanes.
Sculpture. The art of high classics is quite fully characterized by the words of Solon: "Nothing superfluous." These were the basic principles underlying Greek art.
The statues did not belong to museums and were installed in temples, in open-air squares, in crowded places, and passers-by perceived them as part of everyday life. Sculptures were usually painted with bright colors, and accordingly they were perceived. In the era of the classics, portrait art did not develop: in sculptures, attention was paid primarily to the plasticity of the body, and not to facial expression.
One of the first major sculptors of the classical era was Polykleitos, who wrote a special essay "Canon", in which he tried to identify the basic elements that make up the human body, to subordinate them to a certain numerical ratio. Polykleitos formalized art as much as possible, looking for universally valid laws of proportions, and a statue Doryphora (spearman) created as an illustration of his work, which has a living plasticity due to a technique called chiasmus, thanks to which it is not completely clear whether Doryfor is moving or not.
Another famous sculptor of the 5th century. was Myron , artist, in contrast to Polykleitos, who tried to convey intense movement (statue "Discobolus" ).
Architecture. In the classical era, the principle of orders was developed. Order in architecture - a certain combination of load-bearing and carried parts of a post-and-beam structure, their structure and artistic processing. During the classical period, three main orders appear: Doric, Ionic And Corinthian, which formed the basis of European architecture of the XVI-XIX centuries. The difference between the two is best illustrated by the columns of these orders.
doric column simple and strict, covered with longitudinal grooves - flutes, its capital (crowning part) is made in the form of a stone pillow without decorations. This is a severe style, in architecture it is identified with a male character, and in Doric temples columns could be replaced by statues. Atlanteans. Doric refers to Temple of Poseidon at Paestum(c. 460 BC).
IN ionic order, which arose, probably under eastern influence, the columns are straight, practically without entasis(small thickening in the middle, obligatory for Doric columns); the proportions of the buildings are lightened, they are characterized by both lightness and graceful sophistication. The capitals are made in the form of two tight curls, Volute. The Ionic order, in contrast to the Doric order, was correlated with the feminine - the columns were sometimes replaced by statues of girls, caryatids. In this spirit, one of the porticos was decorated Erechtheion, a temple erected on the site of the legendary dispute between Athena and Poseidon on the Athenian acropolis.
IN Corinthian order the columns were crowned with stylized acanthus leaves.
The pinnacle of architecture of the classical period was the architectural complexthe Athenian Acropolis , which was at the same time a sanctuary, a fortification, a public center, a place of storage of the state treasury, an art gallery and a library. The architecture of the Acropolis combines two orders: Ionic and Doric.
Late Classic period ( IV V. BC)
History of Greece in the IV century. BC - This is the story of the crisis of the ancient policy, culminating in the loss of political independence. From the Peloponnesian War, many policies of Greece came out bloodless, with devastated agriculture and crafts, broken trade relations.
The political crisis was deepened by the liquidation of the unions of the Greek states and the attempts of Sparta to destroy the democratic system. Continuous wars between the policies ruined the country and increased the number of slaves. Representatives of the most reactionary sections of the Greek slave owners were ready to sacrifice democracy and political freedom in the name of protecting their interests. After the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. Greece submitted to the Macedonian king Philip II.
The crisis of the polis, internecine wars, the decline of democracy and, finally, the loss of political independence could not but affect the development of Greek culture, which during this period showed the first signs of decline. But in Greek society, powerful forces were still alive, capable of generating and the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, the sculptural work of Lysippus, and the military genius of Alexander the Great.
Along with the continuation and development of traditional classical forms of art of the 4th century. BC, in particular architecture, I had to solve completely new problems. Art for the first time began to serve the aesthetic needs and interests of the individual, and not the policy as a whole; there were also works that affirmed monarchical principles. Throughout the 4th c. BC constantly intensified the process of departure of a number of representatives of Greek art from the ideals of nationality and heroics of the 5th century. BC..
A great influence on the development of culture was exerted by the ending in the 4th century. BC the crisis of the naive-fantastic system of mythological ideas, distant foreshadowings of which can already be seen in the 5th century. BC But in the 5th century BC folk artistic fantasy still drew material for its lofty ethical and aesthetic ideas in mythological tales and beliefs that were primordially familiar and close to the people (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Phidias, etc.). In the IV century. In the same century, the artist was more and more interested in such aspects of human existence that did not fit into the mythological images and ideas of the past. Artists sought to express in their works both internal conflicting experiences, and impulses of passion, and the refinement and penetration of a person's spiritual life.
During this period, oratory, philosophy, historical writings took a leading place in literature, clearly crowding out other genres - drama and lyrics. Although theaters continued to flourish, even new ones were built, and the audience willingly visited them, tastes have changed significantly. The moral foundations of life, acute political and social conflicts, the problems of good and evil in the private and public spheres attracted less and less attention. People's interests have narrowed significantly, focused on private life.
In general, the culture of this period, which was significantly influenced by the changes that occurred in society, is regarded by researchers as a time of fundamental shifts, intensive searches, the emergence of trends that ended in the Hellenistic era.
