Azimuth is the angle between two directions - north (in the southern hemisphere - south) and some object. The vertex of the corner is a point on the terrain where the calculation is carried out.
Azimuth is used for orientation on land, in the seas, in the air, where it is impossible to compare the map and the terrain and the exact direction of advance is necessary. Knowing the azimuth, you can reach the object without other landmarks, without knowing the territory at all.
Like any angle, azimuth is measured in degrees - from 0° to 360°. Azimuth is magnetic (Am) and true (Az).
How is the magnetic azimuth determined on the ground?
On a specific piece of land or water, the azimuth is measured from the magnetic meridian. To do this, you need to arrange in such a way that 0 ° and the letter "C" are located in the north - the magnetic needle will point there.
As soon as the north is found, rotate the sighting device so that its front sight and the object set for movement, whose azimuth you determine, coincide. During rotation, it is necessary to strictly monitor that the magnetic needle does not move away from 0 °. When all actions are completed, they look at how many degrees the pointer stands - they will be the azimuth - angle - of the given object.
When the compass is not equipped with a sighting device, an ordinary thin stick is used instead. First, in the same way as described above, the compass is oriented, and then a stick / straw / match is placed on it. It should cross the center of the dial, and one end of it should be strictly directed to the object. At how many degrees the end of the stick will lie, this is the azimuth.
How to determine the true azimuth on the map?
In the previous section, we described how the magnetic azimuth is determined. It is called magnetic, because in fact the compass needle does not point to the north, but to the magnetic pole of the Earth.
If you are guided not by the map, but by the azimuth measured in field conditions, then the above measurement is quite enough. However, when using a map, one more computational operation is required. 
The fact is that on the map the azimuth is measured as the angle between the meridian passing through the point (the top of the corner) and the object. But ... the meridian is directed to the North Pole, which does not coincide with the magnetic one, so the azimuth on the map and the azimuth on the ground will not match by an amount that the true and magnetic meridians do not match.
This difference is called magnetic declination. When the magnetic needle deviates to the east, the magnetic declination is east (denoted by "+"), to the west - western (denoted by "-"). There are no constant indicators for magnetic declination. So, in the Moscow region it is +7 ... +8 °, in the Irkutsk region it approaches zero, in other regions it can differ quite significantly.
To convert the true azimuth, determined from the map, into the magnetic, determined on the ground, you need:
- determine the true azimuth on the map;
- find this azimuth on the ground;
- if the magnetic declination is east, then shift the direction line to the left of the found one by a number of degrees equal to the declination;
- if the magnetic declination is western, then shift the direction line to the right of the one found by a number of degrees equal to the declination.
The magnitude of the magnetic declination is usually indicated on the map - in the marginal design, from below. If magnetic declination is not indicated on your map, you must know it before setting off, otherwise, in an unfamiliar area, at sea, the compass and maps will be useless.
In what situations is it necessary to be able to determine the azimuth, convert the true azimuth into magnetic?
If you have to determine the direction of movement to a point invisible on the ground, then first you will calculate the true bearing on the map. Next, in order to accurately know the direction, you need to convert the true azimuth to magnetic. Having done everything right, you will definitely get to the desired “point” - to a settlement, to a lake, river, etc.
The need to navigate by compass and azimuth often arises in the forest, in the mountains, in fog or snow, sandstorm, at night. Following the direction determined by the azimuth is the only way to move on ships in the sea and oceans, on airplanes in the sky. 
Such a simple but important skill is absolutely necessary for tourists, travelers who set off on their own, without guides.
Azimuths are counted from 0 to 360° clockwise.
So, in fig. 1 azimuths will be:
On hardwood 50°
On factory pipe 135°
To road sign 210°
On coniferous tree 330°
Determination of bearing by compass
To determine the azimuth on the ground, you need:
become a face in the direction of the object to which you want to determine the azimuth;
orient the compass, that is, bring its zero division (or the letter C) under the darkened end of the compass needle;
by rotating the compass cover, point the sighting device at the object;
against the pointer of the sighting device facing the object, read the azimuth value.
To determine the given azimuth on the ground, it is necessary:
set the pointer of the compass sighting device with a point above the division corresponding to the value of the specified azimuth;
turn the compass so that the pointer of the sight is in front;
- turn yourself along with the compass until the zero point coincides with the northern end of the arrow; the direction of the pointer of the sight will be the direction along the given azimuth.
The alignment of the sight line with the direction to the object (target) is achieved by repeatedly shifting the gaze from the sight line to the target and back. It is not recommended to raise the compass to eye level, the measurement accuracy is reduced. The accuracy of measuring azimuths using the Andrianov compass is plus or minus 2-3 °.
Movement in azimuth
To move along a given azimuth, you need:
study on the map the area between the starting and ending points of the movement and outline a route that is easily recognizable by local objects;
draw the chosen route on the map and determine the azimuths of all links of the route;
determine on the map the length of each link of the route in steps (a pair of steps is on average 1.5 m);
write down all the data for the movement in the field book in the form of a table or a schematic drawing
Arriving at the starting point, you should:
navigate by compass;
set the index of the movable compass ring against a reference equal to the azimuth value of the first link of the route (in our example - 335 °);
smoothly turn the compass until the zero division coincides with the north end of the arrow; then the sighting device will show the direction of movement in azimuth - 335 °;
choose an object in this direction and go to it. Approaching the subject, you need to check the orientation of the compass and continue on to the first turning point;
at the first turning point, you need to set the compass bearing to the next turning point and move to it in the same way as from the starting point.
