Entertainment and leisure contain elements of an economic, labor, educational, aesthetic, religious nature. Their main tasks were to strengthen the unity of the people and preserve the originality of culture.
What language is spoken in Bashkiria?
The Bashkirs speak Bashkir, which combines features from the Kypchak, Tatar, Bulgar, Arabic, Persian and Russian languages. It is also the official language of Bashkortostan, but it is also spoken in other regions of the Russian Federation.
The Bashkir language is divided into Kuvank, Burzyan, Yurmatin dialects and many others. There are only phonetic differences between them, but despite this, the Bashkirs and Tatars easily understand each other.
The modern Bashkir language took shape in the mid-1920s. Most of the vocabulary consists of words of ancient Turkic origin. There are no prepositions, prefixes and gender in the Bashkir language. Words are formed with the help of affixes. Stress plays a big role in pronunciation.
Until the 1940s, the Bashkirs used the Volga Central Asian script, and then switched to Cyrillic.
Bashkiria within the USSR
Before joining Bashkiria, it consisted of cantons - territorial-administrative units. The Bashkir ASSR was the first autonomous republic on the territory of the former USSR. It was formed on March 23, 1919 and was administered from Sterlitamak in the Ufa province due to the lack of an urban settlement in the Orenburg province.
On March 27, 1925, the Constitution was adopted, according to which the Bashkir ASSR retained the canton structure, and the people could, along with Russian, use the Bashkir language in all spheres of public life.
On December 24, 1993, after the dissolution of the Supreme Council of Russia, the Republic of Bashkortostan adopts a new Constitution.
Bashkir people
In the second millennium BC. e. the territory of modern Bashkortostan was inhabited by the ancient Bashkir tribes of the Caucasoid race. Many peoples lived on the territory of the Southern Urals and the steppes around it, which influenced the customs and traditions of the Bashkirs. Iranian-speaking Sarmatians lived in the south - pastoralists, and in the north - landowners-hunters, the ancestors of the future Finno-Ugric peoples.
The beginning of the first millennium was marked by the arrival of the Mongol tribes, who paid great attention to the culture and appearance of the Bashkirs.
After the Golden Horde was defeated, the Bashkirs fell under the rule of three khanates - Siberian, Nogai and Kazan.
The formation of the Bashkir people ended in the 9th-10th centuries AD. e., and after joining the Muscovite state in the 15th century, the Bashkirs rallied and the name of the territory inhabited by the people was established - Bashkiria.
Of all the world religions, Islam and Christianity are the most widespread, which had an important influence on the Bashkir folk customs.
The way of life was semi-nomadic and, accordingly, housing was temporary and nomadic. Permanent Bashkir houses, depending on the locality, could be stone brick or log houses, which had windows, in contrast to temporary ones, where the latter were absent. The photo above shows a traditional Bashkir house - a yurt.
What was the traditional Bashkir family like?
Until the 19th century, a small family dominated among the Bashkirs. But it was often possible to meet an undivided family, where married sons lived with their father and mother. The reason is the presence of common economic interests. Usually families were monogamous, but it was not uncommon to find a family where a man had several wives - with bays or representatives of the clergy. Bashkirs from less prosperous families remarried if the wife was childless, became seriously ill and could not take part in household work, or the man remained a widower.
The head of the Bashkir family was the father - he gave orders regarding not only property, but also the fate of the children, and his word was decisive in all matters.
Bashkir women had different positions in the family, depending on their age. Everyone revered and respected the mother of the family, along with the head of the family, she was initiated into all family matters, and she supervised household chores.
After the marriage of a son (or sons), the burden of household chores fell on the shoulders of the daughter-in-law, and the mother-in-law only followed her work. The young woman had to prepare food for the whole family, clean the house, take care of clothes and look after the livestock. In some regions of Bashkiria, the daughter-in-law did not have the right to show her face to other family members. This situation was explained by the dogmas of religion. But the Bashkirs still had some degree of independence - if she was mistreated, she could demand a divorce and take away the property that was given to her as a dowry. Life after the divorce did not bode well - the husband had the right not to give up the children or demand a ransom from her family. In addition, she could not remarry.
Today, many traditions associated with the wedding are being revived. One of them - the bride and groom put on the Bashkir national costume. Its main features were layering and variety of colors. It was made from home cloth, felt, sheepskin, leather, fur, hemp and nettle canvas.
What holidays do Bashkirs celebrate?
The customs and traditions of the Bashkirs are vividly reflected in the holidays. They can be conditionally divided into:
- State - New Year, Defender of the Fatherland Day, Flag Day, Ufa City Day, Republic Day, Constitution Adoption Day.
- Religious - Uraza Bayram (holiday of the completion of fasting in Ramadan); Kurban Bayram (holiday of sacrifice); Mawlid an Nabi (Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad).
- National - Yinyn, Kargatuy, Sabantuy, Kyakuk Syaye.
State and religious holidays are celebrated in almost the same way throughout the country, and there are practically no traditions and rituals of the Bashkirs in them. Unlike them, national ones fully reflect the culture of the nation.
Sabantuy, or Khabantuy, was celebrated after sowing work from about the end of May to the end of June. Long before the holiday, a group of young people went from house to house and collected prizes and decorated the square - Maidan, where all the festive events were supposed to take place. The most valuable prize was considered to be a towel made by a young daughter-in-law, since a woman was a symbol of the renewal of the family, and the holiday was dedicated to the renewal of the earth. In the center of the Maidan, a pole was installed, which was smeared with oil, and an embroidered towel fluttered at the top, which was considered a prize, and only the most dexterous could climb up to it and take it. There were many different amusements on Sabantuy - wrestling with sacks of hay or wool on a log, running with an egg in a spoon or sacks, but jumps and wrestling were considered the main ones - kuresh, in which the rivals tried to knock down or pull the opponent with a wrapped towel. The aksakals watched the wrestlers, and the winner - the batyr - received a slaughtered ram. After the struggle on the Maidan, they sang songs and danced.
Kargatuy, or Karga Butkahy, is a holiday of the awakening of nature, which had different scenarios depending on the geographical location. But common traditions can be considered the cooking of millet porridge. It was held in nature and was accompanied not only by a collective meal, but also by feeding birds. This pagan holiday existed even before Islam - the Bashkirs turned to the gods with a request for rain. Kargatuy also could not do without dances, songs and sports competitions.
Kyakuk Saye was a women's holiday and also had pagan roots. It was celebrated by the river or on the mountain. It was celebrated from May to July. Women with treats went to the place of celebration, each made a wish and listened to the bird chirping. If it is loud, then the wish was fulfilled. Various games were also held at the festival.
Yinyn was a men's holiday, as only men took part in it. It was celebrated on the day of the summer equinox after the people's meeting, at which important issues on the affairs of the village were decided. The council ended with a holiday, for which they prepared in advance. Later it became a common holiday in which both men and women participated.
What wedding customs and traditions do the Bashkirs observe?
Both family and wedding traditions were formed under the influence of social and economic changes in society.
Bashkirs could marry relatives no closer than the fifth generation. The age of marriage for girls is 14 years, and for boys it is 16. With the advent of the USSR, the age was increased to 18 years.
The Bashkir wedding took place in 3 stages - matchmaking, marriage and the holiday itself.
Respected people from the groom's family or the father himself went to woo the girl. Upon agreement, kalym, wedding expenses and the size of the dowry were discussed. Often, children were wooed while still babies and, having discussed their future, the parents reinforced their words with bata - koumiss or honey diluted with water, which was drunk from one bowl.
The feelings of the young were not considered and they could easily pass the girl off as an old man, since marriage was often concluded on the basis of material considerations.
After collusion, families could visit each other's houses. The visits were accompanied by matchmaking feasts, and only men could take part in them, and in some regions of Bashkiria even women.
After most of the bride price was paid, the bride's relatives came to the groom's house, and a feast was held in honor of this.
The next stage is the marriage ceremony, which took place in the bride's house. Here the mullah read a prayer and declared the young husband and wife. From that moment until the full payment of the kalym, the husband had the right to visit his wife.
