(*38) Among the outstanding Russian writers of the last quarter of the 19th century, connected in their ideological development with the general democratic movement, Vsevolod Garshin occupies a special place. His creative activity lasted only ten years. It began in 1877 with the creation of the story "Four Days" - and was abruptly interrupted at the beginning of 1888 by the tragic death of the writer.
Unlike the older democratic writers of his generation - Mamin-Sibiryak, Korolenko - who already had certain social convictions by the beginning of their artistic work, Garshin experienced intense ideological searches and deep moral dissatisfaction associated with them throughout his short creative life. In this respect he had some resemblance to his younger contemporary, Chekhov.
The ideological and moral quest of the writer for the first time manifested itself with particular force in connection with the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 and was reflected in a small cycle of his military stories. They are based on personal impressions (*39) of Garshin. Leaving student studies, he voluntarily went to the front as a simple soldier to take part in the war for the liberation of the fraternal Bulgarian people from centuries of Turkish enslavement.
The decision to go to war was not easy for the future writer. It led him to deep emotional and mental unrest. Garshin was fundamentally against the war, considering it an immoral affair. But he resented the atrocities of the Turks against the defenseless Bulgarian and Serbian population. And most importantly, he sought to share all the hardships of the war with ordinary soldiers, with Russian peasants dressed in overcoats. At the same time, he had to defend his intention before other-minded representatives of democratic youth. They considered such an intention to be immoral; in their opinion, people who voluntarily participate in the war contribute to the military victory and the strengthening of the Russian autocracy, which cruelly oppressed the peasantry and its defenders in their own country. “You, therefore, find it immoral that I will live the life of a Russian soldier and help him in the struggle ... Is it really more moral to sit back, while this soldier will die for us! ..” Garshin said indignantly.
In battle, he was soon wounded. Then he wrote the first military story "Four Days", in which he depicted the long torment of a seriously wounded soldier who was left without help on the battlefield. The story immediately brought the young writer literary fame. In the second military story "Coward" Garshin reproduced his deep doubts and hesitations before the decision to go to war. And then followed a short story "From the Memoirs of Private Ivanov", describing the hardships of long military transitions, the relationship between soldiers and officers, and unsuccessful bloody clashes with a strong enemy.
But the difficult search for a path in life was associated with Garshin not only with military events. He was tormented by the deep ideological discord that wide circles of the Russian democratic intelligentsia experienced during the years of the collapse of the populist movement and intensified government repressions. Although, even before the war, Garshin wrote a journalistic essay against Zemstvo liberals who despise the people, he, unlike Gleb Uspensky and Korolenko, did not know village life well and, as an artist, was not deeply affected by its contradictions. Nor did he have that (*40) spontaneous hostility to the tsarist bureaucracy, to the philistine life of officials, which early Chekhov expressed in his best satirical stories. Garshin was mainly occupied with the life of the urban raznochintsy intelligentsia, the contradictions of its moral and domestic interests. This is reflected in his best works.
A significant place among them is occupied by the image of ideological searches among painters and critics who evaluate their work. In this environment, the clash of two views on art continued, and at the end of the 70s even intensified. Some recognized in it only the task of reproducing the beautiful in life, serving beauty, far from any public interests. Others - and among them was a large group of "Wanderers" painters, headed by I. E. Repin and critic V. V. Stasov - argued that art cannot have a self-contained value and should serve life, which it can reflect in its works the strongest social contradictions, ideals and aspirations of the dispossessed popular masses and their defenders.
Garshin, while still a student, was keenly interested in both contemporary painting and the struggle of opinions about its content and tasks. During this time and later, he published a number of articles on art exhibitions. In them, calling himself a "man of the crowd", he supported the main direction of the art of the "Wanderers", highly appreciated the paintings of V.I. Surikov and V.D. according to the template, "without an academic corset and lacing".
Much deeper and stronger, the writer expressed his attitude to the main trends of contemporary Russian painting in one of his best stories - "Artists" (1879). The story is built on a sharp antithesis of the characters of two fictional characters: Dedov and Ryabinin. Both of them are "students" of the Academy of Arts, both paint from nature in the same "class", both are talented and can dream of a medal and of continuing their creative work abroad for four years "at public expense". But their understanding of the meaning of their art and art is generally the opposite. And through this contrast, the writer reveals something more important with great accuracy and psychological depth.
(* 41) A year before Garshin fought for the liberation of Bulgaria, the dying Nekrasov, in the last chapter of the poem "Who Lives Well in Rus'", in one of Grisha Dobrosklonov's songs, posed a question - fatal for all then thinking raznochintsy beginning their lives. This is a question about which of the "two ways", possible "Among the world below / For a free heart", one should choose for oneself. "One is spacious / Road is torn", along which is "huge, / Greedy for temptation / The crowd is walking..." For the bypassed, / for the oppressed ... "
Grisha Nekrasov was clear about his path. The heroes of Garshin's story were just choosing him. But in the sphere of art the antithesis of their choice was immediately revealed by the writer quite distinctly. Dedov is looking for only beautiful "nature" for his paintings; in his "vocation" he is a landscape painter. When he rode a boat along the seaside and wanted to paint with paints his hired rower, a simple "lad", he became interested not in his working life, but only in the "beautiful, hot tones of the kumach lit by the setting sun" of his shirt.