Determination of azimuths on the map with a protractor
Initially, the landmarks selected along the route of movement are connected by a straight line, but in such a way that this line intersects at least one of the vertical lines of the kilometer grid. Neither rice. 196 the direction "saray - ravine" crossed the kilometer line marked with the number 61, and the direction "saray - bridge" crossed the line with the number 60.
Then the angle is measured with a protractor from the north direction of the vertical line of the kilometer grid in a clockwise direction to the direction to the object. In this case, the protractor is applied to the vertical line of the kilometer grid so that the risk (dash) on the ruler of the protractor coincides with the point where the drawn direction intersects the vertical line of the kilometer grid, and the extreme divisions of the protractor (0 and 180) are aligned with the direction of this line.
In the figure, in the direction "barn - ravine" the azimuth is 65 °, in the direction "barn - bridge" 274 ° (180 ° + 94 ° \u003d 274 °).
The deviation of the magnetic needle or the correction of direction is the angle between the vertical line of the kilometer grid and the compass needle (magnetic meridian). Data on the magnitude of the declination of the arrow is always given under the south (bottom) side of the map frame in the form of a diagram and text.
Determination of magnetic azimuths
It is performed in contrast to the above on an oriented map, taking into account the magnetic declination. Magnetic declination is either east with a "+" sign or west with a "-" sign. Knowing the magnitude and sign of the deviation, it is easy to combine the direction of one of the sides of the map sheet frame (western or eastern) with the direction of the true meridian (Fig. 197). If the sides of the map frame are aligned with the direction of the true meridian, the map will be oriented accurately.
In practice, they do it like this:
install a compass on one of the sides of the map so that the north-south line of the compass scale coincides with the direction of this side of the frame, and zero (C) on the scale is directed to the north side of the map frame;
release the brake of the compass needle and, when the arrow calms down, turn the map until the arrow becomes its northern end against the zero division (C) of the compass scale,
rotate the map without shifting the compass so that the northern end of the arrow stands against the division corresponding to the magnitude and sign of the declination for a given map sheet (in the figure, the map is oriented at declination - 10, western);
the map thus oriented is fixed;
connect the landmarks with straight lines: a ravine - a barn, a barn - a stone;
set the compass on the drawn straight line between the landmark so that the "north-south" line of the scale coincides with this direction, and the zero division (C) is directed in the direction of movement;
when the arrow calms down, make a reading on the scale against the north end of the arrow; subtract the resulting reading from 360 °, this difference will be the magnetic azimuth.
Measuring the distance between landmarks
The measurement of the distance between landmarks is performed as follows:
determine the length of the segments on the map with a compass or ruler;
using the scale of the map, they will find out what distance the segments on the ground correspond to;
For example, on a 1:25,000 scale map, the measured distance between two landmarks is 6.4 cm. The scale value is 250 m in 1 cm.
The distance will be 250 x 6.4 = 1600 m.
The movement begins with finding the desired azimuth of the direction of movement. In the direction of movement, it is desirable to choose and remember the most distant landmark possible. In motion, the distance traveled is counted (usually in pairs of steps).
If the landmark is not at this point, a sign is left at the exit point, or one or two fighters, and the landmark is searched for within a radius equal to 0.1 of the distance traveled from the previous landmark.
In motion, additional landmarks are used: power lines, rivers, roads, etc.
Bypassing obstacles, depending on the conditions, can be done in one of the following ways:
If there is visibility through an obstacle:
notice a landmark in the direction of movement on the opposite side of the obstacle;
bypass the obstacle and continue moving from the noticed landmark, determine the width of the obstacle in any way and add to the distance traveled;
In the absence of visibility through an obstacle, for example, when bypassing a forest blockage, as well as in conditions of limited visibility: fog, rain, etc.
Let's assume that the movement was made along the azimuth of 65 ° and 340 pairs of steps were passed before stopping in front of the obstacle (in Fig. 198 this is point 1.) After studying the terrain, it was decided to make a detour from the right side. Use the compass to determine the azimuth of the direction along the obstacle (from point 1 to point 2), continue moving in this direction, counting the pairs of steps to the right border of the obstacle. In the figure, the azimuth is 145° and the distance traveled is 180 pace pairs. Having made a stop at point 2, the compass determines the direction corresponding to the initial azimuth along which the movement to the obstacle (65 °) was made and continue to move until the exit beyond the obstacle. Pairs of steps are counted from point 2 to the stopping point behind the obstacle (point 3). In the figure, the distance traveled is 270 pairs of steps. From point 3, movement is made to the left along the reverse azimuth of the direction from point 1 to point 2.
Obstacle avoidance by azimuth
in the figure, the back azimuth is 325 °) until a distance equal to 180 pairs of steps has been covered (in the figure to point 4). At point 4, the direction is determined by the initial azimuth (65 °) and adding to the distance traveled to the obstacle the distance from point 2 to point 3 (Fig. 198 is 340 pairs of steps + 270 pairs of steps) continue to move to a new landmark.