After the dowry was paid in full, the wedding (tui) took place in the house of the bride's parents. On the appointed day, guests came from the side of the girl and the groom came with his family and relatives. Usually the wedding lasted three days - on the first day everyone was treated by the bride's side, on the second - by the groom. On the third day, the young wife left her father's house. On the first two days, horse races, wrestling and games were held, and on the third, ritual songs and traditional lamentations were performed. Before leaving, the bride went around the houses of relatives and gave them gifts - fabrics, woolen threads, scarves and towels. In return, she was given cattle, poultry or money. After that, the girl said goodbye to her parents. She was accompanied by one of her relatives - her maternal uncle, older brother or friend, and a matchmaker was with her to the groom's house. The wedding train was led by the groom's family.
After the young woman crossed the threshold of a new house, she had to kneel three times in front of her father-in-law and mother-in-law, and then distribute gifts to everyone.
On the morning after the wedding, accompanied by the youngest girl in the house, the young wife went to the local source for water and threw a silver coin there.
Before the birth of the child, the daughter-in-law avoided her husband's parents, hid her face and did not talk to them.
In addition to the traditional wedding, bride kidnappings were not uncommon. Similar wedding traditions of the Bashkirs took place in poor families, who thus wanted to avoid wedding expenses.
Birthing rites
The news of the pregnancy was received with joy in the family. From that moment on, the woman was freed from hard physical labor, and she was protected from experiences. It was believed that if she looked at everything beautiful, then the child would certainly be born beautiful.
During childbirth, a midwife was invited, and all other family members left the house for a while. If necessary, only the husband could visit the woman in labor. The midwife was considered the second mother of the child and therefore enjoyed great honor and respect. She entered the house on her right foot and wished the woman an easy delivery. If the birth was difficult, then a series of ceremonies were performed - in front of the woman in labor they shook an empty leather bag or lightly beat them on the back, washed them with water, which was used to wipe the sacred books.
After the birth, the midwife performed the following maternity rite - she cut the umbilical cord on a book, board or boot, as they were considered amulets, then the umbilical cord and placenta were dried, wrapped in a clean cloth (kefen) and buried in a secluded place. Washed things that were used during childbirth were also buried there.
The newborn was immediately placed in the cradle, and the midwife gave him a temporary name, and on the 3rd, 6th or 40th day a holiday of naming (isem tuyy) was held. The mullah, relatives and neighbors were invited to the holiday. The mullah put the newborn on the pillow in the direction of the Kaaba and read his or her name in turn in both ears. Then lunch was served with national dishes. During the ceremony, the baby's mother presented gifts to the midwife, mother-in-law and her mother - a dress, a scarf, a shawl or money.
One of the elderly women, most often a neighbor, cut off a bundle of the child's hair and laid it between the pages of the Koran. Since then, she was considered the “hairy” mother of the baby. Two weeks after birth, the father shaved off the baby's hair, and they were kept together with the umbilical cord.
If a boy was born in the family, then in addition to the naming ceremony, a sunnat was performed - circumcision. It was carried out at 5-6 months or from 1 year to 10 years. The ceremony was obligatory, and it could be performed both by the eldest man in the family and by a specially hired person - a babai. He went from one village to another and offered his services for a nominal fee. Before circumcision, a prayer was read, and after or a few days later a holiday was held - sunnat tui.
How was the deceased seen off?
Islam had a great influence on the funeral and memorial rites of the Bashkirs. But you could also meet elements of pre-Islamic beliefs.
The funeral process included five stages:
- rituals associated with the protection of the deceased;
- preparation for burial;
- seeing off the deceased;
- burial;
- commemoration.
If a person was near death, then a mullah or a person who knew prayers was invited to him, and he read Surah Yasin from the Koran. Muslims believe that this will ease the suffering of the dying and drive away evil spirits from him.
If a person had already died, then they laid him on a hard surface, stretched his arms along the body and put something hard on his chest over his clothes or a sheet of paper with a prayer from the Koran. The deceased was considered dangerous, and therefore he was guarded, and they tried to bury him as quickly as possible - if he died in the morning, then before noon, and if in the afternoon, then before the first half of the next day. One of the remnants of pre-Islamic times is to bring alms to the deceased, which was then distributed to those in need. It was possible to see the face of the deceased before washing. The body was washed by special people who were considered important along with the grave diggers. They were also given the most expensive gifts. When they began to dig a niche in the grave, then the process of washing the deceased began, in which from 4 to 8 people took part. First, the washing people performed a ritual ablution, and then they washed the deceased, doused them with water and wiped them dry. Then the deceased was wrapped in three layers in a shroud made of nettle or hemp fabric, and a leaf was placed between the layers so that the deceased could answer the questions of the angels. For the same purpose, the inscription “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is His Prophet” was imitated on the chest of the deceased. The shroud was tied with a rope or strips of fabric over the head, in the belt and on the knees. If it was a woman, then before wrapping in a shroud, she was put on a scarf, bib and trousers. After washing, the deceased was transferred to a bast covered with a curtain or carpet.
When carrying out the dead, livestock or money was given as a gift to someone who would pray for the soul of the deceased. They usually turned out to be a mullah, and alms were distributed to all those present. According to popular beliefs, so that the deceased did not return, he was carried forward with his feet. After the removal, the house and things were washed. When there were 40 steps left to the cemetery gates, a special prayer was read - yinaza prayer. Before the burial, a prayer was again read, and the deceased was lowered into the grave on hands or towels and laid facing the Kaaba. The niche was covered with boards so that the earth would not fall on the deceased.
After the last clod of earth fell on the grave, everyone sat around the mound and the mullah read a prayer, and at the end alms were distributed.
The funeral process was completed by a commemoration. They, unlike funerals, were not religiously regulated. They were celebrated on the 3rd, 7th, 40th day and a year later. On the table, in addition to national dishes, there was always fried food, since the Bashkirs believed that this smell drove away evil spirits and helped the deceased easily answer the questions of angels. After the memorial meal, at the first commemoration, alms were distributed to everyone who participated in the funeral - the mullah, who guarded the deceased, washed and dug the grave. Often, in addition to shirts, bibs and other things, they gave skeins of thread, which, according to ancient beliefs, symbolized the transmigration of the soul with their help. The second commemoration was arranged on the 7th day and took place in the same way as the first.
The commemoration on the 40th day was the main one, since it was believed that until that moment the soul of the deceased wandered around the house, and on the 40th it finally left this world. Therefore, all relatives were invited to such a commemoration and a generous table was laid: "guests were received as matchmakers." A horse, a ram or a heifer was necessarily slaughtered and national dishes were served. The invited mullah read prayers and alms were distributed.
The commemoration was repeated a year later, which completed the funeral rite.
What customs of mutual assistance did the Bashkirs have?
The customs and traditions of the Bashkirs also included mutual assistance. Usually they preceded the holidays, but they could also be a separate phenomenon. The most popular are Kaz Umakhe (Goose help) and Kis Ultyryu (Evening gatherings).
Under Kaz Umakh, a few days before the holidays, the hostess went around the houses of other women she knew and invited them to help her. Everyone happily agreed and, having put on all the most beautiful, gathered in the house of the inviter.
An interesting hierarchy was observed here - the owner killed the geese, the women plucked, and the young girls washed the birds at the hole. Young men were waiting for the girls on the shore, who played the harmonica and sang songs. Back to the house, the girls and the boys returned together, and while the hostess was preparing a rich soup with goose noodles, the invitees played “forfeits”. To do this, things were collected from the girls in advance - ribbons, combs, scarves, rings, and the driver asked a question to one of the girls who stood with her back to her: “What is the task for the owner of this phantom?” Among them were things like singing, dancing, telling a story, playing the kubyz or looking at the stars with any of the young people.
The mistress of the house invited her relatives to Kis Ultyryu. The girls were engaged in sewing, knitting and embroidery.
Having finished the brought work, the girls helped the hostess. Folk legends and fairy tales were necessarily told, music sounded, songs were sung and dances were performed. The hostess served tea, sweets and pies to the guests.
What dishes are national?
The Bashkir national cuisine was formed under the influence of wintering in the villages and the nomadic lifestyle in summer. Distinctive features - a large amount of meat and the absence of a large amount of spices.