Imagining the picture "May Morning" ("The water in the pond is slightly swaying, the willows bowed their branches to it ... the clouds turned pink ..."), Dedov thinks: "This is art, it tunes a person to a quiet, meek thoughtfulness softens the soul." He believes that "art ... does not tolerate being reduced to the service of some low and vague ideas," that all this masculine streak in art is pure ugliness. Who needs these notorious Repin "Barge Haulers"?
But this recognition of beautiful, "pure art" does not in the least prevent Dedov from thinking about his career as an artist and about the profitable sale of paintings. (“Yesterday I put up a picture, and today they already asked about the price. I won’t give it back for less than 300.”) And in general, he thinks: “You just need to be more direct about the matter; while you are painting a picture - you are an artist, a creator; it is written - you are a merchant, and The more skillful you are in dealing, the better." And Dedov has no discord with the rich and well-fed "public" who buys his beautiful landscapes.
Ryabinin understands the relation of art to life in a completely different way. He has empathy for the lives of ordinary people. (*42) He loves the "hustle and noise" of the embankment, looks with interest at "day laborers carrying coolies, turning gates and winches", and he "learned to draw a working man." He works with pleasure, for him the picture is "the world in which you live and before which you answer", and he does not think about money either before or after its creation. But he doubts the significance of his artistic activity and does not want to "serve exclusively to the stupid curiosity of the crowd ... and the vanity of some rich stomach on his feet" who can buy his picture, "written not with a brush and colors, but with nerves and blood .. .".
Already with all this, Ryabinin sharply opposes Dedov. But before us are only expositions of their characters, and from them follows Garshin's antithesis of the paths that his heroes went on in their lives. For Dedov, these are delightful successes, for Ryabinin, a tragic breakdown. His interest in the "working man" soon shifted from the work of "day labourers, turning gates and winches" on the embankment, to such work that dooms a person to a quick and certain death. The same Dedov - he, at the behest of the author, had previously worked at the plant as an engineer - told Ryabinin about the "grouse workers", riveters, and then showed him one of them holding the bolt from the inside of the "boiler". "He sat curled up in a corner of the cauldron and exposed his chest to the blows of the hammer."
Ryabinin was so amazed and excited by what he saw that he "stopped going to the academy" and quickly painted a picture depicting a "grouse" during his work. It was not for nothing that the artist thought about his "responsibility" before the "world" that he undertook to portray. For him, his new picture is "ripe pain", after which he "will have nothing to write". “I summoned you... from a dark cauldron,” he thinks, mentally addressing his creation, “so that you terrify this clean, sleek, hated crowd with your appearance ... Look at these tailcoats and trains ... Hit them in the heart. .. Kill their peace, as you killed mine..."
And then Garshin creates in his plot an episode full of even deeper and more terrible psychologism. Ryabinin's new painting was sold, and he received money for it, for which, "at the request of his comrades," he arranged a "feast" for them. After it, he fell ill with a serious nervous illness, and in a delusional nightmare the plot of his painting acquired for him (*43) a broad, symbolic meaning. He hears hammer blows on the cast iron of a "huge cauldron", then he finds himself "in a huge, gloomy factory", hears "a frantic cry and frantic blows", sees a "strange, ugly creature" that is "writhing on the ground" under the blows of "a whole crowd ", and among her his "acquaintances with frenzied faces" ... And then he has a split personality: in the "pale, distorted, terrible face" of the beaten Ryabinin recognizes his "own face" and at the same time he "swings with a hammer" to inflict a "violent blow" on himself... After many days of unconsciousness, the artist woke up in the hospital and realized that "there is still a whole life ahead", which he now wants to "turn in his own way ...".
And so the story quickly comes to a head. Dedov "received a big gold medal" for his "May morning" and goes abroad. Ryabinin about him: "Satisfied and happy inexpressibly; his face shines like an oil pancake." And Ryabinin left the academy and "passed the exam for a teacher's seminary." Dedov about him: "Yes, he will disappear, die in the village. Well, isn't this a crazy person?" And the author from himself: “This time Dedov was right: Ryabinin really did not succeed.
It is clear which of the two life "paths" outlined in Grisha Dobrosklonov's song went each of Garshin's heroes. Dedov will continue, perhaps, with great talent to paint beautiful landscapes and "trade" them, "cleverly conducting this" business. "And Ryabinin? to work - to the hard and thankless work of a village teacher? Why did he "not succeed" in it? And why did the author, postponing the answer to this question for an indefinite time, never return to it?
Because, of course, Garshin, like so many Russian raznochintsy with spontaneous democratic aspirations, in the 1880s, during the period of the defeat of populism, was at an ideological "crossroads", could not reach any definite understanding of the prospects for Russian national life .
But at the same time, Garshin's denial of Dedov's "spacious" and "thorny" road and his full recognition of Ryabinin's "close, honest" road is easily felt by every thoughtful reader of "Artists". And the painful nightmare experienced by Ryabinin, which is the culmination (*44) of the inner conflict of the story, is not a depiction of madness, it is a symbol of the deepest tragic split of the Russian democratic intelligentsia in its attitude towards the people.
She sees with horror his suffering and is ready to experience them with him. But at the same time she is aware that, by her position in society, she herself belongs to those privileged strata of it that oppress the people. That is why, in delirium, Ryabinin inflicts a "violent blow" on his face. And just as, leaving for the war, Garshin sought to help ordinary soldiers, distracting himself from the fact that this war could help the Russian autocracy, so now in his story Ryabinin goes to the village to educate the people, to share the hardships of "labor" with them, distracted from " battle" - from the political struggle of his time.