Fighters need to remember that the reverse azimuth differs from the direct azimuth by 180 degrees. For example, Am = 330, the back azimuth will be 330 - 180 = 150. am = 30, the back will be 180 + 30 = 210.
Translation of the length of each section between landmarks in pairs of steps: from landmark 1 to landmark 2 will be 1200 m. 1200: 1.5 = 800 l.s. (1.5 m - the average length of 2 pairs of steps).
Drawing the detected object on the map
This is one of the most important moments in the work of a scout. The accuracy of determining its coordinates depends on how accurately the object (target) is mapped. A mistake will cause the fire of means of destruction on an empty place.
Having discovered an object (target), the reconnaissance officer must first accurately determine, by various signs, what was discovered. Then, without stopping the observation of the object and without revealing yourself, put the object on the map.
There are several ways to plot an object on a map.
Visual: An object is plotted on the map if it is close to a known landmark.
By direction and distance: orient the map, find the point of your standing on it, sight on the map the direction to the detected object and draw a line, determine the distance to the object, plot this distance on the map from the point of standing. The resulting point will be the position of the object on the map. If in this way it is graphically impossible to solve the problem (the enemy interferes, poor visibility, etc.), then you need to accurately measure the azimuth to the object, then translate it into a directional angle and draw a direction on the map from the standing point, on which to plot the distance to the object. To get the directional angle, you need to add the magnetic declination of this map (direction correction) to the magnetic azimuth.
Drawing an object on the map with a straight serif
Straight serif. In this way, an object is put on a map of 2-3 points from which it is possible to observe it. To do this, from each selected point, a direction to the object is drawn on an oriented map, then the intersection of the lines determines the location of the object (Fig. 199).
The concept of azimuth is one of the main ones in orientation. Without knowing what an azimuth is and how to deal with it, a person will not be able to fully use the information provided to him by the map and choose the correct direction of movement in the absence of landmarks. Accordingly, being able to determine the azimuth using a compass, and at best - even without it - is a necessary skill for a person who, with one frequency or another, is in a deserted area.
Azimuth allows you to correctly orient the map and choose the direction of movement and determine your own location.
Azimuth and its types
Azimuth is the angle measured from north. This angle is always measured clockwise.
Azimuth is mainly used to:
- to search for the direction of movement on the map and on the ground;
- determine the direction to the landmark in order to put it on the map, or vice versa - to find it on the ground;
- determine your location by two landmarks.
There are two types of azimuth - true and magnetic. The difference between the first and the second is that the true azimuth is determined relative to the direction to the geographic north, and the magnetic one is relative to the direction to the magnetic north, that is, the north that the magnetic compass needle points to. It is with the second type that one has to deal with if a magnetic compass is used in the work.
In most cases, the magnetic azimuth differs from the true one, since the direction to the magnetic pole usually does not coincide with the direction to the geographic pole.
Let me remind you that the directions to the geographic and magnetic north most often do not coincide.
In order to derive the magnetic from the true azimuth, you need to know the magnitude of the magnetic declination. It shows the difference between these two values.
In addition, you need to look at what declination you have to deal with - with the eastern or western. If the magnetic declination is east, this means that the northern part of the magnetic compass needle will deviate to the right in relation to the geographical north, if the declination is west, then to the left, that is, point to the northeast or northwest, respectively.
So, how to translate the true azimuth into magnetic? It's simple ... If the magnetic declination is western, then the value of declination must be added to the true azimuth, if eastern - subtract.
In addition to the true and magnetic azimuth, there is such a thing as a directional angle. This angle is an analogue of the azimuth, but measured not from the true or magnetic meridian, but from the north direction of the kilometer grid.
In order to know the true azimuth, knowing the directional angle, you need to know the magnitude of the convergence of the meridians.
The convergence of the meridians is the angle between the true meridian and the north direction of the kilometer grid line.
If the kilometer grid is tilted to the left of the direction of the true meridian, then the angle is considered negative, if to the right, then positive.
Thus, to translate the directional angle into the true azimuth, the value of the convergence of the meridians is subtracted from the obtained value of the directional angle. If the convergence of the meridians is negative, then minus by minus gives a plus, which means that the resulting value increases by the value of the convergence of the meridians.
Magnetic declination and directional angle used to be indicated on topographic maps at the bottom of the frame. Recently, unfortunately, more and more often you have to see maps without any hint of such data. And if the convergence of the meridians can be measured on the map on your own, but with magnetic declination everything is a little more complicated.
If the magnetic declination is not indicated on the map, its values for a particular area can be searched on the Internet. It is not always good to use very old magnetic declination values, since its value changes over time.
How to determine the azimuth on the map
Consider ways to find the true and magnetic azimuths on the map. There are three options here.
Option number 1. With the help of a transporter.
For this:
- A standard card is taken.
- On the map, a point is selected from which the azimuth will be plotted.
- A barely noticeable vertical line is drawn through this point with a simple pencil.
- The second point is selected, in relation to which the azimuth will be measured.
- From the first point to the second, a second barely noticeable line is drawn with a simple pencil.
- With the help of a protractor clockwise, the angle between the two lines is measured. The result will be the true azimuth.
- If necessary, the true azimuth is converted to magnetic.
In orienteering, a protractor is a necessary thing, and therefore it is sometimes useful to make it even from improvised materials.
