Greek temples

Starting from the early period of ancient Greek history, from the VIII century. BC e., the primary task of building art is the construction of temples. All the achievements of Greek architecture of that time; constructive and decorative, associated with the construction of various places of worship. The planning structure of the temples was based on a residential building of the Mycenaean megaron type. The planning scheme of the temple, formed in the early period, formed the basis for the subsequent architecture of Greek temples, which is characterized by the surrounding of the main volume of the temple with a colonnade. Temples in the early period of ancient Greek history were usually built from unbaked bricks.

The simplest type of temple is antovy. It consisted of a rectangular hall - cella or naos, where a cult statue stood, illuminated by the rays of the rising sun through the entrance opening on the eastern facade and an entrance portico in two columns located between the protrusions of the longitudinal walls - ants. An altar for sacrifices was placed in front of the entrance. The entrance to the heroons - temples dedicated to deified heroes, was turned to the west - towards the "kingdom of shadows".

Later temple buildings were simple buildings with a longitudinal rectangular plan, with an inner space - a sanctuary (naos) and a front part (pronaos), bounded by walls and columns located:

In front of one of the facades (prostyle) - a four-column portico is advanced in relation to the ants,

On two opposite facades (amphiprostyle) - two end porticoes on opposite sides,

Or surrounding the building from all sides (peripter).

The types of temples were varied: with 4-, 6-, 8-column porticos pushed forward on one or two opposite end facades, during the archaic period, a peripter was formed, with a row of columns on four sides, or two (dipter) rows of columns.

The ancient Greek temple was always erected on a powerful stepped foundation and covered with a wooden sloping gable roof.

Temples become centers of political, cultural and economic ties. So, at the temple of Zeus in Olympia from 766 BC. e. The Olympic Games were held every four years.

The inner premises of the temple of the later periods of ancient Greek history, considered the place of residence of the god, were not used for the assembly of believers, the latter gathered only in front of the temple. The inner space of large temples was three-aisled, in the middle of them a large statue of a deity was placed. The scale of the interior was smaller than the scale of the facade, which emphasized the size of the statue. In the depths of the large temples there was a smaller hall, a treasury. In addition to a large number of rectangular ones, round temples were sometimes built, for example, round periptera.

Temples were usually grouped in a fenced area, where monumental entrance gates led. The complex of these buildings was gradually supplemented by an increasing number of sculptures and sacrificial altars. Athens, Olympia - the sanctuary of Zeus, Delphi - the sanctuary of Apollo, Priene, Selinunte, Poseidonia and all other cities had their own temple complexes, erected in the archaic and classical periods.

Types of Greek temples. 1 - peripter, 2 - pseudoperipter, 3 - pseudodipter, 4 - amphiprostyle, 5 - prostyle, 6 - temple in antah, 7 - tholos, 8 - monopter, 9 - dipter.

Ancient Greek architecture is grandiose and majestic, in addition, it had a huge impact on subsequent world art. The main direction in the architectural business of that era was the construction of temples.

Famous Architects of Ancient Greece

Hermogenes of Alabanda - a famous architect of Ancient Greece III-II centuries BC. He is the founder of the Ionic order in ancient Greek architecture. His great creations: the temple of Artemis Leukofrine and in Teos.
Another famous ancient Greek architect and philosopher Hippodames of Miletus, son of Euryphon , born in 498 BC As an urban planner, he showed his skill in drawing up the plan for the city of Thuria, as well as Piraeus and Rhodes. Participated in the rebuilding of Miletus after the Persian invasion.
Another prominent architect of ancient Greece - Pytheas. His most important work is the mausoleum at Helicarnassus. By order, he built the temple of Athena in Priene in 340-330 BC. Pytheas wrote scientific works on architectural theory, in which he described the advantages of the Ionic order.
Scopas originally from the island of Paros, born in 395 BC, was engaged in sculpture and architecture. A follower of the late classic style in ancient Greek art. He took part in the construction of the temple of Athena in Tegea and the mausoleum in Helicarnassus.

Architects of the Parthenon

The main Athenian temple in the Acropolis was created by several great architects for 16 years. One of them - architect Iktin who worked during the reign of Pericles. He developed a plan according to which they built

The temple in Greek antiquity was the house of God, a building that housed a statue of one or more gods, and not a meeting place for believers, as in Christendom. This shows the noun difference in the meaning of the word - "temple", "naos", which comes from the verb "NAIO" (= to live).

The statue was placed in the back of the temple, on the longitudinal axis. Believers gathered outside the temple building, where there was an altar for sacrifices and there was a rite of worship. This basic functional feature of a Greek temple is essential to understanding architecture, and there is evidence that temples were designed for the statues that were placed in them.

Parthenon

Athenian Parthenon

The Parthenon is the most beautiful monument of the Athenian state.

Construction began in 448/7 BC. and the discovery took place in 438 BC. Its sculptural decoration was completed in 433/2 BC.

According to sources, the architect was Iktinos, Kallikrates and, possibly, Phidias, who was also responsible for the sculptural decoration of the temple.

The Parthenon is one of the few marble Greek temples and one Doric with all its sculpted metopes.

Many parts of the sculptural decor were painted in red, blue and gold.

Valley of the Greek Temples

The famous "Valley of the Greek Temples" is located in southern Italy, in the region of Agrigento.

The complex has 10 temples, which have no analogues even in Greece itself.

The valley has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Temple of Hephaestus

Temple of Hephaestus

The Temple of Hephaestus is one of the best preserved ancient Greek temples. It was dedicated to the god Hephaestus and is located in the Tisei area.

The Temple of Hephaestus became available to the public as part of the archaeological excavations of the Ancient Agora.

The temple was built on the hill of the Ancient Agora. This is a Doric structure, surrounded by columns, built, possibly, according to the design of the architect Iktin. The building has 13 columns on each side and 6 on the ends. Well preserved not only the columns, but also the roof.

Temple of Poseidon at Paestum

Posidonia was an ancient Greek colony in southern Italy in the Campania region, which is located 85 kilometers southeast of Naples, in the modern province of Salerno, near the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea.