It led to the emergence of a large number of dishes of long-term storage - horse meat and lamb in boiled, dried and dried form, dried berries and cereals, honey and fermented milk products - horse sausage (kazy), fermented milk drink from mare's milk (koumiss), bird cherry oil (muyyl mayi ).
Traditional dishes include beshbarmak (meat and large noodle soup), vak-belish (meat and potato pies), tukmas (goose meat soup with thin noodles), tutyrlgan tauk (stuffed chicken), kuyrylgan (potato salad, fish, pickles, mayonnaise and herbs wrapped in an omelet).
Bashkir culture today is a reflection of the historical path of the people, which as a result has absorbed only the best.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Bashkir national dwelling- buildings, places of residence of the Bashkirs.
Story
Archaeological research shows that dwellings appeared on the territory of the Republic of Bashkortostan in the Stone Age.
Dwellings were arranged at different times according to the level of development of the population:
- In the Paleolithic - in caves, rock crevices with log ceilings (Surtandin sites).
- In the Neolithic and Eneolithic - dugouts were built
- In the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, ground log buildings, dugouts and semi-dugouts with 1-4 pitched roofs were built. The dwellings had open hearths, about 1 meter deep, and utility pits.
Cultures of the Bronze Age:
- The population of the Srubna culture built dugouts, semi-dugouts, ground dwellings of a rectangular or oval pillar structure made of logs, with a 1- or 2-pitched roof (Tavlykaev settlement).
- The population of the Fedorovka culture built semi-dugouts and ground dwellings of a pillar construction of a square or rectangular shape;
- The population of the Petrine culture built rectangular ground dwellings;
- The population of the Alakul, Prikazan, Cherkaskul, Gamayun, Pyanyobor, Imenkov cultures built above-ground log-frame log frame structures with outbuildings.
Leading a nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyle, the Bashkirs needed permanent and temporary dwellings. Accordingly, permanent and temporary dwellings were built. Temporary dwellings were built in the summer camps of the Bashkirs. These included yurts; conical bark, bast, birch bark cone huts-plagues; booths; log huts (burama); koshom tents (satyr), felt tents kosh. On the southern spurs of the Ural Mountains in the Zilairsky, Zianchurinsky and Kugarchinsky regions of the Republic of Belarus, prefabricated alasyks were built. Yurt was a universal dwelling.
Permanent dwellings were built of frame construction. The gaps were filled with wood, earth, clay, straw, adobe. The foundation was log, made of stones or stone slabs. The floor is planked, sometimes earthen silt made of adobe. Roofs on slats or rafters. To protect the coating from decay, the roofs were made without gables. In the mountain-forest regions of Bashkortostan, there were no ridge logs on the roofs. As a utility room for cooking and storing food, asalyk was built from bast, tyn or wattle fence with the house.
In the 19th century, depending on the places of settlement, the Bashkirs built houses of the following types: stone - rectangular in shape with higher facade walls; log cabins - a 4-walled hut (dүrt mөyөshlo өy, һynar yort) with a canopy (solan); adobe (saman өy) - made of raw bricks, with a flat or sloping roof; wattle - from stakes braided with willow and smeared inside and out with clay; sod or plast houses (kas өy) - from turf laid down with grass. Sod for strengthening was laid with poles.
The permanent dwellings had windows. According to the beliefs of the Bashkirs, one could be exposed to a severe evil eye through them, so one should not talk through the window.
Yurt
Bashkirs built yurts from wool, wood and leather. In its lower part there was a lattice fastened with straps. Above is a wooden circle for the passage of smoke and light. A curtain (sharshau) divided the yurt into two parts. The right, smaller part was female, it had a bedroom with household items, clothes and supplies. The left part was for men - a guest room.
The entrance to the yurt was located on the south side.
home decoration
The red color had a protective function among the Bashkirs. The frame of the yurt and the door were painted red-brown to make them impassable for impure forces.
The facade of the house was decorated more than the side facing the courtyard. Starting from the 19th century, the windows of the Bashkir huts were decorated with decorative platbands with patterns based on motifs that have symbolic meanings (rhombus and circle). Particular attention was paid to the decoration of their upper parts. The window board was ornamented with notched carvings, rhombuses, and squares. The main distinguishing feature in the design of modern architraves is coloring. Contrasting colors are most often chosen: dark and light. If the platband is painted in dark colors (dark blue), then the overhead figures are light, and vice versa.
The Bashkirs used embroidered carpets, towels, festive clothes, jewelry, hunting accessories, horse harness and weapons to decorate the inside of their dwellings.
Interior decoration
The northern part of the Bashkir dwelling, opposite the entrance, was considered the main one and was intended for guests. In the center of the dwelling there was a hearth, above it - a smoke hole. If the hearth was in the courtyard, then a tablecloth was spread in the center of the dwelling, pillows, soft bedding, saddlecloths were laid out around it. There were rugs and pillows on the floor. Textiles, carpets, rugs, felts, tablecloths, curtains, napkins and towels had a semantic meaning in the house - they made the house a protected area.
In the male part of the dwelling there were chests on wooden stands with rugs, felt mats, blankets, pillows, mattresses. Holiday clothes were hung on the walls. In a conspicuous place are saddles, inlaid harness, a bow in a leather case and arrows in a quiver, a saber. Kitchen utensils flaunted on the women's side.
The main accessories were wooden bunks on props. The bunks were covered with felts and rugs, pillows, mattresses, and quilted blankets. They slept and ate on the bunks. The edges of the bunks were decorated with geometric ornaments with symbolic rhombuses denoting the four cardinal directions.
In permanent dwellings, heat in the house during the cold season was provided by a stove. The most common form of stove was the chimney stove (suval). According to the ancient ideas of the Bashkirs, a brownie lives in the oven, and through the chimney the shaitan can enter the house. Therefore, all openings in the furnaces after the firebox were closed. Stoves are also installed in modern Bashkir houses in case centralized heating ends.
Museums
Materials on the history of the Bashkir dwelling are presented in the museums of the Republic of Belarus:
- Museum of Chelyabinsk University
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Literature
- Bashkir encyclopedia. Ch. ed. M. A. Ilgamov vol. 1. A-B. 2005. - 624 p.; ISBN 5-88185-053-X. v. 2. V-Zh. 2006. −624 p. ISBN 5-88185-062-9.; v. 3. Z-K. 2007. −672 p. ISBN 978-5-88185-064-7.; v. 4. L-O. 2008. −672 p. ISBN 978-5-88185-068-5.; v. 5. P-S. 2009. −576 p. ISBN 978-5-88185-072-2.; v. 6. Councils of people. economy. -U. 2010. −544 p. ISBN 978-5-88185-071-5; v. 7. F-Ya. 2011. −624 p. scientific. ed. Bashkir Encyclopedia, Ufa.
- Rudenko S. I. "Bashkirs: Experience of an ethnological monograph". Part 2. Life of the Bashkirs. L., 1925
- Rudenko S. I. Bashkirs: Historical and ethnographic essays. M.-L., 1955;
- Shitova S. N. Traditional settlements and dwellings of the Bashkirs. M., 1984.
- Maslennikova T. A. Artistic design of the Bashkir people's dwelling. Ufa: Gilem, 1998. 9.6 pp.
Links
- wiki02.ru/encyclopedia/zhilishhe/t/4736
- www.rbwoman.ru/node/108
- www.ufa-gid.com/encyclopedia/gili.html
- www.360gu.ru/?p=638
- www.kraeved-samara.ru/archives/2420
- discollection.ru/article/08082011_maslennikovata/5
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An excerpt characterizing the Bashkir national dwelling
In the abandoned tavern, in front of which stood the doctor's wagon, there were already about five officers. Marya Genrikhovna, a plump blond German woman in a blouse and nightcap, was sitting in the front corner on a wide bench. Her husband, the doctor, slept behind her. Rostov and Ilyin, greeted with cheerful exclamations and laughter, entered the room.- AND! what fun you have, ”said Rostov, laughing.
- And what are you yawning?
- Good! So it flows from them! Don't wet our living room.
“Don’t get Marya Genrikhovna’s dress dirty,” the voices answered.