That is why Garshin's best story is so short, and there are so few events and characters in it, and there are no portraits of them and their past. On the other hand, there are so many images of psychological experiences in it, especially the main character, Ryabinin, experiences that reveal his doubts and hesitations.
To reveal the experiences of the heroes, Garshin found a successful composition of the story: its entire text consists of separate notes by each hero about himself and his fellow artist. There are only 11 of them, Dedov has 6 short ones, Ryabinin has 5 much longer ones.
Korolenko wrongly considered this "parallel change of two diaries" a "primitive device." Korolenko himself, who depicted life in stories with a much broader scope, did not, of course, use this technique. For Garshin, this technique was quite consistent with the content of his story, which was focused not on external incidents, but on emotional impressions, thoughts, experiences of the characters, especially Ryabinin. With the brevity of the story, this makes its content full of "lyricism", although the story remains, in its essence, quite epic. In this regard, Garshin, of course, walked in a completely different way, along the same inner path as Chekhov did in the stories of the 1890s and early 1900s.
But in the future, the writer was no longer satisfied with short stories (he had others: "Meeting", "Incident", "Night" ...). “For me,” he wrote, “the time has passed ... some kind of prose poetry, which I have been doing until now (* 45) ... you need to depict not your own, but the big outside world.” Such aspirations led him to create the story "Nadezhda Nikolaevna" (1885). Among the main characters in it, artists are again in the foreground, but nevertheless it captures the "big outside world" - Russian life in the 1880s - more strongly.
This life was very difficult and complicated. In the moral consciousness of society, which was then languishing under the sharply intensified oppression of autocratic power, two directly opposite hobbies affected, but they led, each in its own way, to the idea of self-denial. Some supporters of the revolutionary movement - "People's Volunteers" - disappointed by the failures to incite mass uprisings among the peasantry, turned to terror - to armed attempts on the life of representatives of the ruling circles (the tsar, ministers, governors). This path of struggle was false and fruitless, but the people who followed it believed in the possibility of success, selflessly devoted all their strength to this struggle and perished on the gallows. The experiences of such people are beautifully conveyed in the novel "Andrey Kozhukhov", written by the former terrorist S. M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky.
And other circles of the Russian intelligentsia fell under the influence of the anti-church moralistic-religious ideas of Leo Tolstoy, reflecting the mood of the patriarchal sections of the peasantry - preaching moral self-improvement and selfless non-resistance to evil by force. At the same time, intense ideological and theoretical work was going on among the most mentally active part of the Russian intelligentsia - the question was discussed whether it was necessary and desirable for Russia, like the advanced countries of the West, to embark on the path of bourgeois development and whether it had already embarked on this path.
Garshin was not a revolutionary and was not fond of theoretical problems, but he was not alien to the influence of Tolstoy's moral propaganda. With the plot of the story "Nadezhda Nikolaevna" he, with great artistic tact, imperceptibly for censorship, responded in his own way to all these ideological demands of the "big world" of our time.
The two heroes of this story, the artists Lopatin and Gelfreich, respond to such requests with the ideas of their large paintings, which they hatch with great enthusiasm (* 46). Lopatin decided to portray Charlotte Corday, the girl who killed one of the leaders of the French Revolution, Marat, and then laid her head on the guillotine. She, too, took the wrong path of terror in her time. But Lopatin does not think about this, but about the moral tragedy of this girl, who, in her fate, is similar to Sofya Perovskaya, who participated in the assassination of Tsar Alexander II.
For Lopatin, Charlotte Corday is a "French heroine", "a girl - a fanatic of good." In the already painted picture, she stands "in full growth" and "looks" at him "with her sad eyes, as if smelling execution"; "a lace cape ... sets off her tender neck, along which tomorrow a bloody line will pass ..." Such a character was quite understandable to a thoughtful reader of the 80s, and in such an awareness of him this reader could not help but see the moral recognition of people, albeit tactically lost their way, but heroically gave their lives for the liberation of the people.
Lopatin's friend, the artist Gelfreich, had a completely different idea for the painting. Like Dedov in the story "Artists", he paints pictures for money - depicts cats of different colors and in different poses, but, unlike Dedov, he has no career and profit interests. And most importantly, he cherishes the idea of a big picture: the epic Russian hero Ilya Muromets, unjustly punished by the Kyiv prince Vladimir, sits in a deep cellar and reads the Gospel that "Princess Evprakseyushka" sent him.
In Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, Ilya finds such a terrible moral teaching: "If you are struck on your right cheek, turn your left" (in other words, endure evil patiently and do not resist evil with violence!). And the hero, who all his life courageously defended his native country from enemies, is perplexed: “How is it so, Lord? It’s good if they hit me, but if they offend a woman or a child... "Leave me to rob and kill? No, Lord, I can't obey you! I'll mount a horse, take a spear and go to fight in your name, for I don't understand your wisdom..." Garshin's hero doesn't say a word about L Tolstoy, but thoughtful readers understood that the idea of his painting was a protest against passive moral reconciliation with social evil.
Both of these heroes of the story pose the most difficult moral (*47) questions of their time, but they pose them not theoretically, not in reasoning, but in the plots of their paintings, artistically. And both of them are simple people, morally uncorrupted, sincere, who from the heart are carried away by their creative ideas and do not impose anything on anyone.
In the story, Garshin contrasted the character of the publicist Bessonov with the character of the artists, who was able to read "entire lectures on foreign and domestic policy" to acquaintances and argue about "whether capitalism is developing in Russia or not developing ...".