The Latin name of the city was Pestoum (Paestum). The main attractions of this area are three large Doric temples: a temple dedicated to Hera and Athena.

The Temple of Hera is the oldest temple in Posidonia and belongs to the 6th century BC. Next to this temple is the second temple dedicated to Hera, built in the 5th century BC. In the 18th century it was believed that the temple was dedicated to Poseidon. At the highest point of the city is the temple of Athena, built around 500 BC. Previously, it was mistakenly believed that it was dedicated to Demeter.

Temple in ancient Segesta (Egesta)

In ancient Egesta (Sicily), the Doric temple of the 5th century BC is admired, the construction of which, after the installation of the colonnades, was stopped for no reason. Today it stands alone, on the outskirts of a charming settlement, and is an example of the building ideas of that time.

Temple of Epicurian Apollo at Bassae

Temple of Epicurian Apollo at Bassae. Photo from the site - www.radiostra.tv

The Temple of Epicurian Apollo at Bassae is one of the greatest and most imposing structures of antiquity.

The temple rises at an altitude of 1130 meters above sea level, in the center of the Peloponnese, in the mountains between Ilia, Arcadia and Messini.

The temple was erected in the second half of the 5th century BC. (420-410 BC), possibly by Ictinos, the architect of the Parthenon.

Temple of Epicurian Apollo at Bassae. Photo from the site - www.otherside.gr

The Temple of Epicurian Apollo is a well-preserved monument from the classical period. It was the first ancient monument in Greece to be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986. Part of the frieze of the temple was broken in 1814 and exhibited in the British Museum in London.

Erechtheion

The Erechtheion was the sacred site of the entire Acropolis. The marble building is a prime example of the mature Ionic order.

The temple is dedicated to Athena, Poseidon and the Athenian king Erechtheus. It is located on the site of the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for the possession of Attica and was the repository of holy antiquities.

It had two entrances, from the north and east, which were decorated with Ionic porticos. The south porch of the building is the best known.

Caryatids

Instead of columns, it has six female statues, caryatids, that support the roof.

In 1801, the British ambassador Lord Elgin took one of the Erechtheion's caryatids to Britain.

It is currently in the British Museum, along with the Parthenon frieze. The rest of the statues have taken their places in the new Acropolis Museum, and there are copies of them in the open air.

Temple of Zeus in Kirini

Temple of Zeus in Kirini

Kirini was an ancient Greek colony in North Africa.

Founded in 630 BC, it took its name from the Kirish spring, which was dedicated to the god Apollo. In the 3rd century BC, the philosophical school of Kirini was founded in the city by Aristippus, a student of Socrates. The city, located in the Jebel Akhdar valley, gave the eastern region of Libya the name of Cyrenaica, which exists to this day.

Kirini has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1982. Ancient monuments have been preserved in the city: the temple of Apollo (7th century BC), the temple of Demeter and the temple of Zeus, which was partially destroyed by order of Muammar Gaddafi in 1978

Without a doubt, the art of ancient Greece had the greatest influence on subsequent generations. Its calm and majestic beauty, harmony and clarity served as a model and source for the later eras of cultural history. It took several centuries before the Dorian tribes, who came from the north in the 12th century BC, by the 6th century BC. created a highly developed art. This was followed by three periods in the history of Greek art:

I. archaic, or ancient period, from about 600 to 480 BC, when the Greeks repelled the Persian invasion and, having freed their land from the threat of conquest, were again able to create freely and calmly;
II. classic, or heyday, - from 480 to 323 BC. - the year of the death of Alexander the Great, who conquered vast areas, very dissimilar in their cultures; this diversity of cultures was one of the reasons for the decline of classical Greek art;
III. Hellenism, or late period; it ended in 30 BC when the Romans conquered Greek-influenced Egypt.

Greek culture spread far beyond its homeland - to Asia Minor and Italy, to Sicily and other islands of the Mediterranean, to North Africa and other territories where the Greeks founded their settlements. Greek cities were even on the northern coast of the Black Sea.

Temples were the greatest achievement of Greek building art. The oldest ruins of temples date back to the archaic era, when instead of wood, yellowish limestone and white marble began to be used as a building material. It is believed that the ancient dwelling of the Greeks served as a prototype for the temple - a rectangular structure with two columns in front of the entrance. From this simple building, various types of temples, more complex in their layout, grew over time. Usually the temple stood on a stepped base. It consisted of a room without windows, where there was a statue of a deity, the building was surrounded in one or two rows of columns. They supported the floor beams and the gable roof. In the semi-dark interior, only priests could visit the statue of God, while the people saw the temple only from the outside. Obviously, therefore, the ancient Greeks paid the main attention to the beauty and harmony of the external appearance of the temple.

The construction of the temple was subject to certain rules. Dimensions, ratios of parts and the number of columns were precisely established.

Greek architecture was dominated by three styles: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. The oldest of these was Doric style that has developed already in the era of archaic. He was courageous, simple and powerful. It got its name from the Doric tribes that created it. Today, the surviving parts of the temples are white: the paint that covered them crumbled over time. Once their friezes and cornices were painted red and blue.

Ionic style originated in the Ionian region of Asia Minor. From here he penetrated into the Greek regions proper. Compared to the Doric style, the Ionic style columns are more ornate and slender. Each column has its own base - the base. The middle part of the capital resembles a pillow with corners twisted into a spiral, the so-called. volutes.

In the Hellenistic era, when architecture began to strive for greater splendor, they most often began to use Corinthian capitals. They are richly decorated with floral motifs, among which images of acanthus leaves predominate.

It so happened that time spared the oldest Doric temples, mainly outside of Greece. Several such temples have been preserved on the island of Sicily and in southern Italy. The most famous of them is the temple of the god of the sea Poseidon in Paestum, near Naples, which looks somewhat heavy and stocky. Of the early Doric temples in Greece itself, the most interesting is the one now in ruins. Temple of the supreme god Zeus at Olympia- the sacred city of the Greeks, from where the Olympic Games originate.

The heyday of Greek architecture began in the 5th century BC. This classical era is inextricably linked with the name of the famous statesman Pericles. During his reign, grandiose construction work began in Athens - the largest cultural and artistic center of Greece. The main construction was carried out on the ancient fortified hill of the Acropolis.