Rostov and Ilyin hurried to find a corner where, without violating the modesty of Marya Genrikhovna, they could change their wet clothes. They went behind the partition to change their clothes; but in a small closet, filling it all up, with one candle on an empty box, three officers were sitting, playing cards, and would not give up their place for anything. Marya Genrikhovna gave up her skirt for a while in order to use it instead of a curtain, and behind this curtain, Rostov and Ilyin, with the help of Lavrushka, who brought packs, took off their wet and put on a dry dress.
A fire was kindled in the broken stove. They took out a board and, having fixed it on two saddles, covered it with a blanket, took out a samovar, a cellar and half a bottle of rum, and, asking Marya Genrikhovna to be the hostess, everyone crowded around her. Who offered her a clean handkerchief to wipe her lovely hands, who put a Hungarian coat under her legs so that it would not be damp, who curtained the window with a raincoat so that it would not blow, who fanned the flies from her husband’s face so that he would not wake up.
“Leave him alone,” said Marya Genrikhovna, smiling timidly and happily, “he sleeps well after a sleepless night.
“It’s impossible, Marya Genrikhovna,” answered the officer, “you must serve the doctor.” Everything, maybe, and he will take pity on me when he cuts his leg or arm.
There were only three glasses; the water was so dirty that it was impossible to decide when the tea was strong or weak, and there was only six glasses of water in the samovar, but it was all the more pleasant, in turn and seniority, to receive your glass from Marya Genrikhovna’s plump hands with short, not quite clean nails . All the officers really seemed to be in love with Marya Genrikhovna that evening. Even those officers who were playing cards behind the partition soon gave up the game and went over to the samovar, obeying the general mood of wooing Marya Genrikhovna. Marya Genrikhovna, seeing herself surrounded by such brilliant and courteous youth, beamed with happiness, no matter how hard she tried to hide it and no matter how obviously shy at every sleepy movement of her husband sleeping behind her.
There was only one spoon, there was most of the sugar, but they did not have time to stir it, and therefore it was decided that she would stir the sugar in turn for everyone. Rostov, having received his glass and poured rum into it, asked Marya Genrikhovna to stir it.
- Are you without sugar? she said, smiling all the time, as if everything she said, and everything others said, was very funny and had another meaning.
- Yes, I don’t need sugar, I just want you to stir with your pen.
Marya Genrikhovna agreed and began to look for the spoon, which someone had already seized.
- You're a finger, Marya Genrikhovna, - said Rostov, - it will be even more pleasant.
- Hot! said Marya Genrikhovna, blushing with pleasure.
Ilyin took a bucket of water and, dropping rum into it, came to Marya Genrikhovna, asking her to stir it with her finger.
“This is my cup,” he said. - Just put your finger in, I'll drink it all.
When the samovar was all drunk, Rostov took the cards and offered to play kings with Marya Genrikhovna. A lot was cast as to who should form the party of Marya Genrikhovna. The rules of the game, at the suggestion of Rostov, were that the one who would be the king had the right to kiss the hand of Marya Genrikhovna, and that the one who remained a scoundrel would go to put a new samovar for the doctor when he wakes up.
“Well, what if Marya Genrikhovna becomes king?” Ilyin asked.
- She's a queen! And her orders are the law.
The game had just begun, when the doctor's confused head suddenly rose from behind Marya Genrikhovna. He had not slept for a long time and listened to what was said, and apparently did not find anything cheerful, funny or amusing in everything that was said and done. His face was sad and dejected. He did not greet the officers, scratched himself and asked for permission to leave, as he was blocked from the road. As soon as he left, all the officers burst into loud laughter, and Marya Genrikhovna blushed to tears, and thus became even more attractive to the eyes of all the officers. Returning from the courtyard, the doctor told his wife (who had already ceased to smile so happily and, fearfully awaiting the verdict, looked at him) that the rain had passed and that we had to go to spend the night in a wagon, otherwise they would all be dragged away.
- Yes, I'll send a messenger ... two! Rostov said. - Come on, doctor.
"I'll be on my own!" Ilyin said.
“No, gentlemen, you slept well, but I haven’t slept for two nights,” said the doctor, and sat down gloomily beside his wife, waiting for the game to be over.
Looking at the gloomy face of the doctor, looking askance at his wife, the officers became even more cheerful, and many could not help laughing, for which they hastily tried to find plausible pretexts. When the doctor left, taking his wife away, and got into the wagon with her, the officers lay down in the tavern, covering themselves with wet overcoats; but they didn’t sleep for a long time, now talking, remembering the doctor’s fright and the doctor’s merriment, now running out onto the porch and reporting what was happening in the wagon. Several times Rostov, wrapping himself up, wanted to fall asleep; but again someone's remark amused him, again the conversation began, and again there was heard the causeless, cheerful, childish laughter.
At three o'clock, no one had yet fallen asleep, when the sergeant-major appeared with the order to march to the town of Ostrovna.
All with the same accent and laughter, the officers hurriedly began to gather; again put the samovar on the dirty water. But Rostov, without waiting for tea, went to the squadron. It was already light; The rain stopped, the clouds dispersed. It was damp and cold, especially in a damp dress. Leaving the tavern, Rostov and Ilyin both looked in the twilight of dawn into the doctor's leather tent, glossy from the rain, from under the apron of which the doctor's legs stuck out and in the middle of which the doctor's bonnet was visible on the pillow and sleepy breathing was heard.
"Really, she's very nice!" Rostov said to Ilyin, who was leaving with him.
- What a lovely woman! Ilyin replied with sixteen-year-old seriousness.
Half an hour later, the lined up squadron stood on the road. The command was heard: “Sit down! The soldiers crossed themselves and began to sit down. Rostov, riding forward, commanded: “March! - and, stretching out in four people, the hussars, sounding with the slapping of hooves on the wet road, the strumming of sabers and in a low voice, set off along the large road lined with birches, following the infantry and the battery walking ahead.
Broken blue-lilac clouds, reddening at sunrise, were quickly driven by the wind. It got brighter and brighter. One could clearly see that curly grass that always sits along country roads, still wet from yesterday's rain; the hanging branches of the birch trees, also wet, swayed in the wind and dropped light drops to the side. The faces of the soldiers became clearer and clearer. Rostov rode with Ilyin, who did not lag behind him, along the side of the road, between a double row of birches.
Rostov in the campaign allowed himself the freedom to ride not on a front-line horse, but on a Cossack. Both a connoisseur and a hunter, he recently got himself a dashing Don, large and kind playful horse, on which no one jumped him. Riding this horse was a pleasure for Rostov. He thought of the horse, of the morning, of the doctor's wife, and never once thought of the impending danger.
Before, Rostov, going into business, was afraid; now he did not feel the least sense of fear. Not because he was not afraid that he was accustomed to fire (one cannot get used to danger), but because he had learned to control his soul in the face of danger. He was accustomed, going into business, to think about everything, except for what seemed to be more interesting than anything else - about the impending danger. No matter how hard he tried, or reproached himself for cowardice during the first time of his service, he could not achieve this; but over the years it has now become self-evident. He was now riding beside Ilyin between the birches, occasionally tearing leaves from the branches that came to hand, sometimes touching the horse's groin with his foot, sometimes giving, without turning, his smoked pipe to the hussar who was riding behind, with such a calm and carefree look, as if he were riding ride. It was a pity for him to look at the agitated face of Ilyin, who spoke a lot and uneasily; he knew from experience that agonizing state of expectation of fear and death in which the cornet was, and he knew that nothing but time would help him.
Bashkir life
By the beginning of the 19th century, Bashkir villages consisted of one, less often two or three streets. The public center was a mosque with a conical minaret.
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At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, a wide variety of structures could be found near the southeastern Bashkirs, ranging from a bark conical hut to log huts. Along with log, sod, adobe, i.e., from raw brick, wattle or stone, built of wattle, fortified with clay, there were various types of light nomadic dwellings. |
Inside the wagon was usually separated by a special curtain ( sharashu) the right female half, where household utensils and products were placed; on the left, male half, there were chests with property, felt mats were spread out, pillows were lying, outerwear, towels, weapons, horse harness hung on the walls. In the center of the wagon, in bad weather, a fire was lit: the smoke from the fire went out through the open door.