What Bessonov's views on all such questions are of no interest to either his artist friends or the author himself. He is interested in something else - the rationality and selfishness of Bessonov's character. Semyon Gelfreikh expresses himself clearly and sharply about both. “This man,” he says to Andrey Lopatin, “has all the boxes and compartments in his head; he will put forward one, get a ticket, read what is written there, and act like that.” Or: "Oh, what a callous, selfish ... and envious heart this man has." In both of these respects, Bessonov is a direct antithesis to artists, in particular Lopatin, the protagonist of the story, who seeks to portray Charlotte Corday.
But in order to reveal the antithesis of characters in an epic work, the writer needs to create a conflict between the characters embodying these characters. Garshin did just that. He boldly and originally developed in the story such a difficult social and moral conflict that could interest only a person with deep democratic convictions. This conflict - for the first time in Russian literature - was outlined many years before by N. A. Nekrasov in an early poem:
A similar conflict was portrayed by Dostoevsky in the relationship between Raskolnikov and Sonya Marmeladova ("Crime and Punishment").
But Nekrasov, in order to bring the female (*48) "fallen soul" "out of the darkness of delusion", needed "ardent words of persuasion" from the person who fell in love with her. In Dostoevsky, Sonya herself helps Raskolnikov's "fallen soul" to get out of "the darkness of delusion" and, out of love for him, goes with him to hard labor. For Garshin, the experiences of a woman "entangled in vice" are also of decisive importance. Before meeting with Lopatin, the heroine of the story, Nadezhda Nikolaevna, led a dissolute life and was a victim of Bessonov's base passion, sometimes descending "from his selfish activities and arrogant life to revelry."
The artist’s acquaintance with this woman occurs because before that he had searched in vain for a model for the image of Charlotte Corday and at the first meeting he saw in the face of Nadia what he had in mind. She agreed to pose for him, and the next morning, when, having changed into a prepared costume, she stood in her place, “everything that Lopatin dreamed about for his picture was reflected on her face”, “here were determination and longing, pride and fear, love and hate".
Lopatin did not seek to address the heroine with a "hot word of conviction", but communication with him led to a decisive moral turning point in Nadezhda Nikolaevna's whole life. Feeling in Lopatin a noble and pure person, passionate about his artistic design, she immediately abandoned her former way of life - she settled in a small poor room, sold attractive outfits and began to live modestly on a small salary of a model, earning money by sewing. When meeting with her, Bessonov sees that she has "surprisingly changed," that her "pale face has acquired some kind of imprint of dignity."
This means that the action in the story develops in such a way that Lopatin will have to lead Nadya "out of the darkness of delusion." He is asked about this by his friend Gelfreich ("Get her out, Andrei!"), and Andrei himself finds the strength in himself for this. And what might those forces be? Only love is strong, cordial, pure love, not dark passion.
Although Andrei, by the will of his parents, was engaged from childhood to his second cousin, Sonya, he did not yet know love. Now he first felt "tenderness" for Nadia, "that unfortunate creature", and then a letter from Sonya, to whom he wrote about everything, opened his eyes to (* 49) his own soul, and he realized that he loved Nadia "for life that she should be his wife.
But Bessonov became an obstacle to this. Having recognized Nadia much earlier than Lopatin, he was somewhat carried away by her - "her not quite ordinary appearance" and "remarkable inner content" - and could have saved her. But he did not do this, as he was rationally sure that "they will never return." And now, when he saw the possibility of rapprochement between Andrei and Nadia, he is tormented by "insane jealousy." His rationality and selfishness are manifested here as well. He is ready to call the newly flared feeling love, but he corrects himself: "No, this is not love, this is a crazy passion, this is a fire in which I am all burning. How can I put it out?"
This is how the conflict of the story arises, typically Garshin's - both heroes and the heroine experience it independently of each other - in the depths of their souls. How was the author himself able to resolve this conflict? He quickly brings the conflict to a conclusion - unexpected, abrupt and dramatic. He depicts how Bessonov, trying to "put out the fire" of his "passion", suddenly comes to Andrei, at the moment when he and Nadia confessed their love to each other and were happy, and kills Nadia with shots from a revolver, seriously injures Andrei, and he, defending himself, kills Bessonov.
Such a denouement must, of course, be recognized as an artistic exaggeration - a hyperbole. No matter how strong Bessonov's passion was, rationality should have kept him from crime. But writers have the right to plot hyperbole (such is the death of Bazarov from an accidental blood poisoning in Turgenev or the sudden suicide of Anna Karenina in Leo Tolstoy). Writers use such resolutions when it is difficult for them to tell about the further development of the conflict.
Same with Garshin. If his Bessonov, a rational and strong-willed person, could, without meeting anymore with Andrei and Nadia, overcome his passion (this would elevate him somewhat in the eyes of readers!), Then what would the author have left to tell. He would have to portray the family idyll of Nadia and Andrei with the support of Semochka Gelfreich. And if the family idyll did not work out and each of the spouses would be tormented by memories of Nadia's past? Then the story would have dragged on, and the character (*50) of Lopatin would have morally declined in our, the reader's, perception. And the sharp dramatic denouement created by Garshin greatly reduces the character of the egoist Bessonov before us and elevates the emotional and sympathetic character of Lopatin.
On the other hand, the fact that Bessonov and Nadia died, and Lopatin, shot through the chest, while still alive, makes it possible for the author to strengthen the psychologism of the story - to give an image of the hero's hidden experiences and emotional thoughts about his life.