Even from the ruins you can imagine how beautiful it was in its time Acropolis. A wide marble staircase led up the hill. To the right of it, on a dais, like a precious box, there is a small graceful temple to Nike, the goddess of victory. Through the gate with columns, the visitor got to the square, in the center of which stood the statue of the patroness of the city, the goddess of wisdom, Athena; further seen Erechtheion, a peculiar and complex temple according to the plan. Its distinguishing feature is a portico protruding from the side, where the ceilings were supported not by columns, but by marble sculptures in the form of a female figure, the so-called. caryatids.

main building acropolis- temple dedicated to Athena Parthenon. This temple, the most perfect building in the Doric style, was completed almost two and a half thousand years ago, but we know the names of its creators: they were called Iktin and Kallikrat.

Parthenon- The central temple of the Acropolis. Its construction began in 447 BC. The famous sculptor Phidias supervised the construction. The Parthenon is built of 46 columns, its dimensions are 70 by 30 meters. Inside the temple, Phidias installed a huge statue of Athena, but she was taken to Constantinople and died there during a fire. Any Greek can tell a whole story about the construction of the Parthenon. Firstly, under its construction there is a special foundation that helps to absorb earthquakes (they are not uncommon in Greece). Secondly, the columns of the Parthenon are not parallel, and if they are continued, they will converge at one point several kilometers above the center of the temple. In general, in the Parthenon, all surfaces turn out to be non-parallel, but this is visible only if you put some object and look at it from the other side of the Parthenon. This was the genius of the architects - from the outside, all the columns look strictly vertical. The corner columns are actually thicker than all the others, but visually this is also imperceptible. In subsequent history, the Parthenon was a Christian temple, and then the Turks used it as a gunpowder warehouse. During the siege of Athens by the Venetians, an explosion occurred and the temple was partially destroyed. It began to be restored already in the 19th century.

In the temple stood a statue of Athena, sculpted by the great sculptor Phidiem; one of the two marble friezes, girdling the temple with a 160-meter ribbon, represented the festive procession of the Athenians. Phidias also took part in the creation of this magnificent relief, which depicted about three hundred human figures and two hundred horses. The Parthenon has been in ruins for about 300 years - ever since in the 17th century, during the siege of Athens by the Venetians, the Turks who ruled there set up a powder warehouse in the temple. Most of the reliefs that survived the explosion were taken to London, to the British Museum, at the beginning of the 19th century by the Englishman Lord Elgin.

	Parthenon. Athens Acropolis.
	a - a fragment of the Parthenon, b - clothes, c - a fragment of the capital of the Erechtheion, d - a golden comb, e - a vase, e - an armchair, g - a table.

As a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great in the second half of the 4th century BC. the influence of Greek culture and art spread over vast territories. New cities sprang up; the largest centers were formed, however, outside of Greece. Such, for example, are Alexandria in Egypt and Pergamon in Asia Minor, where construction activity has gained the greatest scope. In these areas, the Ionic style was preferred; an interesting example of it was a huge gravestone to the king of Asia Minor Mausolus listed among the seven wonders of the world. It was a burial chamber on a high rectangular base, surrounded by a colonnade; a stone stepped pyramid towered above it, topped with a sculptural image of a quadriga, which was controlled by Mausolus himself. After this structure, later they began to call mausoleums and other large solemn funeral structures.

In the Hellenistic era, less attention was paid to temples, and squares surrounded by colonnades for promenades, open-air amphitheatres, libraries, various public buildings, palaces and sports facilities were built. Residential buildings were improved: they became two - and three-story, with large gardens. Luxury became the goal, and different styles were mixed in architecture.

Greek sculptors have given the world works that have aroused the admiration of many generations. The oldest sculptures known to us arose in the archaic era. They are somewhat primitive: their motionless posture, hands tightly pressed to the body, and forward gaze are dictated by the narrow long stone block from which the statue was carved. One of her legs is usually pushed forward - to maintain balance. Archaeologists have found many such statues depicting naked young men and girls dressed in loose folded outfits. Their faces are often enlivened by a mysterious "archaic" smile.

In the classical era, the main business of sculptors was to create statues of gods and heroes and decorate temples with reliefs; secular images were added to this, for example, statues of statesmen or winners at the Olympic Games.

In the beliefs of the Greeks, the gods are similar to ordinary people both in their appearance and way of life. They were portrayed as people, but strong, well developed physically and with a beautiful face. Often people were depicted naked to show the beauty of a harmoniously developed body.

In the 5th century BC. great sculptors Myron, Phidias and Polykleitos, each in their own way, updated the art of sculpture and brought it closer to reality. The young naked athletes of Polykleitos, for example, his "Dorifor", rely on only one leg, the other is freely left. In this way, it was possible to unfold the figure and create a sense of movement. But standing marble figures could not be given more expressive gestures or complex poses: the statue could lose balance, and fragile marble could break. These dangers could have been avoided if the figures were cast in bronze. The first master of complex bronze castings was Miron, the creator of the famous Discobolus.

Many artistic achievements are associated with the glorious name of Phidias: he led the work on decorating the Parthenon with friezes and pediment groups. Magnificent are his bronze statue of Athena on the Acropolis and the 12-meter-high statue of Athena covered with gold and ivory in the Parthenon, which later disappeared without a trace. A similar fate befell the huge statue of Zeus seated on the throne, made from the same materials, for the temple at Olympia - another of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

As much as we admire the sculptures created by the Greeks in their heyday, these days they may seem a little cold. True, there is no coloring that revived them at one time; but their indifferent and similar faces are even more alien to us. Indeed, the Greek sculptors of that time did not try to express any feelings or experiences on the faces of the statues. Their goal was to show perfect bodily beauty. Therefore, we admire even those statues - and there are many of them - that have been badly damaged over the centuries: some even lost their heads.