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The southeastern Bashkirs in the mountainous forest area installed small log huts on summer camps ( burama). Burama- this is a simple log house, single-chamber, with a two-hundred roof, with an earthen floor, without a ceiling. This dwelling had no windows, the walls were not caulked, there were many cracks through which light passed. In such huts, the hearth was located in one of the corners at the entrance. Burama was not a portable dwelling, the abundance of building material allowed the Bashkirs to have such log cabins at every summer camp. |
CLOTH
The Bashkir men's costume in the last century was the same for all regions. A spacious and long shirt with a wide turn-down collar and long sleeves, as well as trousers with a wide step, served as underwear and at the same time outerwear. Over the shirt they wore a short sleeveless jacket ( camisole). When going outside, they usually wore a dressing gown made of dark fabric. In the cold season, the Bashkirs wore sheepskin coats ( dash toon), short fur coats ( bille thun) and cloth robes.
Skullcaps were everyday headwear for men. In the cold season, felt hats or fur hats were worn. In the steppe regions, warm malakhais were worn during winter snowstorms ( Malachai) with a small crown and a wide blade that covered the back of the head and ears.
The most common footwear among the southeastern Bashkirs, as well as among the Trans-Urals, were saryk boots with soft leather heads and hems and high cloth or chrome tops. Leather shoes and boots were also common ( itek). Older men, usually nobles and members of the clergy, wore soft boots ( sitek). Leaving the house, leather or rubber galoshes were worn over them.
Women's clothing was more varied. The underwear of the Bashkirs were dresses and bloomers ( yshtan). Married women wore a chest band under their dress until they were very old. A fitted sleeveless jacket was worn over the dress ( camisole), trimmed with rows of braids, plaques and coins. In the north of Bashkortostan in the 19th century, a canvas apron became widespread.
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Dark robes, slightly fitted at the waist, were worn everywhere. Braid, coins, pendants, beads were sewn onto festive velvet robes. In winter, rich Bashkirs wore fur coats made of expensive fur - martens, foxes, beavers, otters (basa tun). The less affluent wore warm robes made of white homemade cloth or sheepskin coats.
The most common women's headdress was a small cotton scarf. The southeastern Bashkirs, like the Trans-Urals, for a long time after the wedding wore a veil of two uncut factory scarves of red color with a large pattern. In the south-east of Bashkortostan, married women wore high fur hats over a headscarf. One of the ancient headdresses of a married woman was. This is a cap with a round neckline at the top and a long vane going down the back. It was richly decorated with corals, plaques, silver coins and pendants.
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Downy and woolen shawls were worn everywhere. There were hemp shawls.
Women's shoes differed little from men's. These are leather shoes, boots, shoes with canvas tops.
Stockings were the common footwear for men and women. The Bashkirs had three types of stockings: knitted, woolen, cloth and felt.
In the late XIX - early XX centuries, under the influence of the urban population, the Bashkirs began to sew clothes from woolen and cotton fabrics. They buy shoes, hats and factory-made clothes. However, traditional folk clothing continued to play a leading role.
UTENSIL
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leather utensils |
Leather dishes were made from the skins of many domestic animals: horses, cows, bulls, sheep, calves, goats. Among these materials, the Bashkirs preferred horse skins, especially when making koumiss vessels, since they were distinguished by strength and moisture resistance. In the manufacture of vessels, the entire skin of the horse was utilized. A large vessel was made from the skin of the body ( saba) for the preparation and maintenance of koumiss, with a capacity of up to 12-13 buckets. In the 1960s, old people said that at the end of the 19th century in the southeast saba preserved in the most prosperous households. Difficult to manufacture, this vessel, due to uselessness in the economy, gradually fell into disuse earlier than other types of traditional dishes. Large vessels were made from horse skin, in which koumiss was served. Pads were made from the skin of the horse's head. Horse skin was also used to make leather pack bags, travel flasks with a narrow bottom ( mortai), a bucket and Adam's apples, vessels for churning butter and hiking bags. |
The southeastern Bashkirs also made wineskins from the whole skin of a sheep, goat, and calf. These most ancient vessels of nomads among the Bashkirs at the beginning of the 19th century were extremely rare.
From the skin of a foal, a goat, a calf, boxes were made for storing salt, curds and other dry products. Unlike other leather vessels, the wool was not removed from their walls.
The Bashkirs also made leather bags, horse harness, shoes, belts with travel bags, etc.
Leather vessels were sewn with horsehair. The latter was also used for making all kinds of ropes.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, due to a decrease in the number of livestock, the Bashkirs stopped making leather utensils.
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wooden utensils |
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, wooden utensils dominated among household utensils. They made this dish in the mountain forest regions, rich in birch, linden and larch. From the outgrowth ( oro) birches, from a birch and deciduous root, from a trunk of a linden, various dishes were hollowed out and pulled out. These are food bowls ashlau, aldyr), koumiss, ladles for pouring koumiss ( izhau), vases for honey, scoops, spoons, small troughs for chopping meat, trays for sifting grain and kneading dough, ladles. |
The Bashkirs also had dishes with a false bottom. Tall wooden tubs made from tree trunks ( batman) was used to make koumiss, ayran and other drinks, to store and transport honey, flour and grain. Narrow dugout vessels for cooking koumiss and churning butter. Sour milk, koumiss, water, buza were kept in wooden barrels.
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copper utensils |
In areas where birch grows, birch bark utensils were common in everyday life. Tueski, jars for storing sour cream, trays for flour, dishes for storing flour, berries, salt, etc. were made from birch bark. |
FOOD
The Bashkirs, like other pastoral peoples, had a varied dairy and meat cuisine from time immemorial. The dairy food of the Bashkirs is distinguished by the variety and specificity of products. An important product was cow's milk. Thick cream was collected from baked milk. They were used as a seasoning for tea, cereals and stews. Butter was churned from sour cream. They fermented milk, made cottage cheese out of it ( eremsek) and other products. Boiled milk after cooling to normal temperature was fermented and obtained. This dish is still widespread today. Prepared for the future for the winter or eremsek. This - katyk with milk, dried in a cauldron over low heat, resulting in a sweet reddish mass. Before eating, it was seasoned with fresh milk and served with tea. A delicacy that was also served with tea was fresh, well-pressed cottage cheese mixed with honey. One of the most common and important dairy nutritional products of the Bashkirs was sour-salty cheese curds obtained from sour milk by prolonged boiling and squeezing the resulting mass. Korot was consumed fresh or slightly salted, dried in the sun and smoked, stored for the winter, then served with stews and tea. Dried curds were an indispensable product in road conditions, military campaigns. In the summer heat, they drank as a soft drink ayran- sour milk diluted with water. Koumiss was prepared from mare's milk, a spicy and thirst-quenching, medicinal drink.
An important role in the diet of the Bashkirs was played by meat products. The most favorite meat was horse meat, lamb was used by the poor. 
- one of the most ancient and famous Bashkir dishes, traditional when receiving guests. The name "" (five fingers") came from the fact that the Bashkirs ate this dish with their hands. It was always prepared from fresh horse meat or lamb, the meat was boiled in a cauldron for several hours and then cut into small pieces. After the meat is cooked, put into the cauldron salma- large noodles, which are made in the form of squares. Often Bashkirs simply tear the dough into pieces with their hands. Such a salma is called by the southeastern Bashkirs - ( Kazakh salma).
- horse intestines stuffed from a whole strip of horse fat and meat, in other words, horse sausage. It was dried in the sun and boiled before eating. Horse sausage is still one of the most delicious and honorable dishes today.
- liquid, seasoned with flour, a decoction of meat with cheese crumbled into it ( short).
In the nutritional regime of the Bashkirs, birds occupied an important place. The Bashkirs hunted and ate partridges, hazel grouses, black grouse, capercaillie, wild ducks and geese.
From wild animals, hares, goats, elks were most often used for food, and less often bears. The Bashkirs, living along the shores of lakes and rivers, ate boiled fish.