The story "Nadezhda Nikolaevna" in general has much in common with the stories "Artists" in its composition. The whole story is made up of Lopatin's "notes" depicting the events of his life in their deeply emotional perception by the hero himself, and in these "notes" the author sometimes inserts episodes taken from Bessonov's "diary" and consisting mainly of his emotional introspection. But Lopatin begins to write his "notes" only in the hospital. He got there after the death of Nadia and Bessonov, where he is being treated for a serious wound, but does not hope to survive (he begins to develop consumption). He is cared for by his sister, Sonya. The plot of the story, depicted in the "notes" and "diaries" of the heroes, also receives a "frame", consisting of the heavy thoughts of the sick Lopatin.
In the story "Nadezhda Nikolaevna" Garshin did not quite manage to make the "big outside world" the subject of the image. The deeply emotional worldview of the writer, who is looking for, but has not yet found a clear path in life for himself, here again prevented him from doing this.
Garshin has one more story, "Meeting" (1870), also based on a sharp opposition of different life paths, along which the raznochintsy intelligentsia of his difficult time could go.
It depicts how two former university buddies unexpectedly meet again in a southern seaside town. One of them, Vasily Petrovich, who had just arrived there to take up a position as a teacher at a local gymnasium, regrets that his dreams of "professorship" and "journalism" did not come true, and he is thinking about how he could save up for six months. a thousand rubles from the salary and fees for possible private lessons, in order to acquire everything necessary for the upcoming marriage. Another (*51) hero, Kudryashov, in the past a poor student, has long served here as an engineer on the construction of a huge pier (dam) to create an artificial harbor. He invites the future teacher to his “modest” hut, takes him there on black horses, in a “smart carriage” with a “fat coachman”, and his “hut” turns out to be a luxuriously furnished mansion, where they are served foreign wine and “excellent roast beef” at dinner. ", where a footman waits for them.
Vasily Petrovich is amazed by such a rich life of Kudryashov, and a conversation takes place between them, clarifying to the reader the deepest difference in the moral positions of the heroes. The host immediately and frankly explains to his guest where he gets so much money to lead this luxurious life. It turns out that Kudryashov, together with a whole group of clever and arrogant businessmen, from year to year deceives the state institution, with whose funds the pier is being built. Every spring they report to the capital that autumn and winter storms at sea have partially washed away the huge stone foundation for the future pier (which actually does not happen!), And to continue the work they are again sent large sums of money, which they appropriate and on which they live rich and carefree.
The future teacher, who is going to divine the "spark of God" in his students, support natures "strive to throw off the yoke of darkness", develop young fresh forces, "alien to worldly dirt", is embarrassed and shocked by the engineer's confessions. He calls his income "dishonest means", says that it is "painful to look" at Kudryashov, that he is "ruining himself", that he will be "caught doing this" and he will "go along Vladimirka" (that is, to Siberia, to hard labor) that he was formerly an "honest youth" who could become an "honest citizen." Putting a piece of "excellent roast beef" in his mouth, Vasily Petrovich thinks to himself that this is a "stolen piece", that it was "stolen" from someone, that someone was "offended" by this.
But all these arguments do not make any impression on Kudryashov. He says that we must first find out "what is honest and what is dishonest", that "it's all about the look, the point of view", that "one must respect the freedom of judgment ...". And then he raises his dishonest deeds into a general law, into the law of predatory "mutual responsibility." "Am I the only one ... - he says, - I gain? Everything around, (* 52) the very air - and it seems to be dragging." And any striving for honesty is easy to cover: "And we will always cover it. All for one, one for all."
Finally, Kudryashov claims that if he himself is a robber, then Vasily Petrovich is also a robber, but "under the guise of virtue." "Well, what kind of occupation is your teaching?" he asks. "Will you prepare at least one decent person? Three-quarters of your pupils will come out the same as me, and one quarter will be like you, that is, a well-intentioned scumbag. Well, don't you take money for nothing, tell me frankly?" And he expresses the hope that his guest "with his own mind" will come to the same "philosophy".
And in order to better explain this “philosophy” to the guest, Kudryashov shows him in his house a huge aquarium lit by electricity, filled with fish, among which the large ones devour the small ones before the eyes of observers. “I,” says Kudryashov, “love this whole creature because it is frank, not like our brother is a man. He eats each other and is not embarrassed.” "They eat - and do not think about immorality, and we?" "Bite, don't bite, and if a piece gets in... Well, I abolished them, these remorse, and I'm trying to imitate this beast." "Free will," - only the future teacher could say "with a sigh" to this analogy of robbery.
As you can see, Vasily Petrovich, at Garshin's, could not express a clear and decisive condemnation of the base "philosophy" of Kudryashov - the "philosophy" of a predator, who justifies his theft of state funds by referring to the behavior of predators in the animal world. But even in the story "Artists" the writer failed to explain to the reader why Ryabinin "did not succeed" in his teaching activities in the countryside. And in the story "Nadezhda Nikolaevna" he did not show how the rationality of the publicist Bessonov deprived him of heartfelt feelings and doomed him to the "fire" of passion, which led him to murder. All these ambiguities in the writer's work stemmed from the vagueness of his social ideals.
This forced Garshin to immerse himself in the experiences of his heroes, to draw up his works as their "notes", "diaries" or random meetings and disputes, and with difficulty go out with his plans to the "big outside world".