If in the 5th century BC. lofty and serious images were created, then in the 4th century BC. artists tended to express tenderness and gentleness. Praxiteles gave warmth and awe of life to the smooth marble surface in his sculptures of naked gods and goddesses. He also found it possible to diversify the poses of the statues, creating balance with the help of appropriate supports. His Hermes, a young messenger of the gods, leans on a tree trunk.

Until now, sculptures have been designed to be viewed from the front. Lysippos made his statues so that they could be viewed from all sides - this was another innovation.

In the era of Hellenism in sculpture, the craving for pomp and exaggeration intensifies. In some works, excessive passions are shown, in others, excessive closeness to nature is noticeable. At this time, they began to diligently copy the statues of former times; thanks to copies, today we know many monuments - either irretrievably lost or not yet found. Marble sculptures that conveyed strong feelings were created in the 4th century BC. e. Scopas. His greatest work known to us is his participation in the decoration of the mausoleum in Halicarnassus with sculptural reliefs. Among the most famous works of the Hellenistic era are the reliefs of the great altar in Pergamon depicting the legendary battle; a statue of the goddess Aphrodite found at the beginning of the last century on the island of Melos, as well as a sculptural group " Laocoön". It depicts a Trojan priest and his sons who were strangled by snakes; physical torment and fear are conveyed by the author with ruthless credibility.

In the works of ancient writers, one can read that painting also flourished in their times, but almost nothing has been preserved from the paintings of temples and residential buildings. We also know that in painting, too, artists strove for sublime beauty.

A special place in Greek painting belongs to the paintings on vases. In the oldest vases, silhouettes of people and animals were applied with black varnish on a bare red surface. The outlines of details were scratched on them with a needle - they appeared in the form of a thin red line. But this technique was inconvenient and later they began to leave the figures red, and the gaps between them were painted over with black. So it was more convenient to draw the details - they were made on a red background with black lines.

The Balkan Peninsula became the center of ancient Greek culture. Here, as a result of invasions and movements of the Achaean, Dorian, Ionian and other tribes (who received the common name of the Hellenes), a slave-owning form of economy was formed, which strengthened various areas of the economy: handicraft, trade, agriculture.

The development of economic ties of the Hellenic world contributed to its political unification; the entrepreneurial spirit of the sailors who settled the new lands favored the spread of Greek culture, its renewal and improvement, the creation of various local schools in a single line of common Hellenic architecture.

As a result of the struggle of the demos (the free population of cities) against the tribal aristocracy, states are formed - policies, in the management of which all citizens take part.

The democratic form of government contributed to the development of the social life of cities, the formation of various public institutions, for which they built assembly halls and feasts, the buildings of the council of elders, etc. They were placed on the square (agora), where the most important city affairs were discussed, and trade transactions were made. The religious and political center of the city was the acropolis, located on a high hill and well fortified. Here they built temples of the most revered gods - the patrons of the city.

Democracy prevents the Greeks from building separate large palaces for themselves, because politically all men are assumed to be equal, so it is considered bad manners to have a large palace even if there are opportunities to build one. Instead, the Greeks build public buildings.

Religion occupied a large place in the social ideology of the ancient Greeks. The gods were close to people, they were endowed with human virtues and shortcomings in exaggerated sizes. In the myths describing the life of the gods and their adventures, everyday scenes from the life of the Greeks themselves are guessed. But at the same time, people believed in their power, made sacrifices to them and built temples in the image of their dwellings. The most significant achievements of Greek architecture are concentrated in cult architecture.

The dry subtropical climate of Greece, mountainous terrain, high seismicity, the presence of high-quality scaffolding, limestone, marble, which are easy to process and model in stone structures, determined the "technical" prerequisites for Greek architecture.

The architecture of ancient Greece for a long time determined the direction of development of the architecture of the world. The architecture of a rare country did not use the general tectonic principles of the order systems developed by the Greeks, the details and decoration of Greek temples.

I. A temple with a portico, or “forgiveness” (Greek πρόςτνλος), having a portico in front of the entrance vestibule with columns standing just opposite their pilasters and columns.
II. Temple "with two porticos", or "amphiprostyle" (Greek αμφιπρόστνλος), in which to chr. in antis about two porches attached along the portico to both
III. The temple is “round-winged”, or “peripteric” (Greek περίπτερος), consisting of a temple in antis, or a prostyle, or an amphiprostyle, built on a platform and surrounded on all sides by a colonnade.
IV. The temple is “double-winged”, or “dipteric” (Greek δίπτερος) - one in which the columns surround the central structure not in one, but in two rows
V. The temple is “false-winged” or “pseudo-peripteric” (Greek ψευδοπερίπτερος), in which the colonnade encircling the building is replaced by semi-columns protruding from its walls.
VI. The temple is “double-winged”, or “pseudo-dipteric” (Greek ψευδοδίπτερος), which seemed to be surrounded by two rows of columns, but in which, in fact, their second row was replaced from all or only from the long sides of the building by half-columns embedded in the wall.

The viability of the principles of ancient Greek architecture is primarily due to its humanism, deep thoughtfulness in general and details, the utmost clarity of forms and compositions.

The Greeks brilliantly solved the problem of transitioning purely technical constructive problems of architecture to artistic ones. The unity of artistic and constructive content was brought to the heights of perfection in various order systems.

The works of Greek architecture are surprisingly harmonious combination with the natural environment. A great contribution has been made to the theory and practice of construction, to the formation of the environment of a residential building, to the system of engineering services for cities. The foundations of standardization and modularity in construction, developed by the architecture of subsequent eras, have been developed.

The decline of ancient Greek influence in architecture begins in the 1st century BC. due to active Roman expansion. Architecture takes on the features of the culture of the conquerors, romanticized. The principles of Greek democracy no longer corresponded to the imperial needs of Rome. In the 5th century AD Greece is converted to Christianity, the formation of the Byzantine Empire begins, with its characteristic architectural canons. During the period of the great migration of peoples from IV to VI, the territory of Greece is subjected to periodic attacks by Goths, Slavs, Persians, Arabs, Normans, who were not very sensitive to architectural monuments. The church schism of 1054 deepened the cultural divide. Byzantium, and Greece as a part of it, were influenced by the traditions of the Middle East. In the 11th-12th centuries, the crusades and the beggars of all Western Europe who followed the crusaders caused enormous damage to the monuments of ancient Greek architecture. Together with the crusaders, their sponsors, the Florentines and Genoese, also came, and when they left, they took out entire dismantled houses, not to mention individual columns. In 1453 the Byzantine Empire fell, and in 1456 the Turks captured Athens. At the same time, the Turks must be given credit for preserving the values ​​​​of Ancient Greece. Thanks to the Turks, the British began excavations in the 19th century and returned to the European world the lost knowledge about the architecture and art of Ancient Greece. Now the Turkish government is very kind to all the surviving architectural monuments of antiquity and makes quite good money on it.