This option is good when there was no compass at hand. If a compass is available, you can use one of the following methods.
Option number 2. With a magnetic tablet compass.
For this method, you will need a compass with a transparent bulb, on which lines parallel to each other are drawn, located in the north-south direction. The algorithm is the following:
- The card is placed on a flat surface.
- The point from which the azimuth will be plotted is marked.
- The second point is selected, which you need to come to, leaving the first, or simply the necessary direction of movement.
- The compass is applied with a side frame to the first and second points, or simply located along the line of the intended movement. It is important that the lower part of the compass is located closer to the first point, otherwise the back azimuth will be measured, which we will talk about a little later.
- The compass bulb rotates until the lines drawn on it become parallel to one of the vertical lines of the kilometer grid. In this case, the northern part of the compass bulb should be directed towards the northern end of the kilometer line.
- After everything is done, the compass pointer will show the bearing angle. This value can be converted to true or magnetic azimuth for ease of further use.
Partly due to the simplicity of this method, it is the tablet compass that is recommended for tourists.
This option is convenient for use in almost any situation, since it is independent of the readings of the magnetic compass needle, which is affected by magnetic deviations, which will be discussed a little later. However, it can only be used when magnetic declination data is available. If there is no such data, you can use the following method.
Option number 3. With a magnetic tablet compass and an oriented map.
Before describing this method, it is worth explaining what the phrase "oriented map" means.
To orient a map means to place it on a horizontal surface so that its north frame points strictly to geographical north. This can be done with a compass if the magnetic declination is known. However, we will consider the option when such data is not available.
In this case, it is possible to orient the map to the cardinal points using a landmark marked on the map and visible on the ground, provided that it is known where the person orienting the map is at the moment.
Consider step by step the whole process of orienting the map:
- The map is horizontal.
- A ruler is placed on the map in such a way that one of its sides “touches” simultaneously the landmark indicated on the map and the point at which the person is located, for example, a crossroads.
- The map is located at eye level so that the point of standing of a person on the map is closer to the eye, and the landmark is farther away.
- A person with a map and a ruler lying on it turns so that the ruler is directed to a landmark visible on the ground - the landmark to which the ruler was attached to the designation. At this point, we can say that the map is oriented to the cardinal points.
Now let's go directly to the description of the algorithm for determining the azimuth:
- The map is oriented to the cardinal points and is located strictly in a horizontal plane so that the compass needle can subsequently rotate freely inside the bulb.
- A magnetic tablet compass is applied to the map so that its side frame is in contact with the person's standing point and the landmark in relation to which you need to find the azimuth. Here the rules are the same as in the previous version: the lower part of the compass should be closer to the person's standing point.
- The compass bulb rotates until the north end of the needle points to the designation of north on the bulb, that is, 0 ° or 360 °, which is essentially the same thing.
- From now on, the compass pointer will show the magnetic azimuth, which, if necessary, can be converted to true.
The main disadvantage of this method is the dependence on magnetic deviations and movement. So, for example, it will not be possible to use this method in a car or on a ship.
Back azimuth
For the convenience of moving around the terrain during orientation, the concept of back azimuth is often used. This direction is diametrically opposite to the "direct" azimuth, that is, it differs from it by 180 degrees.
Back bearing, if necessary, allows you to return to the place where the movement was started, and can also be used when avoiding obstacles.
Imagine that a person is moving due north. In order for it to move in reverse azimuth, it must turn 180 degrees. And it makes no difference whether he makes a turn clockwise or counterclockwise: the direction of the reverse azimuth will, for obvious reasons, remain the same. That is, specifically for the case under consideration, the reverse azimuth will be the direction of movement due south.
How to determine the azimuth on the ground
On the ground, using a compass, you can determine the azimuth to a selected direction or object (landmark), or vice versa - using a known azimuth, for example, found on a map, determine the direction on the ground. Let's consider both options.
Task number 1. It is necessary to determine the magnetic azimuth to the object (landmark).
In this case, the compass is located in the direction of the landmark. To more accurately set the compass in relation to the landmark, some models have a front sight and a rear sight, as well as a mirror with a slot.
After that, the compass bulb rotates until the north end of the arrow points to the designation of north on the bulb (usually "N" or "C"). The compass pointer will then show the bearing to the selected object.
Task number 2. It is necessary, knowing the magnetic azimuth, to determine the direction on the ground.
To do this, the compass bulb is rotated until the pointer indicates on the scale of the bulb the number corresponding to the value of the magnetic azimuth. After that, the compass rotates in a horizontal plane until the north side of the arrow coincides with the north symbol on the bulb. Once this has happened, it can be argued that the compass indicates the desired direction, that is, it is located along it.
If you need to determine the reverse azimuth using a compass, then it is not necessary to do arithmetic, subtracting or adding 180 degrees to the known azimuth. It is much more convenient and easier to simply choose the direction of movement by turning the compass so that its south side is in place of the north side of the arrow.
Emergency azimuth
An emergency azimuth is a direction to some linear (for example, a highway or railway) or areal (for example, a settlement) landmark, measured in order to reach this landmark in case a person gets lost.
The emergency azimuth cannot be measured to a point landmark (for example, a well or a forester's house), since it is unlikely that it will be possible to reach such a landmark if necessary due to its small size.