From this followed Garshin's tendency to (* 53) allegorical figurativeness - to symbols and allegories. Of course, Kudryashov's aquarium in the "Meeting" is a symbolic image, evoking the idea of the similarity of predation in the animal world and human predation in the era of the development of bourgeois relations (Kudryashov's confessions clarify it). And the nightmare of the sick Ryabinin, and Lopatin's painting "Charlotte Corday" - too. But Garshin also has such works that are entirely symbolic or allegorical.
Such, for example, is the short story "Attalea prinseps" 1, which shows the futile attempts of a tall and proud southern palm tree to break free from a greenhouse made of iron and glass, and which has an allegorical meaning. Such is the famous symbolic story "The Red Flower" (1883), called by Korolenko the "pearl" of Garshin's work. It symbolizes those episodes of the plot in which a person who has ended up in a lunatic asylum imagines that the beautiful flowers growing in the garden of this house are the embodiment of "world evil", and decides to destroy them. At night, when the watchman is asleep, the patient wriggles out of the straitjacket with difficulty, then bends the iron bar in the window bars; with bloody hands and knees, he climbs over the wall of the garden, plucks a beautiful flower and, returning to the ward, dies. Readers in the 1880s understood the meaning of the story perfectly well.
As you can see, in some allegorical works, Garshin touched upon the motives of the political struggle of the time, in which he himself was not a participant. Like Lopatin with his painting "Charlotte Corday", the writer clearly sympathized with the people who took part in civil clashes, paid tribute to their moral greatness, but at the same time was aware of the doom of their efforts.
Garshin entered the history of Russian fiction as a writer who subtly reflected in his psychological and allegorical stories and stories the atmosphere of timelessness of the reactionary 1880s, through which Russian society was destined to go before it was ripe for decisive political clashes and revolutionary upheavals.
1 Royal palm (lat.).
The first two stories of Garshin, with which he entered the literature, outwardly do not resemble each other. One of them is dedicated to depicting the horrors of war ("Four Days"), the other recreates the story of tragic love ("The Incident").
In the first, the world is transmitted through the consciousness of a single hero; it is based on associative combinations of feelings and thoughts experienced now, this minute, with experiences and episodes of a past life. The second story is based on a love theme.
The sad fate of his heroes is determined by tragically undeveloped relationships, and the reader sees the world through the eyes of one or another hero. But the stories have a common theme, and it will become one of the main ones for most of Garshin's works. Private Ivanov, isolated from the world by the force of circumstances, immersed in himself, comes to an understanding of the complexity of life, to a reassessment of habitual views and moral norms.
The story "The Incident" begins with the fact that his heroine, "already forgetting herself," suddenly begins to think about her life: "How it happened that I, who had not thought about anything for almost two years, began to think, I cannot understand."
The tragedy of Nadezhda Nikolaevna is connected with her loss of faith in people, kindness, responsiveness: “Do they exist, good people, did I see them both after and before my catastrophe? Am I supposed to think there are good people when out of the dozens I know, there isn't one that I can't hate?" In these words of the heroine there is a terrible truth, it is not the result of speculation, but a conclusion from all life experience and therefore acquires special persuasiveness. That tragic and fatal thing that kills the heroine also kills the person who fell in love with her.
All personal experience tells the heroine that people are worthy of contempt and noble impulses are always defeated by base motives. The love story concentrated social evil in the experience of one person, and therefore it became especially concrete and visible. And all the more terrible that the victim of social disorders unwittingly, regardless of his desire, became the bearer of evil.
In the story "Four Days", which brought the author all-Russian fame, the hero's insight also lies in the fact that he simultaneously feels himself both a victim of social disorder and a murderer. This idea, important for Garshin, is complicated by another theme that determines the principles for constructing a number of the writer's stories.
Nadezhda Nikolaevna met many people who, with a "rather sad look," asked her, "Is it possible to somehow get away from such a life?" These outwardly very simple words contain irony, sarcasm and a true tragedy that goes beyond the unfinished life of a particular person. In them is a complete characterization of people who know that they are doing evil, and yet do it.
With their “rather sad look” and essentially indifferent question, they calmed their conscience and lied not only to Nadezhda Nikolaevna, but also to themselves. Assuming a "sad look", they paid tribute to humanity and then, as if fulfilling a necessary duty, acted in accordance with the laws of the existing world order.
This theme is developed in the story "Meeting" (1879). There are two heroes in it, as if sharply opposed to each other: one who retained ideal impulses and moods, the other who completely lost them. The secret of the story, however, lies in the fact that this is not a contrast, but a comparison: the antagonism of the characters is imaginary.
“I don’t resent you, and that’s all,” says the predator and businessman to his friend and very convincingly proves to him that he does not believe in high ideals, but only puts on “some kind of uniform”.
This is the same uniform that Nadezhda Nikolaevna's visitors wear when they ask about her fate. It is important for Garshin to show that with the help of this uniform, the majority manage to close their eyes to the evil prevailing in the world, calm their conscience and sincerely consider themselves moral people.
“The worst lie in the world,” says the hero of the story “Night,” is a lie to oneself.” Its essence lies in the fact that a person quite sincerely professes certain ideals that are recognized as high in society, but in reality lives, guided by completely different criteria, either without being aware of this gap, or deliberately without thinking about it.
Vasily Petrovich is still indignant at the way of life of his comrade. But Garshin foresees the possibility that humane impulses will soon become a “uniform” that hides, if not reprehensible, then at least quite elementary and purely personal requests.