Architecture of Dr. Greece…

Architecture

(lat. architectura, from the Greek architeckton - architect, builder), architecture, the art of designing and building objects that shape the spatial environment for human life and activity. Works of architecture - buildings, ensembles, as well as structures organizing open spaces (monuments, terraces, embankments, etc.). The planning and development of cities and populated areas constitute a special area of ​​building art - urban planning. Therefore, architecture plays an important ideological role, being a figurative embodiment of the social, philosophical, religious and artistic ideas of people.

The ideological and artistic features of ancient humanism especially clearly reflected the buildings of the classical period in the development of ancient Greek architecture. 5th century BC e. in Athens. Imbued with a humanistic spirit, the architecture of ancient Greece had a profound impact on the subsequent development of world architecture. In ancient Rome, the leading buildings were those that glorified the power of the state and the personality of the emperors. Large ensembles and separate structures arose, designed for huge masses of people: forums, amphitheatres and theaters, baths, covered markets, basilicas. (Churches) Five-, six-story houses - insulas and country villas spread. The construction of engineering structures - bridges and aqueducts - reached great perfection. Arched and vaulted structures were widely used, which made it possible to create ceilings of large spans. Particular attention was paid to the planning and decoration of interiors.

Renaissance architecture in the countries of Western and Central Europe is characterized by an appeal to the ancient heritage. Public buildings, palaces, villas, temples are clear harmonious buildings and architectural ensembles. The classical order was widely used (architects F. Brunelleschi, L. B. Alberti, Michelozzo, D. Bramante, Michelangelo in Italy). A new type of palace appeared - a palazzo with a closed symmetrical courtyard. The theory of architecture developed (Alberti, J. Vignola, A. Palladio, and others). In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the harmony and completeness of spatial compositions are replaced by complex systems of merging spaces, the plasticity and sculptural volumes of buildings of baroque architecture, the dynamic rhythms of which include decorative sculpture and illusionistic painting (buildings by Italian architects L. Bernini, F. Borromini, C. Maderna, and others). Garden and park construction has been widely developed. The Baroque style spread to Italy, Spain, Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, and Latin American countries. in France in the 17th century. Classicism became the dominant trend. The rationalistic worldview underlying it was expressed in the rigor and geometric composition of buildings and palace and park ensembles (Versailles). French architects (L. Levo, F. Mansart, A. Le Nôtre) used the order mainly as a decorative motif. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. classicism spread widely in Great Britain (architects I. Jones, K. Wren, Adam brothers), and from the last third of the 18th century. - and in other European countries. In the architecture of Great Britain and the Netherlands, with the development of capitalist industry, new types of buildings appeared - industrial buildings, port facilities, exchanges, etc. In Russia at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. Peter's reforms served as an incentive to expand civil engineering, strengthening the secular principle in architecture. Numerous public, administrative, industrial and commercial buildings, urban and vast country palaces-residences with regular parks were built ( cm. Petrodvorets). A new capital, Petersburg, was rebuilt and developed, the planning of which combined the principles of regularity and picturesque building, distinguished by simplicity and rationality. From the middle of the XVIII century. in Russian baroque architecture (architects V. V. Rastrelli, S. I. Chevakinsky, D. V. Ukhtomsky), solemn monumentality, rich plastic and color decoration of facades are combined with clarity of plans and three-dimensional composition. In the last third of the XVIII century. baroque is replaced by classicism (architects A. F. Kokorinov, V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov). Ceremonial monumental urban ensembles in the Empire style were created (architects A. D. Zakharov, A. N. Voronikhin, J. Thomas de Thomon, K. I. Rossi, V. P. Stasov, O. I. Beauvais). In the architecture of Western European countries in the middle and second half of the 18th century. after a brief outbreak of the decorative and pretentious rococo style, classicism was further developed.

The architecture of ancient Greece, covering in its development mainly the VIII-I centuries BC, is divided into three periods: archaic, classical and Hellenistic. They were preceded by periods of Cretan-Mycenaean culture in southern Greece and the Aegean islands. (III millennium - XII century BC) and the so-called Homeric period (XII - VIII centuries BC) - this is the time of the decomposition of the tribal system and the emergence of early class relations, which led to the VIII - VII centuries . BC e. to the formation of ancient slave states. The archaic period (VIII - early V century BC) coincides with the time of the final addition of the policy and the formation of the main types of religious and public buildings. From the second period, covering the time from 480 to the end of the 4th century. it is necessary to single out the time of the highest dawn of the policies (480-400), to which the name of the "classical period" is applied. The leading place in this era belongs to Athens, where in the "golden age" of the reign of Pericles, the development of slave-owning democracy reaches its highest point, and in place with it - art and architecture.

The third period - the era of Hellenism (320s of the 4th century - 1st century AD) - the time of the emergence of Greek-eastern monarchies and the intensive expansion of Hellenic culture into the new cities of Asia Minor and Egypt, which became major centers of commercial and cultural life.

If we talk about the architecture itself, then in ancient Greece it developed quickly and diversified. In the growing Greek cities, residential stone buildings, fortifications, port facilities are being created, but the most important and new appeared not in residential and utility buildings, but in stone public buildings. It was here, and, above all, in the architecture of temples, that classical Greek architectural orders developed.