Along with dairy and meat products, the Bashkirs have long cooked dishes from cereals - spelled, barley, rye, wheat, and millet. They made cereals and flour. From cereals and flour mixed with dairy products, the Bashkirs prepared (stew from barley or spelled cereals, seasoned short), (porridge in milk or water, cooked from barley or spelled cereals), salma, described above, (finely crushed and toasted barley or spelled groats, mixed with butter and then diluted in hot water), (hot and fried grains of barley, hemp and spelt), (finely chopped pieces of rolled unleavened, wheat dough, kneaded with eggs , boiled in boiling horse or lamb fat), yuuasa(biscuits made from unleavened wheat dough made in boiling oil or fat), (pancakes that were fried in oil in a pan) and (bread cake baked in ash).
Eating bird cherry, strawberries, wild strawberries, raspberries, black and red currants, blackberries, stone berries and field cherries significantly diversified the menu. Berries were used both fresh and in the form of a special kind of marshmallow; dried bird cherry and cherry were used as a filling for pies. They also ate the roots and leaves of edible plants.
The intoxicating drinks of the Bashkirs were aces ball and in southeastern Bashkortostan -.
Asy ball- an intoxicating and strong drink, sour. During its preparation, comb honey was diluted in hot water and fermented with yeast or sour dough. For the preparation of yeast, the Bashkirs used hops. Fermented honey was placed for two or three days in a warm place. During this time, she acquired a proper fortress. Asy ball was prepared by the Bashkirs everywhere where they were engaged in beekeeping. Kislushka was not an everyday drink, it was prepared mainly in winter for wedding feasts, celebrations, etc.
- an intoxicating drink. It was prepared from grains of oats, barley, rye or wheat. The sprouted grains of these cereals were dried and then ground on ruddy millstones. The resulting malt with the addition of oatmeal was brewed with hot water, fermented, as well as aces ball, and left to wander for two or three days. At present, buza is being prepared by the Bashkirs, especially in the Abzelilovsky and Uchalinsky districts.
Tea was the everyday and favorite drink of the Bashkirs. In addition to purchased tea, leaves of matryoshka, bodan and other plants were brewed. Honey was served with tea as a sweet.
Thus, the southeastern Bashkirs had an extraordinary variety of forms of material culture, which is explained by the complexity of their ethnic history, the peculiarities of the economy and the variety of natural conditions.
Nomadic Bashkirs spend only the coldest months of the year in wooden houses. Most of the year they use temporary housing. Tirme, a traditional Bashkir yurt, always endows nomadic cattle breeders with warmth on cold nights and pleasant coolness in the summer heat. It deservedly enjoys the reputation of an ideal temporary housing: it is easy to transport, easy to assemble (dismantle), resistant to piercing steppe winds and hurricanes. The cover of the yurt reliably keeps a stable temperature inside.
The design of the Bashkir yurt
The basic principle of building housing for nomadic peoples is simplicity. A yurt is made up of several irreplaceable structures:
- skeleton. It includes four to six folding lattices (ropes) made of wood. The construction of a prosperous family may consist of eight or nine of these components.
- roof. Traditionally made in the shape of a cone. The bottom edge is attached to the frame. It consists of a set of uks (thin poles) of a certain length. At one end they rest on the wooden lattices of the base, and at the top they adjoin the sagarak (wooden circle). The last element forms an opening that serves as both a window and an exhaust hood for smoke from a fire.
- felts. As a rule, they are made of natural sheep wool (natural felt). Coatings serve as insulation on the walls and on the floor of the structure.
The felt mats are knitted to the skeleton of the yurt with the help of specially provided ropes, which are sewn to the corners of the felt covering and in the middle of each of the edges. To give strength from the outside along the entire length, the felt mats are entangled with hair ropes. The ends of the twine (lasso) are attached to pegs driven into the ground. Only three attachment points are installed: this ensures the highest resistance to wind loads.
Sagarak is not covered during the day. Only at night or in bad weather is it covered with a quadrangular felt mat. When airing is necessary, the felt is slightly lifted by a long pole. If it dawned or the weather changed to sunny, the felt rolls up, but remains on top of the yurt.
A single-leaf door was most often made of wood and painted in red or dark red. The base of the dwelling was also painted in the same color. Less commonly, the Bashkir yurt is found with a folding felt door.
Distribution of living space
Traditionally, the entrance is located on the south side of the yurt. The part of the dwelling on the opposite side is considered the main one and is intended for guests. The invariable place of the hearth is in the center of the yurt opposite the smoke outlet. In cases where the hearth is taken out into the street, a beautiful tablecloth is spread in this place, which plays the role of a table. Around her were scattered saddles, soft pillows or fabric bedding. 
Sharshau has always been considered a very important element of a nomadic dwelling. This is a dense fabric curtain that divides the Bashkir yurt into two unequal parts:
- female. According to the customs of the people, it is always smaller and is always located on the right side of the entrance. Items necessary for housekeeping are stored here: kitchen utensils, food supplies, children's and women's clothing, etc.
- male. The left side is larger and is always used as a living room. Colorful carpets, tablecloths, towels and bedding are hung throughout the room. The lattice walls are covered not only with patterned works, but also with the equipment of a warrior, decorated with national ornaments. Here you can see arrow quivers, gunpowder cases, shot pouch and horse harness.
A place of honor for guests - uryn - is located opposite the entrance. There is also a carved wooden chest on a beautiful stand. The most valuable things are stacked on it: carpets, rugs, blankets and pillows. They are carefully tied with a patterned ribbon with colored ornaments on a red or black background.
The meaning of the yurt for nomads
Since ancient times, for nomadic peoples, the yurt has been the center of the universe on earth. This is reality, not big words. It is here that the path of the steppe dweller begins, and here it ends. For a long time she embodied the model of the world. At first it was flat (single-tiered), then it was three-dimensional: at the bottom - the earth, at the top - the sky and stars. 
Like space, the yurt is vertically three-level: the floor symbolizes the earth, the inner space is like air, and the dome personifies the sky. For nomadic tribes, gender has always been of particular importance compared to cultivators. The most dear guests were received on the floor, they ate and slept. Holidays and sad events were celebrated here, people were born and died here.
That is why special attention was paid to its design, and care was reverent. The floor was always covered with bright felt mats, patterned carpets and droshky. Compared to the walls, it looked smarter and brighter. It was the floor that formed the artistic interior of the ancient dwelling.
The walls were covered with homespun rugs and fabrics with patterns traditional for the people. Smaller embroidered towels flaunted against the background of large canvases in the Bashkir yurt. Festive costumes, expensive harness, family heirlooms were also kept here. Together with the patterns on the floor, a peculiar ensemble was created. The dome symbolized the firmament, and the hole for the exit of smoke personified the sun. Sagarak had a sacred meaning and was passed down from generation to generation through the paternal line.
The yurt as a traditional dwelling of the nomadic peoples of Bashkiria has practically not survived today. Housing decorated in folk traditions can only be seen at the spring holiday "Sabantuy" or in the museums of the country. However, it did not disappear without a trace, and its significance for the nomads of Bashkortostan remained unchanged.
The questions of the origin of the yurt as a universal, easily transportable, collapsible dwelling of the nomadic pastoralists of the steppes of Eurasia have long attracted the attention of ethnographers with their perfection and logical completeness of the design. For more than 1.5 thousand years since the appearance of the first images of the yurt on funeral figurines from Northern China, dating from the beginning of the 6th century. AD, it has not undergone any major changes or innovations until today. Like hundreds of years ago, the basis of the skeletal structure of the yurt consisted of: a cylindrical base of 5-6 lattice links (rope, or wing) interconnected by knotted straps, a dome formed of more than 100 planed and curved willow poles (уk , or an arrow). At one end, the poles rested against the crosshairs of the slats of the upper edge of the lattice links, while at the other, upper end, they rested against special holes in the wooden rim (sagarak), which forms the arch of the dome with a diameter of a light-smoke hole of about 1.5 m. On the east side, between the first and closing lattice - a wooden box for the door was inserted as a link in the skeleton of the yurt. The inner side of the gratings of the skeleton of the yurt and the inner side of the door were painted with red paint. From time immemorial, the outside of the yurt was covered with large pieces of felt, felt mats and tied crosswise for strength with ropes (lasso) woven from horsehair.