The emergency azimuth is determined before entering the route, for example, before entering the forest. To do this, a person becomes facing the landmark and measures the azimuth to it using a compass, after which he writes down the resulting value, for example, on a piece of paper that he hides in his pocket.
But don't rely entirely on the note. For reinsurance, it is also better to remember the obtained values.
After the emergency azimuth has been determined, recorded and stored in memory, you can go on the route.
On a note
When determining the emergency azimuth, it should be remembered that a linear object can turn and change direction - a river can make a bend, a road can turn, a power line also has its own angles. There is a risk that, having taken an emergency azimuth before entering the route, a person will shift significantly relative to such a turn, and if it is necessary to enter the highway or to the river, then he will follow the azimuth parallel to the most linear object behind its turn. Therefore, before entering the route, you need to study the map of the area, the direction of linear landmarks and scales. If a road or river stretches approximately in one direction for tens of kilometers, and the route is planned for only 2-3 kilometers, this information is not significant. If we are talking about a hiking group on a route of several hundred kilometers, the terrain and landmarks must first be studied very carefully.
If for some reason a person gets lost, and the use of various methods did not help him get back to the previous route, then he can use the emergency azimuth, moving along which sooner or later will be near the landmark on which the emergency azimuth was taken. And already moving along this landmark, a person will be able to get to the place where he started his journey.
Drawing up a route of movement in azimuth
Having a map of the area available, it is often possible to do without the use of azimuths when planning a route, for example, if paths, roads and clearings are visible on the map. In this case, usually the movement towards the goal is carried out along them.
However, there are situations when azimuths are indispensable, for example, when crossing a desert or a wild wooded area. Consider the algorithm of actions in such situations.
In order to quickly and accurately reach a given goal, it is very desirable to build a route on the map. It is important to understand that going straight ahead can lead to a big mistake, which means that a person can simply miss the target, especially if you have to navigate in areas with reduced visibility, for example, in a forest.
In order to reduce this error, it is better to divide the entire path into segments of shorter length, connecting landmarks along the path to the goal. Thus, approaching each landmark, a person will correct his movement, eliminating the error that occurs when moving from one landmark to another.
A path with transitions between many landmarks will be somewhat longer, since a broken line connecting two extreme points is always longer than a straight line. However, the error will also be significantly reduced, which is very important in some situations.
To plan a "broken" route:
- The map shows the exit point to the route.
- There is a landmark lying in the direction of travel.
- From the first point, the azimuth and distance to the middle of the found landmark are measured.
- Near this landmark, the azimuth and length of the path are indicated.
- Now the whole procedure is repeated, but the edge of the found landmark is taken as the starting point, from where the movement to the middle of the next landmark will be performed.
- At the end, from the last landmark on the way, the azimuth and distance to the target are measured and also signed.
If desired, the measured distance can be converted into pairs of steps and write numbers next to each landmark. But this only makes sense if a person knows the length of his pair of steps.
Walking in azimuth
Some people believe that you need to walk in azimuth by constantly holding the compass in front of you and constantly monitoring its readings. However, this method of walking, contrary to expectations, will give a large error and will require more time compared to the method that will be discussed later.
To reduce the error, you should use the following algorithm of actions:
- With the help of a compass, at a given azimuth, a landmark is located on the ground (for example, a tree, a bush, some feature of the relief or a building). The further this landmark is located, the less actions will have to be performed, and the more accurate the result will be.
- The person goes to the chosen landmark. At the same time, it does not matter how exactly he will approach the landmark, the main thing is not to lose the chosen landmark and not confuse it with others. This is convenient, because sometimes difficult obstacles (for example, thorny thickets or windbreaks) lie along a straight road to the landmark, so it’s easier and faster to get around them than trying to move straight ahead.
- Approaching the landmark, the person should stand behind it and repeat the operation with the compass, selecting a new landmark.
Sometimes, in the absence of natural landmarks, one of the participants in the hike can act as a guide. To do this, he goes in the direction in which the person working with the compass points. When the “living landmark” has moved a sufficient distance, the person with the compass gestures to the assistant where exactly he should be in order to be exactly on the direction line determined by the azimuth. Further, everything is done as if it were necessary to work with local landmarks.
If, on the way to the chosen landmark, there is an obstacle, for example, a steep hill, because of which it is impossible to see the next landmark and which you cannot climb, then you can use one of two schemes.
Scheme No. 1. Simplified.
This is the simplest algorithm of actions that allows you to get back on the same path, bypassing the obstacle. For this:
- At some distance from the obstacle, the direction of its bypass is selected and the azimuth of this direction is measured. Suppose the azimuth is 60 degrees.
- The difference between the azimuth of the main direction of movement (assume that the movement was made along the azimuth of 105 degrees) and the azimuth of the selected direction is determined. It turns out that the obstacle is bypassed from the left, and the difference in the initial direction and the direction of the bypass is 105 - 60 = 45 degrees.
- The person begins to move along the azimuth of 45 degrees, counting the steps, and moves until he sees the end of the obstacle on the right.
- The azimuth of the direction of return to the previous path is calculated. To do this, the previously calculated difference is added to the azimuth of the main direction, that is, 105 + 45 = 150 degrees.
- The person starts walking in a new direction with an azimuth of 150 degrees and counts the steps.