At the beginning of the story, from pleasant dreams about how he will educate his students in the spirit of high civic virtues, the teacher moves on to thoughts about his future life, about his family: “And these dreams seemed to him even more pleasant than even dreams about a public figure who will come to him to give thanks for the good seeds sown in his heart.”
A similar situation is developed by Garshin in the story "Artists" (1879). Social evil in this story is seen not only by Ryabinin, but also by his antipode Dedov. It is he who points out to Ryabinin the terrible working conditions of the workers at the plant: “And do you think they get a lot for such hard labor? Pennies!<...>How many painful impressions at all these factories, Ryabinin, if you only knew! I'm so glad I got rid of them for good. It was just hard to live at first, looking at all this suffering ... ".
And Dedov turns away from these difficult impressions, turning to nature and art, reinforcing his position with the theory of beauty he created. This is also the "uniform" that he puts on to believe in his own decency.
But it's still a fairly simple form of lying. Central in the work of Garshin will not be a negative hero (as modern criticism of Garshin noticed, there are not many of them in his works), but a person who overcomes high, “noble” forms of lying to himself. This lie is connected with the fact that a person, not only in words, but also in deeds, follows high, admittedly, ideas and moral standards, such as loyalty to a cause, duty, homeland, art.
As a result, however, he is convinced that following these ideals does not lead to a decrease, but, on the contrary, to an increase in evil in the world. The study of the causes of this paradoxical phenomenon in modern society and the awakening and torment of conscience associated with it is one of the main Garshin themes in Russian literature.
Dedov is sincerely passionate about his work, and it obscures for him the world and the suffering of others. Ryabinin, who constantly asked himself the question of who needed his art and why, also felt how artistic creativity was beginning to acquire self-sufficient significance for him. He suddenly saw that “the questions are: where? For what? disappear during work; there is one thought in the head, one goal, and bringing it into execution is a pleasure. The painting is the world in which you live and to which you are responsible. Here worldly morality disappears: you create a new one for yourself in your new world and in it you feel your rightness, dignity or insignificance and lies in your own way, regardless of life.
This is what Ryabinin has to overcome in order not to leave life, not to create, although very high, but still a separate world, alienated from common life. Ryabinin's revival will come when he feels someone else's pain as his own, understands that people have learned not to notice the evil around him, and feels himself responsible for social untruth.
It is necessary to kill the peace of people who have learned to lie to themselves - such a task will be set by Ryabinin and Garshin, who created this image.
The hero of the story "Four Days" goes to war, imagining only how he will "put his chest under the bullets." This is his high and noble self-deception. It turns out that in war you need not only to sacrifice yourself, but also to kill others. In order for the hero to see clearly, Garshin needs to get him out of his usual rut.
“I have never been in such a strange position,” Ivanov says. The meaning of this phrase is not only that the wounded hero lies on the battlefield and sees in front of him the corpse of the fellah he killed. The strangeness and unusualness of his view of the world lies in the fact that what he had previously seen through the prism of general ideas about duty, war, self-sacrifice is suddenly illuminated with a new light. In this light, the hero sees differently not only the present, but also his entire past. In his memory there are episodes to which he did not attach much importance before.
Significantly, for example, is the title of a book he had read before: Physiology of Everyday Life. It was written that a person can live without food for more than a week and that one suicide who starved himself to death lived a very long time because he drank. In "ordinary" life, these facts could only interest him, nothing more. Now his life depends on a sip of water, and the "physiology of everyday life" appears before him in the form of the decaying corpse of a murdered fellah. But in a sense, what is happening to him is also the ordinary life of the war, and he is not the first wounded man to die on the battlefield.
Ivanov recalls how many times before he had to hold skulls in his hands and dissect whole heads. This, too, was commonplace, and he was never surprised by it. Here, too, a skeleton in a uniform with bright buttons made him shudder. Previously, he calmly read in the newspapers that "our losses are insignificant." Now this “minor loss” was himself.
It turns out that human society is arranged in such a way that the terrible in it becomes commonplace. Thus, in the gradual comparison of the present and the past, Ivanov discovers the truth of human relations and the lies of the ordinary, that is, as he now understands, a distorted view of life, and the question of guilt and responsibility arises. What is the fault of the Turkish fellah he killed? “And what is my fault, even though I killed him?” Ivanov asks.
The whole story is built on this opposition of "before" and "now". Previously, Ivanov, in a noble impulse, went to war in order to sacrifice himself, but it turns out that he did not sacrifice himself, but others. Now the hero knows who he is. “Murder, murderer... And who is it? I!". Now he also knows why he became a murderer: “When I started going to fight, my mother and Masha did not dissuade me, although they cried over me.
Blinded by the idea, I did not see those tears. I did not understand (now I understand) what I was doing with beings close to me. He was "blinded by the idea" of duty and self-sacrifice and did not know that society distorts human relations so much that the most noble idea can lead to a violation of fundamental moral norms.
Many paragraphs of the story “Four Days” begin with the pronoun “I”, then the action performed by Ivanov is called: “I woke up ...”, “I rise ...”, “I lie ...”, “I crawl .. . "," I come to despair ...". The last phrase is: "I can speak and tell them everything that is written here." “I can” should be understood here as “I must” - I must reveal to others the truth that I have just known.
For Garshin, most of the actions of people are based on a general idea, an idea. But from this position he draws a paradoxical conclusion. Having learned to generalize, a person has lost the immediacy of perception of the world. From the point of view of general laws, the death of people in war is natural and necessary. But the dying on the battlefield does not want to accept this necessity.