The questions of the origin and genesis of the yurt occupied a special place in the work of many generations of ethnographers who dealt with the issues of temporary dwellings for pastoralists. Known in this area are the works of researchers of the last century A.I. Levshin, M.S. Mukanov, who studied the ethnography of the Kazakh people, A. A. Popov, who devoted his works to the dwellings of the Siberian peoples, B. Kh. Karmysheva, who wrote about the dwellings of the Uzbek-Karluks, and E. G. Gafferberg, who studied the yurts of the Khazarians. The most complete ideas about the temporary dwellings of pastoralists are presented in the works of S. I. Vainshtein, devoted to the ethnography of the Tuvan people, and the works of N. N. Kharuzin, which discuss the origin and evolution of the yurt in time and space. Among the researchers - Bashkir scholars, one can single out the works of such well-known ethnologists as S. I. Rudenko, S. N. Shitova, N. V. Bikbulatov and others.
Speaking about the genesis of the yurt, N.N. Kharuzin, for example, wrote that due to many transformations, the yurt could have arisen from various wooden structures of huts or conical tents. The scheme of the evolution of the yurt, according to the scheme of N. N. Kharuzin, went from simple to complex, not taking into account the history of the dwelling in connection with the lifestyle of ancient pastoralists. In his opinion, the lattice yurt could have arisen no earlier than the 17th century, which, in the light of new materials on the history of nomadism in the steppes of Eurasia, was the wrong message for an objective reconstruction of the paths of the genesis of lattice yurts of the Turkic or Mongolian types. Other authors, on the contrary, derive the design of the yurt in its unchanged form from the Early Iron Age, i.e. Scythian-Sarmatian time, referring to archaeological finds, written sources of Herodotus, Strabo and other ancient authors. According to S.I. Vainshtein, the Scythians, Sarmatians, Usuns, Huns, and other early nomads of the steppes of Eurasia did not know yurt structures with lattice walls. In his opinion, the Scythians and other nomadic pastoralists at the turn of the AD. they could use either collapsible dwellings-huts with a conical or pyramidal-truncated skeleton of poles, covered with felt cavities from the outside, or non-collapsible mobile dwellings on wheeled carts, which were called wagons.
Speaking about the antiquity of the origin of yurt-like dwellings, it will be interesting to cite excerpts from the famous work of Herodotus "History", where he gives a biography and life of the ancient tribes of the Scythian world, and there are also references to the tent-like or tent-like structures of the ancient Scythians and Argippei, which are translated by G. A Stratonovsky as "yurts" (Herodotus, 2004, p. 220, 233-234). “After the funeral, the Scythians purify themselves in the following way: first they anoint and then wash their heads, and the body is cleansed with a steam bath, doing this: they set up three poles, with their upper ends inclined towards each other, and then cover them with woolen felt, then pull the felt as tightly as possible and they throw red-hot stones into a vat placed among the yurt” (Herodotus, 2004, pp. 233-234). “Hemp grows in the Scythian land. Taking this hemp seed, the Scythians crawl under a felt yurt and then throw it on hot stones. From this rises such strong smoke and steam that no Hellenic bath can be compared with such a bath. Enjoying it, the Scythians scream loudly with pleasure. This soaring serves them instead of a bath, since they do not wash themselves with water at all” (Herodotus, 2004, p. 234). “Each argippey lives under a tree. For the winter, the tree is always covered with thick white felt, and in the summer it is left without a tire” (Herodotus, 2004, p. 220). According to this description, it is difficult to speak about the complex design features of the Scythian dwellings. One thing is clear, that Herodotus gave a description of one or two variants of the conical shape of tent-like dwellings covered with felt. Perhaps the Scythians had other forms of temporary dwellings. Some of them give an idea of the archaeological evidence.
Images of wagons in the form of clay toys are not uncommon in archaeological finds of the Early Iron Age. Judging by these models, among the early nomads of the Eurasian steppes, in particular in South Siberia and Central Asia, in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. Along with the conical huts-tents of the pole design, hemispherical huts made of poles bent into an arc were also common. A drawing of such a hemispherical dwelling was found by S.I. Vainshtein in 1954 during excavations of mounds of the Kazylgan culture of the Scythian period in the Republic of Tuva (Vainshtein, 1991, p. 49).
At the end of the 1st millennium BC. in the steppes of Central Asia, in the Xiongnu environment, a non-separable domed hut, which could be transported on carts, became widespread. The skeleton of this hemispherical dwelling was woven from flexible willow rods, which, narrowing, passed into the low neck of the smoke-light hole. In bad weather, such a wagon was covered from the outside with large pieces of felt. This is a transportable dwelling, as a prototype of the future yurt, S.I. Weinstein called hut of the Xiongnu type. Images of such dwellings can be found among the petroglyphs of the famous Boyarskaya petroglyphs in the Minusinsk basin, dating back to the turn of our era. These small non-separable dwellings were convenient in that they could be installed on a flat place on summer camps, and when migrating, they were easily transported by wheeled vehicles. True, these wagons were very bulky. At present, yurt-like dwellings with a wicker frame are not uncommon in the life of the peoples of Central Asia, the Kumyks in the Caucasus, and other regions.
The invention of the yurt with a collapsible lattice framework of the walls, straight or curved dome rafters, on which a wooden two-part hoop of a light-smoke hole was attached, was one of the greatest discoveries in the entire nomadic world. This can only be compared with the invention of stirrups, which made a real revolution in horse breeding and allowed in the shortest possible time to master the vast expanses of the steppes of Eurasia from Altai to the Danube thanks to a stable landing in the saddle.
According to researchers, the invention of the yurt occurred in the ancient Turkic environment no later than the middle of the 5th century BC. AD The advantages of a collapsible yurta with a lattice frame were obvious. It literally took 30-40 minutes to assemble and disassemble, and most importantly, it was very convenient for transportation in the form of packs on horses and camels. Horses loaded with parts of the yurt could easily and freely master both the steppe and hard-to-reach mountain pastures. Similar dwellings, in contrast to the primitive huts of the Xiongnu type, S.I. Weinstein Suggests call yurts of the ancient Turkic type. As they spread in the steppes of Eurasia, they received the name "Turkic yurt", which is clear from medieval Turkic and Arabic sources. In medieval sources, in particular in the notes of Ibn-Fadlan about the journey to the Volga Bulgars, a description is given of "Turkic domed houses", the name of which is A.P. Kovalevsky translated as "yurt" (Kovalevsky, 1956). It should be noted that the yurt in its classical lattice-dome design is found only throughout the Great Belt of the Steppes, exclusively among the Turkic-Mongolian peoples. S.I. Weinstein notes that south of the Desht-i-Kipchak steppes, the yurt did not become widespread; temporary dwellings of tent and tent construction prevailed here, as, for example, in Iran and Afghanistan. At the same time, the Turkic-speaking Uzbeks, Turkmens, Khazars, Jemshids living here, but Iranianized in a different ethnic environment, continue to use everywhere for housing not tents and tents, but traditional "Turkic" yurts with a lattice base.
The similarity of the names of the yurt in the Turkic languages also speaks about the common roots of the origin of the yurt from the ancient Turkic environment. For example, among the Uzbeks, Turks, Turkmens it is called oy, among the Kazakhs, the Kirghiz - uy, the Sagays - ug, the Tuvans - өg. Among the Mongols, the yurt was called ger, among the Iranian-speaking Khazarians - khanai khirga. S.I. Weinstein gives other names for temporary dwellings. Among the Tanguts, a yurt is called a terme ker. Terme in modern Mongolian means "lattice". Then "terme ker" would mean "lattice house", which exactly corresponds to the characteristic design features of a lattice yurt. The concept of lattice in the ancient form "tereme terebe" was preserved among the Tuvans, Altaians, Turkmens (terim). At the same time, among the Bashkirs, the word “tirme” means the general name of a yurt, and the lattice is called “kanat”. In our opinion, the concept of "yurt" as a temporary dwelling entered the Russian language from the names of the seasonal camps of Bashkir cattle breeders, on which lattice domed dwellings were placed: spring camp (yaҙgy yort), summer camp (yayge yort), autumn camp (koҙgө yort).
As in ancient times, it was convenient to transport yurts on oxen, camels, mules and horses. On figurines recovered during excavations of monuments of the 6th century BC. in northern China, camels are depicted with yurt frame bars folded for transportation, a light-smoke hoop, and felt cavities. According to S.I. Weinstein, all the design features of the yurt of the ancient Turkic type finally took shape by the 7th century.