- When this number of steps matches the number of steps taken during the offset from the main path, the movement continues along the azimuth of the main direction (for this case - 105 degrees).
In this scheme, it is also possible that, having shifted to the side, a person does not immediately return to the previous path, but travels some distance along the main azimuth before that. This may be necessary if the obstruction is extended along the main direction.
Scheme No. 2. To account for the distance travelled.
This is a more complex scheme that allows you to bypass obstacles while counting the total number of steps. Thus, the number of counted steps after going around the obstacle will be equal to the number of steps, as if there were no obstacle at all, and the person was moving directly.
For this schema:
- At some distance from the obstacle, the azimuth of the bypass direction is measured. Suppose that it will be the same as in the previous scheme, that is, equal to 60 degrees.
- The person moves in that direction and counts the steps.
- After the obstacle “ends” on the right side, the person begins to move in the original direction (let it be 105 degrees, as in the previous case) and counts the steps. The steps calculated while moving along the main direction (105 degrees) are added to those that were calculated before the start of the obstacle bypass.
- After some time, a person chooses a new direction - the opposite azimuth to the direction in which the obstacle was bypassed. For this case: 60 + 180 = 240 degrees.
- The person moves in a new direction (240 degrees) and counts the steps. In this direction, a person must move until the counted number of steps coincides with the number of steps taken in the direction with an azimuth of 60 degrees.
- Once the required number of steps have been taken, the person finds the direction of the original movement (105 degrees) and continues to move along it, adding steps to those taken in that direction earlier.
In this way, various obstacles can be bypassed. However, in some cases, difficulties may arise, mainly related to the characteristics of the terrain.
For example, it may happen that bypassing an obstacle at the beginning will be done on terrain with a lot of ups and downs, and then on flat terrain. In this case, with the same number of steps, when leaving the main direction of movement and returning to it, a person will cover a different distance, which means that he will move away from the original path.
Errors and their causes
The main errors that occur when orienting with a compass are mainly related to three factors - magnetic declination, magnetic deviations and compass malfunction.
The error associated with the magnetic declination appears mainly if the magnetic declination is not indicated on the map, or the person does not know how to correct for it. There are also areas of so-called magnetic anomalies, where the magnetic declination can fluctuate over a fairly wide range, which complicates the task of orientation.
In some situations, when you have to travel long distances solely in azimuths, it makes sense to independently calculate the magnetic declination using a map and a magnetic compass.
Magnetic deviation is the deviation of the magnetic needle from the direction of the Earth's magnetic lines. Such magnetic deviations occur near various objects with magnetic properties, or due to the flow of an electric current nearby.
For example, magnetic deviations can have a noticeable effect on compass readings, leading to errors near railway tracks, inside or near vehicles, and also if the compass is near objects such as a walkie-talkie, mobile phone, knife, saw or other compass.
Compass failure is another cause of errors, and not as rare as we would like.
To check the compass for serviceability, you need to bring a magnet to the side of it - the arrow will deviate to the side. After the magnet is removed, the arrow should return to its original place. After that, you should bring the magnet from the other side - the arrow will deviate in the other direction. Removing the magnet should cause the needle to return to its original position. If the arrow does not return to its original place, then the compass can be considered faulty.
Instead of a conventional magnet in the field, it is quite possible to get by with a knife or a mobile phone, since they, to one degree or another, have magnetic properties sufficient for testing a compass.
All these nuances must be taken into account in order to obtain the most correct compass readings, because it also depends on whether a person goes to a given point or misses it.
What compass to take on a hike
To date, a wide variety of compasses are known. For tourists and other outdoor enthusiasts, magnetic compasses and compass simulators for phones are the most suitable. The former show the direction of the Earth's magnetic lines, and the work of the latter is based on determining coordinates using satellite navigation systems.
“Compass” programs for phones do not respond to magnetic deviations and magnetic declination does not matter to them - they always show the direction to the geographical (true) north and south. These programs may have a number of features that allow them to be used faster, more efficiently and more comfortably than magnetic compasses. But these programs also have their drawbacks:
- the phone may be discharged, which means that you will not be able to use the program installed on the phone;
- the program may “fail”, and due to the lack of the Internet, it may not be possible to download it again and reinstall it;
- underground (for example, in caves), these programs will also not work, since the signal from the satellites will not be able to get underground.
Unlike programs for phones, conventional magnetic compasses are more suitable for most situations in which a tourist or a person who has experienced an emergency far from civilization may find himself, because:
- able to work for years and do not require recharging;
- work even underground, as they are independent of satellites;
- can be made from improvised means.
All this makes them reliable companions not only for tourists, but also for military personnel.
But even among ordinary magnetic compasses there are many models that differ not only in appearance and size, but also in structure. Which compass to choose from all this diversity?
Of all the variety of magnetic compasses, I could recommend tablet liquid models with a transparent bulb, the presence of a rear sight, a front sight, a mirror and a tilt measurement function. It is desirable that the key symbols on such a compass be painted with glow-in-the-dark paint. Such compasses have a number of advantages over other models:
- tablet models are more convenient to use when working with a map;
- in liquid models, in comparison with the same Adrianov compass, the arrow stabilizes faster, which means that work with it is faster;
- the presence of a rear sight, a front sight and a mirror makes it possible to make measurements more accurately;
- the mirror can be used for its intended purpose, for example, to independently remove a foreign body from the eye, as well as a signal mirror for signaling an overflying aircraft or a passing ship;
- the function of determining the angle of inclination can help in a number of tasks, for example, to approximately determine the latitude of the area in which the person is located;
- glowing in the dark signs make it possible to navigate in the dark, if for some reason it is not possible to use a flashlight.