Rectangular in plan, strict and majestic building, towering on three steps of the basement, surrounded by a strict colonnade and covered with a gable roof - this is what pops up in our memory as soon as we pronounce the words "architecture of Ancient Greece." Indeed, the Greek temple, built according to the rules of the order, was the most significant building in the city both in its purpose and in the place that its architecture occupied in the entire ensemble of the city. Order temple reigned over the city; he dominated the landscape in those cases when temples were built in any other important areas, for example, in places considered sacred by the Greeks. Because the order temple was a kind of pinnacle in Greek architecture, and because it had a tremendous impact on the subsequent history of world architecture, we turned specifically to the features of order buildings, sacrificing many other types and directions of architecture and construction of Ancient Greece. So, let's remember right away - the order in Ancient Greece did not belong to mass architecture, but to architecture of exceptional importance, which has an important ideological meaning and is associated with the spiritual life of society.

Architecture of Ancient Greece

As mentioned above, the architecture of Ancient Greece mainly covers the VIII - I centuries. BC e. and gets its highest development mainly in the so-called "classical period" and in the archaic, in principle, this period will be discussed in this essay, but first we turn to earlier times and see how things are there.

Architecture (Homeric period XI - VIII centuries)

Some ideas about the architecture of the Homeric era are given by: the epic, the few remains of ancient buildings, terracotta models of temples found during excavations of the so-called sacred sites. The paucity of archaeological data does not allow to recreate the architectural appearance of the cities of that time. In some parts of the Iliad and Odyssey, there are descriptions of ancient sanctuaries - sacred groves and caves with primitive altars; a description is given of a residential estate grouped around a courtyard (“aule”), divided into male and female halves and including special premises for slaves; the main room of the dwelling house was the "megaron" adjoining the courtyard - a rectangular hall with a hearth in the center, a smoke outlet in the ceiling and an entrance portico formed by the protruding ends of the longitudinal walls ("antae") and pillars between them.

Megaron was the original architectural type in the development of the Greek temple. Judging by the excavated fragments of buildings, the construction technique of the Homeric era is noticeably inferior to the Mycenaean and Cretan ones. The buildings were built of clay or raw brick (rarely flagstone) on foundations of rubble cemented with clay mortar; elongated in plan, they ended with a curvilinear apse. In the IX - VIII centuries. BC e. They began to use a wooden frame that strengthened the old building (the Temple of Artemis Orvali in Sparta), which contributed to the transition to rectangular plans. Clay model of the temple of the 8th century. BC e. from Heraion near Argos testifies to the development of a double-mat roof and the appearance of a ceiling and gables; the pillars form an independent portico. Later, a portico appears around the entire temple, protecting the mud walls from rain (the 1st temple of Hera in Heraion near Samos, now Tigani, a building in Hermon).

The description in the Odyssey of the palace of Alcinous allows us to guess the aesthetic views of that era, when architecture had not yet separated from crafts, and the ideas of beauty - from admiration for craftsmanship, according to Homer, shining like sunlight on all products of human labor. This radiance makes the fairy-tale palace “radiant”, at the sight of which Odysseus’s heart beat faster; he charms not so much with specific means of architecture as with skillful metal details and sheathing, wood carvings, paintings, decorative fabrics; the traveler is attracted by a rich house, a skillfully irrigated garden, the coolness of the premises, the thoughtful organization of the entire estate, filled with the creations of human hands.

Architecture (archaic VIII - VI centuries)

At that time, the city was usually located around a fortified hill - the "acropolis", on the top of which there was a sanctuary with a temple dedicated to the patron god of the policy. At the foot of the acropolis were living quarters; their layout evolved spontaneously; artisans of each profession settled in separate settlements. The center of the lower city was the shopping area "agora" - a place of political meetings of citizens.

In connection with the emergence of new forms of public life, various themes of public buildings are emerging; among them the leading place belonged to the temples.

Along with the temples, other types of public buildings have developed: “bouleuterium” - a house for a meeting of the community council; “Pritaney” is a house with a sacred hearth of the community, intended for official receptions and solemn meals. Early appeared "sta" - porticos, open in front, and often from other sides, which served as a place of rest and walks. Public buildings also included "leskhs" (a kind of clubs), fountains, theaters, stadiums. Entire complexes of buildings were assigned to "palestres" and "gymnasiums" - schools for the physical and general education of young people. Most of the public buildings were loosely placed around the agora.

The beginning of the search for more durable than previously known, more impressive and corresponding to the requirements of the new era of architectural forms marks the temple of Apollo Terepios in Hermon and the temple of Hera in Olympia.

These temples testify to a greater extent to the search than to the successes of archaic architecture. His greatest achievements were associated with the creation and consistent application of order principles. The order represents a special type of architectural composition, the characteristic features of which are tripartiteness (stereo-wall, columns and entablature), a clear division of parts into carried and bearing ones, an increase in the complexity of building from the bottom up. The order arose as an important element of the architecture of a public building.

The Doric order was formed on the basis of the building experience of the Dorian tribes that inhabited the Greek metropolis. It is found already in the first structures built of stone, both in the metropolis (the old temple of Athena Pronaia and the old folos in Delphi), and in the Dorian colonies (the temple of Artemis in Kerpira, the temple of Apollo in Syracuse). At first, Doric buildings had many local features. Over time, the differences in plan have faded. Sharp fluctuations in the proportions of the columns, which were initially very significant, also disappeared. Ceramic cladding has fallen into disuse, meaningless in stone structures, but sometimes used according to tradition (the treasury of the Iloyans in Olympia).

The temple of Athena on Aegis Island, the treasury of the Athenians in Delphi, the temple of Apollo in Corinth, the “basilica” and the temple of Demeter in Paestum serve as examples of the established archaic dorica.

An important element of archaic architecture was decor: sculpture that filled the fields of metols and pediments, and the painting of facades (with wax paints on the finest marble plaster or directly on stone). In Doric temples, the backgrounds for sculpture were painted blue or red. Mutuls, triglyphs and reguls - in blue, the lower surfaces of the cornice, tenia, under the capitals - in red. The main, “working” parts of the building (architrave, column) were not painted. The coloring emphasized the construction and at the same time gave the architecture a festive, major character.