In the later Oguz, Kimak-Kipchak period, the yurts of the ancient Turkic type continued to develop almost unchanged. However, the complexity and high cost of manufacturing the lattice base of the yurt forced the poor to replace them with a circular wattle fence, ring and plank structures, and polygonal low log cabins (Vainshtein, 1991, p. 57). Considering all these variations of yurt-like dwellings, S.I. Weinstein once again emphasizes that the earliest prototype of modern Turkic yurts could only be a hemispherical hut of the Xiongnu type with a wicker frame made of willow.
On the territory of Bashkiria at the end of the XIX century. dome-shaped yurts of the Turkic type are widespread in the southeastern, southern steppe and forest-steppe regions, as well as in the steppe regions of the Orenburg region (Shitova, 1984, p. 133). According to S.N. Shitova, at the beginning of the 20th century. in the villages of the southeastern regions of Bashkiria (modern Baimaksky, Khaibullinsky, south of the Abzelilovsky regions) there were specialist craftsmen in the manufacture of yurts and its individual parts. For example, domed poles (uҡ) were made in dd. Abdulkarimovo, Kuvatovo, Yangazino, Baymaksky district, gratings (ҡanat) - in the village of Abdulnasyrovo, Khaibullinsky district, blanks for the light-smoke rim - in the village of Ishberdino, Baymaksky district, and the village of Rafikovo, Khaibullinsky district. The products of local craftsmen were quickly bought up both by the Bashkirs of the South Ural and Orenburg steppes, and by the Kazakhs. Masters sold blanks for yurts at fairs in the years. Orsk, Orenburg, Turgai (Ibid., p. 132).
In the northeastern, trans-Ural, some southeastern, southwestern regions, the Bashkirs used yurts of the Mongolian type not with curved, but with straight poles of the dome, which gave it a conical shape. The doors were not wooden, but felt. Yurts of the Mongolian type were considered of little prestige, and they were used by poor Bashkir families. Since the lattice frame of the yurt was very expensive and difficult to manufacture on the farm without special tools, the population modified and simplified the structure of the skeleton and made less complex yurt-like buildings. In the Zianchurinsky district, for example, the frame of the yurt was fastened with three wooden rims tied to vertically dug in a circle pillars. Between the two lower bars-rims, grating bars were inserted into special holes, placing them crosswise. In this case, the lattice was not solid, but was assembled from separate slats. The poles of the dome rested against the edge of the upper rim, on the upper ends of which a small wooden rim was mounted to release smoke. The entire structure was covered with felt (Shitova, 1984, p. 133).
Among the southwestern Bashkirs, koshom yurts were sometimes made without domed poles, replacing them with thick lassoes. A pole was dug in the center of the future yurt and ropes were stretched from the top to the gratings. Having tied a rope to the upper edge of the lattice, they stretched it outward, tying it to pegs driven into the ground in a circle. The rope “roof” of a conical shape was covered with felt, the edges of which protruded beyond the edges of the lattice, forming, as it were, a cornice, thereby protecting the felt walls of the yurt frame from rain. Lattices in such yurts were sometimes placed not circular, but quadrangular, which simplified its design even more. The roof in such yurts was also hipped (Shitova, ibid.).
In the river basin Demos existed even more simplified dwellings of pillar construction, only vaguely resembling yurts in silhouette. In the Alsheevsky district of Bashkiria, poor families often made pole dwellings. Their skeleton did not consist of lattices, but of 30-40 two-meter poles dug in a circle. In the center, a three-meter pole was dug in, to the top of which they stretched and fastened ropes from poles dug in a circle. It turned out a conical rope roof, which was covered with a felt mat. The side walls and doors were also covered with felt mats.
There were many other variants of yurt-like dwellings, which, like yurts, were easily dismantled and transported. All of them were smaller than the yurt, less stable, prepared from improvised materials, and therefore were used in everyday life by the poor.
Traces of temporary dwellings were found on the territory of Bashkiria during the period of archaeological research. During excavations at the site of the former Bashkir village of Aznaevo, led by V.A. Ivanov, circular grooves were discovered, lined with stones along the perimeter at intervals of 0.5-0.6 m. The excavation dated back to the 17th-18th centuries. A circular groove may have been dug around the perimeter of the yurt to drain rainwater, and stones attached the lower edges of the felt coverings of the yurt lattice. Similar circular grooves with a diameter of about 5 m were discovered by G. N. Garustovich during excavations in 1994 of the Gornovsky settlement of the 13th–14th centuries. in the Chishminsky district, on the left bank of the river. Demos. Places where yurts were set up on summer camps were also discovered by A.F. Yaminov during excavations at the Petropavlovskoye settlement in the Khaibullinsky district.
In line with research into the genesis of the yurt of nomadic cattle breeders, it must be said that a collapsible lattice yurt by the beginning of the 13th century. was already known to the Mongols, and, most likely, was borrowed by them from the Turks. In the XIII century. the Mongols and their khans still continued to use yurts of the ancient Turkic type with a characteristic point in the upper part of the dome, called in the "Secret Tale" chorgan ker (pointed yurt). Travelers of the XIII century. left their descriptions and impressions of the dwellings of the Turkic-Mongolian nomads. Marco Polo, in particular, wrote: “Tatars do not stay anywhere to live permanently ... their huts or tents consist of poles that they cover with felt. They are quite round, and made so skillfully that they are folded into a bundle and can easily be transported with them, namely, on a special cart with four wheels. When they set up their tents again at a convenient opportunity, they always turn the entrance side to the south” (Quoted by Weinstein, 1991, p. 61). The Turks, as is known, like the Huns, turned the entrance of the yurt to the east. Until the 13th century The Mongols did not know how to make lattice yurts. The Chinese traveler Xu Ting wrote about the Mongols: “In those (tents) that are made in the steppe, round walls are woven from willow rods and fixed with hair ropes. (They) do not fold or turn around, but are transported on wagons” (Quoted by Weinstein, 1991, p. 61). In the XIII century. and later, during the campaigns of the Genghisides, lattice yurts of both the Mongolian (conical) and Turkic (dome) types were widely used by the Mongols during parking, rest and hunting. In addition to ordinary and lattice yurts of the Mongolian type, covered with dark felt, the steppe aristocracy had design features of yurts at khan's headquarters. For the khans, special three-tiered yurts with a lattice frame and a domed top were erected according to the “Turkic” type. Another high spherical dome of smaller diameter was erected above this dome. The light-smoke hole in this upper dome was made not in the middle, but in its side part. The gratings of the yurt were covered with mats from the inside, with decorative multi-colored fabric on top, in winter - with felt. A high parade palanquin with supporting pillars and rope extensions at the corners was built above the entrance. This "aristocratic" type of yurt by S.I. Weinstein called late Mongolian, which became widespread among the nomadic aristocracy in the era of the Golden Horde, which had special "khan" yurts. These were the "Golden Yurt" of Genghis Khan, the luxurious yurts of Timur and other representatives of the Turkic-Mongolian elite. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the bulk of the population of the steppes of Desht-i-Kipchak again returned to their time-tested and migration-tested lattice yurts of the Turkic (dome-shaped) and Mongolian (conical top) types. The main parts of the yurt, its design have not changed much to this day, except for the fact that the light-smoke wooden hoop became not solid, but was divided into two parts. A two-piece round hoop with a diameter of 1.5 m greatly facilitated its manufacture.
Thus, the evolutionary development of the lattice yurt went in the direction from collapsible dome-shaped huts to non-collapsible Huns of the Xiongnu type with a wicker frame of wicker and covered with felt on the outside. Further in the V-VI centuries. AD collapsible yurts with a lattice frame of the ancient Turkic type appeared. Since that time, for more than 1.5 thousand years, domed and conical lattice yurts have warmed and given comfort to hundreds of generations of pastoralists throughout the vast expanse from Altai to the Volga-Ural region. Yurts gradually disappeared from the life of the Bashkir people at the beginning of the 20th century, however, from year to year they still decorate with their elegance and perfection and give solemnity to Sabantuy and other spring and summer holidays of the Bashkirs.
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