Many models of compasses with luminous elements contain a special paint that first absorbs light from extraneous sources (such as sunlight or lantern light), and then itself emits light in the visible spectrum. The light from such models is initially clearly visible, but after some time it dims and can only be recognized by eyes accustomed to darkness. Thus, elements painted with a composition containing strontium aluminate lose about 90% of their brightness in the first 60 minutes.
In other, as a rule, more expensive models of compasses, tritium chambers coated with a phosphor are used as luminous elements. Tritium, decaying, excites the atoms of the phosphor, which, passing from the excited state to the normal state, emit light. Such compasses glow in complete darkness without "recharging" from extraneous light sources, and completely "run out of steam" after more than a dozen years, although, of course, their brightness gradually decreases over the course of their service life. It is also important to note here that, despite the fears of people, such compasses are safe for health.
Tritium illuminated compass - easy to read even in the dark.
It is not necessary to buy an expensive compass. In most cases, an inexpensive, working compass that meets some or all of the above criteria will suffice.
Summing up all of the above, it is easy to see that the ability to determine the azimuth on the map and on the ground, as well as the ability to move along it correctly, is one of the basic skills necessary for orientation. It also becomes clear that without a working compass, such a skill will be of little use.
Therefore, in order to confidently navigate and minimize the risk of getting lost in unfamiliar terrain, you should follow two recommendations: practice orienteering more often and work with azimuths in particular, and every time before going on a route, check the compass is working, and preferably two - main and spare.
Determining the azimuth helps in navigating the terrain, allows you to maintain direction and not go astray while traveling through the plains, taiga and other places where there are no landmarks. Suitable for driving at night, in bad weather conditions, when visibility is very low.
How to find azimuth with a map in theory
You can determine the azimuth using a topographic map (calculate the true meridian) or a compass (find the magnetic meridian). When combined, these meridians form an angle called magnetic declination. To find the true azimuth, you must first calculate the magnetic using a compass and add the eastern magnetic declination to the resulting value, or subtract the western declination. It is determined using a reference book, read on the map, if it is indicated.
Calculating the azimuth on the map helps to determine the direction not only for travelers on the ground. This method is used to calculate the route for aircraft, ships. Set the trajectory for land transport in the steppes, deserts, savannahs, where there are no direction indicators and other landmarks.
It is not difficult to determine the azimuth on the map, this is the angle between the meridian and the direction to the place of arrival. On the map, trying to be as accurate as possible, mark the point of their location. It will be the starting coordinate for building the route.
Determination of the azimuth allows you to create the most suitable route for each terrain. If there are no natural, artificial obstacles on the path of the intended route, then the movement is rectilinear. In the event of obstacles, the route is corrected as necessary, and the movement follows a broken path.
Creating a route by azimuth and map
To make a route in azimuth and determine the trajectory of movement, you must have:
- large-scale topographic map;
- ruler;
- pencil;
- protractor, it is preferable to choose a transparent one.
To determine the azimuth on the map, the points of the present location and the final destination are indicated. A ruler is applied to the card. Draw a connecting line between the points with a pencil, crossing the meridians closest to the points. The base of the protractor is applied to the meridian, its arc should be directed towards the landmark (end point). The central risk must be combined with the drawn line. You can determine the azimuth at the intersection of the drawn line and the arc of the protractor, taking readings in degrees.
When determining the route, obstacles encountered that must be avoided (deep ravines, swamps, lakes, various buildings) are taken into account. On the map put down turning points along the entire length of the route and connect them. Points are put down near natural, artificial landmarks in order to better control the consistency of the route. For each segment, it is necessary to find the azimuth using the method described above. If the transition is carried out at night, then landmark points on the map are put down more often.
How to determine the magnetic azimuth
The magnetic azimuth is the angle between the final (defined) point of the route and the direction of the north. Determination of bearing by compass is done like this:
- They stand strictly in the direction of the point of movement (object).
- The compass is placed on a flat surface no higher than chest level, or held in front of you on an outstretched palm.
- The compass is oriented, the dark end of the magnetic needle is combined with the letter C.
- A thin stick (match) is placed on the center of the compass. Its end is directed towards the designated point. The stick is rotated clockwise, not allowing it to move from the center.
- Under the wand, on the limb, they look at the digital value.
You can determine the azimuth within the entire circle, its value sometimes reaches 360 degrees. An azimuth with such an angle is considered zero.
Additionally, you can find bearing using map and compass:
- The compass is placed on the side of the map.
- The card is rotated until the top edge coincides with "C", and the side edge of the card coincides with the direction of the dark end of the magnetic needle.
- Two points are marked on the map - the start and end point, connect them with a line.
- The compass is moved until its center is aligned with the starting point.
- The drawn line will match the digital value of the compass.
This method allows you to find the direct magnetic azimuth. For better orientation on the ground, drawing up a route for the return, they calculate the reverse azimuth. To do this, 180 degrees are subtracted or added from the resulting straight line if the angle found is greater or less than the expanded angle, respectively.