The decorative and graceful Ionic order, light in proportions, was formed in the rich trading cities of island and Asia Minor Greece, which were influenced by the culture of the East. The constructive prototype of the Ionic entablature was a flat adobe roof, combined with the ceiling, laid along a continuous roll from a small forest. It is in this design that the high Ionic force and the teeth located on top of the architrave find their prototype. The Ionic order is found for the first time in large Asian dipteras of the middle of the 6th century BC. e., built of limestone and marble. Among them, the most famous is the temple of Artemis (architects Hersiphon and Metagenes) in Ephesus.

In the VI century BC. e. Greek architects achieved great success in the creation of architectural ensembles. The most important type of ensemble, along with the support and the acropolis, was the sanctuary. In the ensemble of the sanctuary at Delphi, which were determined in the main features in the VI century BC. e., an important element of the architectural image is the landscape environment. The composition of the sanctuary was designed for the perception of a person who, as part of a solemn procession, ascended the zigzags of the illuminated road, framed by treasuries and motif statues; at one of the turns, unexpectedly large and therefore especially impressive masses of the main temple, standing on a high terrace, appeared before his eyes.

Greek orders.

In the ancient Greek order, there is a clear and harmonious order, according to which the three main parts of the building are combined with each other: the base - the stereobat, the supporting supports - the columns and the supporting structure - the entablature. The Doric order (originated at the beginning of the 7th century BC) had three main parts (see above). It is characterized by a column dissected by grooves-flutes converging at an acute angle, standing without a base and completed with a simple capital, an architrave in the form of an even beam and a frieze of alternating triglyphs and metopes. The Ionic order (formed in the middle of the 6th century BC) differs sharply from the Doric order by a slender column standing on the base and completed by a capital with two volutes, a three-part architrave and a ribbon-like frieze; the flutes here are separated by a flat track.

Both the Doric and Ionic orders were used in ancient Greece in a wide range of buildings - from small galleries of residential buildings to grandiose temple porticos.

But in addition to the Doric and Ionic orders in ancient Greece, there were others. Here are some of them.

The Corinthian order is similar to the Ionic one, but differs from it in a complex capital decorated with floral patterns (the oldest Corinthian column is known in the temple of Apollo in Basa, now Vassus in the Peloponnese, built around 430 BC by the famous architect Iktin).

The Aeolian order (known from several buildings of the 7th century BC - in Neandria in Asia Minor, in Larissa, on the island of Lesvos) has a thin smooth column standing on the base and completed with a capital, large volutes and petals of which reproduce plant motifs.

The origin of the ancient Greek order and its features have been studied in great detail. There is no doubt that its source is wooden pillars fixed on a pedestal, which carry wooden beams that overlap them. The gable roof of the stone temples repeats the trussed wooden structure. In the form of ceilings, in the details of the Doric order, one can see their origin from buildings from a large forest. In the lighter Ionic order, roof construction techniques from small logs affected. In the capitals of the Aeolian order, a local construction technique is manifested, according to which beams were laid on a fork in the branches of a tree trunk. In ancient Greece, a strictly ordered plan of the temple, which was built according to the rules of orders, quickly developed. It was a temple-peripter, that is, a temple surrounded on all sides by a colonnade, inside of which there was a sanctuary (cella) behind the walls. The origin of the peripter can be traced back to buildings close to the most ancient megarons. The closest to the megaron is the temple “in antah”, that is, the temple, where the ends of the walls protrude on the end side, between which columns are placed. This is followed by a prostyle with a portico on the façade, an amphiprostyle with two porticos on opposite sides, and finally a peripter. Of course, this is only a scheme of historical development: temples of different types were often built simultaneously in Greece. But one way or another, a residential building, a megaron, served as the oldest model, and in the 7th century. BC. periptery temples appeared (the temple of Apollo Thermios, otherwise Fermos, the temple of Hera at Olympia, etc.). In the temples of that time, raw brick and wooden columns were still used, which were eventually replaced by stone ones. Together with the creation of stone structures, the ancient architects "from the field of shaky and unstable eye calculations worked out to establish strong laws of" symmetry "or proportionality of the building's components." This is how the Roman architect of the 1st century BC wrote about it. BC. Vitruvius, the author of the only fully preserved ancient treatise on architecture, by which we can reliably judge the views of that era on architecture. Of course, taking into account the fact that the orders were formed six hundred years before the appearance of this treatise. All these “strong laws” were fixed in the stone architecture of Ancient Greece for centuries, and if we count those eras when the order was revived in architecture again, then for millennia.

Architecture (classical Greece in the 5th century BC)

The development of orders in ancient Greece was associated mainly with the formation of the main types of public buildings and, above all, temples. In connection with the idea of ​​the temple as the dwelling of a deity, its original composition was formed under the influence of an ancient residential house - a megaron with a portico in front of it and a statue inside the building. The simplest type of temple is antovy. It consisted of a rectangular hall - a cella and an entrance portico in two columns located between the protrusions of the longitudinal walls - ants. The development of the temple in ante is a prostyle, in which a four-column portico is advanced in relation to the ants, as well as an amphiprostyle - with two end porticos on opposite sides. Finally, during the archaic period, a peripter was formed, which has a colonnade on four sides.

The development of the peripter and other types of temples in the archaic and classical era gives the most vivid idea of ​​the changes in the order composition and the addition of the characteristic features of Greek architecture. The peak of development was the temples of the Acropolis of Athens, which was created in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. and dominates the city and its environs. Destroyed during the Persian invasions, the Acropolis was rebuilt on a scale never seen before. During the third quarter of the 5th c. BC e. sparkling, white marble buildings were erected: the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the temple of Nike Apteros (“Wingless Victory”). The building of the Ereichteion, which completed the ensemble, was built later.

Truly harmony was achieved by the builders of the Parthenon, Iktik and Kallikrat. The columns of the temple have the same height as the columns of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, but the heavy proportions of the “severe” style have been replaced by harmony and grace. The influence of Ionian traditions was reflected in the appearance of a frieze on the outside of the western part of the building. The architect Mnesicles, the creator of the majestic gate leading to the Acropolis, the Propylaea, also strove to combine both styles: Ionian columns coexist here with Doric ones. On the contrary, the architecture of the beautiful miniature temple of Athena the Conqueror is dominated by Ionian features. Also in the spirit of Ionian traditions, the Ereichteion was built, located very picturesquely.

All these wonderful creations of Athenian architects are located on the Acropolis. On the hill of the Acropolis, the main sanctuaries of the Athenians were located, and above all the Parthenon - the temple of Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the patroness of Athens. The treasury is kept there. In the building of the Propylaea, which served as the entrance to the Acropolis, there is a library and an art gallery in two of their outbuildings - wings.

Greek architects knew how to perfectly choose the places for their buildings. The temple was erected where it was as if a place had been prepared for it by nature itself, and at the same time, its calm strict forms, harmonious proportions, light marble columns, bright colors contrasted the temple with nature, affirmed the superiority of a structure reasonably created by man over the surrounding world.

The Acropolis embodied the idea of ​​the power and greatness of the Athenian state and at the same time, for the first time in the history of Greece, expressed the idea of ​​common Hellenic unity.

The meaning of the planning of the Acropolis can be understood only by imagining the movement of solemn processions during the days of public festivities. The road led up to the solemn gates - the Propylaea. The Doric colonnade of the Propylaea has two unequal, but mutually balanced wings of the building; the temple of Nike Apteros (“Wingless Victory”), which began construction in 449 as a monument in honor of the victory of Athens over the Persians, adjoins the right, smaller wing. It is not large in size, harmonious and clear in form, the temple, as if separated from the general massif of the hill, was the first to meet the procession. Slender Ionic columns on each of the two short sides of the temple give the building a touch of grace. From the Propylaea, the main temple of the Acropolis, the Parthenon, erected on the highest platform of the Acropolis, is visible from the corner. The large building of the Parthenon is balanced by the elegant and relatively small Erechtekhon temple standing on the other side of the square, shading the sublime severity of the Parthenon with free asymmetry. Parthenon- the most perfect creation of Greek classical architecture and one of the highest achievements of architecture in general. This monumental, majestic building rises above the Acropolis, just as the Acropolis itself rises above the city and its environs. The Parthenon is the largest temple in the ensemble of the Acropolis and the entire Greek metropolis. Inside it has two large halls - rectangular and square, the entrances to which were located on opposite sides. The eastern rectangular hall with a statue of Athena in the depth was divided into three parts by two-tiered colonnades of the Doric order. The square hall served as a treasury and was called the Parthenon.

The type of Greek temple, over the creation of which many generations worked, received the most perfect interpretation in the Parthenon. In its basic forms, it is a Doric peripter with eight columns on the short sides and seventeen on the long sides. But it organically includes elements of the Ionic order: columns elongated in proportion, a lightweight entablature, a continuous frieze encircling the building, made of squares of Pentelic marble. The coloring emphasizes the structural details and provided a backdrop against which the pediment and metope sculptures stood out.

The majestic clarity and strict harmony of the Parthenon seem to be opposed by the grace and freedom of composition of the Erechtheion, an asymmetric building built on the Acropolis by an unknown master in 421-406. BC e. Dedicated to Athena and Poseidon, the Erechtheion is distinguished by a picturesque interpretation of the architectural whole, a contrasting juxtaposition of architectural and sculptural forms. The layout of the Erechtheion takes into account the unevenness of the soil. The temple consists of two rooms located at different levels. On three sides it has porticos of various shapes, including the famous cor (caryatid) portico on the south wall.

With its dissection and picturesque forms, the Erechtheion paves the way for art later than the classics, sometimes more tragically agitated, sometimes lyrically refined, but less valuable and heroic than high classics. In addition to the Acropolis of Athens, in the archaic and classical periods, many other ensembles developed, including temples, sanctuaries and public buildings (the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, the complex of temples in Poseidonia, etc.). But already from the 4th century, temples began to lose their leading importance and buildings and complexes for secular purposes, which were formed as elements of the general structure of cities, were increasingly developed. It is especially worth highlighting the shopping and entertainment - sports complexes, combined with the natural landscape. Stadiums were arranged in natural depressions, sometimes reaching significant sizes (Athens, Olympia), theaters used the slopes of the mountains to build a natural semicircular theatron with a round platform - an orchestra, where the choir usually performed. A rectangular stage adjoined the orchestra.

Architecture (epoch of Hellenism).

For the plastic arts III - I centuries. BC e. were by no means times of decline. An example is the famous sculptural group of Laocoön, a masterpiece of Hellenistic plasticity. The group was created in the first half of the 1st century. BC e., i.e., when Greek poetry was already engulfed in creative barrenness.

The sacred architecture of the Hellenistic era was dominated by the Ionian order. A few Doric buildings were distinguished by slender columns and light ceiling beams - this, like the appearance of some other elements, indicates the decomposition of the old Doric style, which still retained ancient traditions only in the Greek West. If the Doric order was not widespread in sacred architecture, then in secular construction it was often resorted to, as can be seen from the colonnades of the porticos.

The monumental temple of Didymaion in Miletus speaks of the triumph of the Ionian order: the temple was surrounded by a double colonnade, consisting of 210 Ionian columns. The Ionian style won not only in life, but also in the theory of architecture. The architect and theoretician of this art, Hermogenes, who worked in the middle of the 2nd century, worked especially hard for him. BC e. and who created a new architectural formula - a pseudo-dipter: a building surrounded by a double colonnade, and the inner row of columns was half hidden in the wall of the building. This form - the last creation of the Ionian style - was embodied in the great temple of Artemis Leukofriena in Magnesia; later, the pseudodipter was widely borrowed by the Romans both in practice and in theory. In addition to rectangular buildings in the Hellenistic era, round monuments increasingly appeared, continuing the traditions of the 4th century BC. BC e. Of the surviving monuments of this type, Arsinoeion on the island of Samothrace, the choreic monument of Thrasilla, buildings in Olympia and Eretria deserve attention. The most outstanding was the creation of Sostratus of Cnidus - a sea lighthouse on the island of Pharos near Alexandria, elevated by more than 100 meters in height. The lighthouse of Alexandria was considered one of the seven wonders of the world, but has not survived to our time.