Similarly, the determination of the compass bearing without a map occurs, but in this case it is necessary to represent conditional points and images in the mind, looking at the surroundings from a higher point.
Movement in azimuth with obstacles
When the bearing route has impassable obstacles , then the following should be followed rules:
- On the opposite side of the obstacle, choose the most memorable landmark that passes in the direction of travel.
- Determine the azimuth for the detour.
- If there is no suitable landmark on the reverse side, it must be marked on the spot. To do this, make a notch on a tree trunk, stick a large stick into the ground.
- Go around the obstacle, find the intended landmark. From it, continue moving in azimuth, after checking the direction.
With zero visibility, the obstacle is bypassed with the help of a compass, if the route of movement on the map has not been drawn up before. In front of an impassable area, it is necessary to determine the azimuth for its bypass. Mentally outline the point from which the movement will begin. It is important to observe linearity, moving along and counting the number of pairs of steps.
Having reached the end of the obstacle, it is necessary to turn and determine the azimuth using the compass. Continue further movement, count a couple of steps, maintain linearity. Having completely rounded the obstacle, they return to the original trajectory of movement - they calculate the reverse azimuth, observe the number of pairs of steps from the start of the bypass to the turning point. After returning to the route, continue the path along the direction planned to the obstacle.
How to find the azimuth of the sun
There are situations when it is necessary to navigate the terrain and, apart from a wrist watch, there are no improvised means. In this case, you need to know how determine the azimuth of the sun using the dial:
- Place a clock on a flat surface with the hour hand pointing towards the sun.
- A line is drawn from the center of the dial through "1", the resulting angle is divided in half.
- The bisector drawn indicates the north-south direction. Before noon, north is to the left of the sun, in the afternoon to the right. Therefore, up to 12 hours, the calculation of the azimuth is done by counting the values counterclockwise, after 12 they are counted clockwise.
- The route is made by analogy with a compass.
This allows you to determine the direction of movement with small errors. The azimuth of the sun is measured in degrees from the south to the horizon point at which the luminary is located at different time intervals - before noon in the east, after in the west.
Orientation is the establishment of your coordinates on the map. Most often determined using a compass and a map. With sufficient knowledge - by the stars, the sun, improvised means (watches, homemade compasses). Azimuth is the angle between north and a point on the map. The determination of the azimuth will be needed in the skills of orienteering on the ground. Especially this skill can be relevant in hiking, cycling in the mountains, forests, as well as in various extreme situations.
What is magnetic azimuth
This is a certain angle between the north found on the map, compass and the waypoint to which you need to come. The magnetic bearing is always determined by the clockwise compass. In order for the compass to give correct readings, it is necessary to move as far as possible from magnetic objects that can give incorrect north readings, that is, it is initially incorrect to set the route.
How to determine the bearing on the map and compass
- In order to determine the azimuth, you will need a working compass and a map of the area.
- Azimuth covers all 360 degrees on the compass marks on hourly direction arrows.
- First you need to choose the right direction in which the movement will occur. The azimuth angle is calculated from it.
- The person becomes a face in the direction of the landmark. Holds a map and compass in front of him.
- The compass needle is held on the brake. This brake must be released so that the magnetized needle finds the north pole on its own. It is not recommended to stand near iron structures or carry iron objects while using the compass. There is a good chance that the compass needle will give incorrect readings.
- The compass lies on the map, and its north marks coincide with the map marks.
- Sets its location and the selected landmark.
- Next, the sight is used. With its help, the desired direction is fixed on the compass, which should be followed.
- The angle between the north-pointing arrow and the reference point will be called the azimuth.
- A compass with a built-in ruler and a lock of the selected direction will be very convenient and more correct.
- The route definition may fluctuate in accuracy.
How to determine the azimuth - movement in azimuth
- To do this, you need to examine the selected area passing along the route. Determine how you can move more correctly so as not to lose sight of landmarks. Might be worth doing a little research.
- For convenience, a non-bold dotted line marks the route on the map.
- The progress of the movement is noted on a separate piece of paper.
- When the movement has reached the next mark, you should choose the next landmark, and also make notes on the progress sheet.
- The compass reads off from time to time. Do not forget to update the compass settings when you reach the point.
How to determine the azimuth - landmarks
There are three types of landmarks: point, line and areal. Very noticeable lonely standing trees, poles, windmills are suitable for the role of point landmarks. The point is permanently static, without moving. If we are talking about a larger-scale orientation, then these can be settlements, forests, lakes, such landmarks are called areal. There are also linear landmarks - roads, groves, forests, going in length, not in width.
It is very important to notice the correct landmarks for yourself even in the daytime. If the matter is approaching evening, it is better to think about parking and lodging for the night. There is a huge chance of getting lost when moving at dusk. Selected landmarks for better memorization are marked on the progress sheet.
It is not always possible to continue moving in a straight line. Therefore, notes are made of all their possible movement, including deviations. The compass is reconfigured for each next section. Scheme of actions on the way: pole - setting - tree - setting.
A very important skill will be the correct indication of targets on the ground or map. This skill is especially important if you need to transmit data via communication (walkie-talkie) to determine your location relative to another person. A well-chosen landmark can also help competitors to find the right areas indicated by a given plan.