A certain strangeness, unnaturalness in the perception of the war is also noticed by the hero of the story “Coward” (1879): “Nerves, or something, are so arranged with me, only military telegrams indicating the number of dead and wounded produce a much stronger effect on me than on surrounding. Another calmly reads: “Our losses are insignificant, such and such officers were wounded, 50 lower ranks were killed, 100 were wounded,” and he is also glad that there are few, but when I read such news, a whole bloody picture immediately appears before my eyes.
Why, the hero continues, if the newspapers report the murder of several people, is everyone outraged? Why does the railway accident, in which several dozen people died, attract the attention of all of Russia? But why is no one indignant when it is written about insignificant losses at the front, equal to the same several dozen people? The murder and the train crash are accidents that could have been prevented.
War is a regularity, many people should be killed in it, this is natural. But it is difficult for the hero of the story to see naturalness and regularity here, “His nerves are arranged in such a way” that he does not know how to generalize, but on the contrary, he concretizes general provisions. He sees the illness and death of his friend Kuzma, and this impression is multiplied in him by the figures reported by military reports.
But, having gone through the experience of Ivanov, who recognized himself as a murderer, it is impossible, it is impossible to go to war. Therefore, such a decision of the hero of the story “Coward” looks quite logical and natural. No arguments of reason about the necessity of war matter to him, because, as he says, "I do not talk about war and relate to it with a direct feeling, indignant at the mass of shed blood." And yet he goes to war. It is not enough for him to feel the suffering of people dying in the war as his own, he needs to share the suffering with everyone. Only then can the conscience be at peace.
For the same reason, Ryabinin from the story "Artists" refuses to do artistic work. He created a picture that depicted the torment of the worker and which was supposed to "kill the peace of the people." This is the first step, but he also takes the next step - he goes to those who suffer. It is on this psychological basis that the story "Coward" combines an angry denial of the war with a conscious participation in it.
In Garshin's next work about the war, From the Memoirs of Private Ivanov (1882), the passionate sermon against the war and the moral problems associated with it fade into the background. The image of the external world occupies the same place as the image of the process of its perception. At the center of the story is the question of the relationship between a soldier and an officer, more broadly, between the people and the intelligentsia. Participation in the war for the intelligent private Ivanov is his going to the people.
The immediate political tasks that the populists set themselves turned out to be unfulfilled, but for the intelligentsia of the early 80s. the need for unity with the people and knowledge of it continued to be the main issue of the era. Many of the Narodniks attributed their defeat to the fact that they idealized the people, created an image of it that did not correspond to reality. This had its own truth, about which both G. Uspensky and Korolenko wrote. But the ensuing disappointment led to the other extreme - to "a quarrel with a younger brother." This painful state of "quarrel" is experienced by the hero of the story, Wenzel.
Once he lived by a passionate faith in the people, but when he encountered them, he became disappointed and embittered. He correctly understood that Ivanov was going to war in order to get closer to the people, and warned them against a "literary" outlook on life. In his opinion, it was literature that "raised the peasant into the pearl of creation", giving rise to an unfounded admiration for him.
Disappointment in the people of Wenzel, like many like him, really came from a too idealistic, literary, "head" idea of him. Crashed, these ideals were replaced by another extreme - contempt for the people. But, as Garshin shows, this contempt also turned out to be head and not always consistent with the soul and heart of the hero. The story ends with the fact that after the battle, in which fifty-two soldiers from Wenzel's company died, he, "huddled in the corner of the tent and lowered his head on some kind of box," muffled sobs.
Unlike Wenzel, Ivanov did not approach the people with preconceived notions of one kind or another. This allowed him to see in the soldiers their courage, moral strength, and devotion to duty. When five young volunteers repeated the words of the old military oath “without sparing the stomach” to bear all the hardships of a military campaign, he, “looking at the ranks of gloomy people ready for battle<...>I felt that these were not empty words.
History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983
Control
Literature and library science
The writing style is incomparable to anyone else's. Always an accurate expression of thought, designation of facts without unnecessary metaphors and an all-consuming sadness that passes through every fairy tale or story with dramatic tension. Both adults and children like to read fairy tales, everyone will find meaning in them.
Kirov Regional State Educational Autonomous
institution of secondary vocational education
"Oryol College of Pedagogy and Professional Technologies"
Test
MDK.01.03 "Children's literature with a workshop on expressive reading"
Subject No. 9: "Features of the creative manner of V. Garshin in the works included in children's reading"
Orlov, 2015
Introduction
1.1. Biography
Vsevolod Mikhailovich Garshin Russian writer, poet, art critic February 14 (1855) - April 5 (1888)
Garshin V.M from an old noble family. Born into a military family. Mother from childhood instilled in her son a love of literature. Vsevolod learned very quickly and was developed beyond his years. Perhaps that is why he often took everything that happened to heart.
In 1864 studied at the gymnasium 1874. graduated and entered the Mining Institute, but did not finish. His studies were interrupted by the war with the Turks. He volunteered for the army, was wounded in the leg: after retiring, he devoted himself to literary activity. Garshin established himself as a talented art critic.
Vsevolod Mikhailovich is the master of the short story.
Features of the creative manner of V.M. Garshin in the works included in children's reading.
The writing style is incomparable to anyone else's. Always an accurate expression of thought, designation of facts without unnecessary metaphors and an all-consuming sadness that passes through every fairy tale or story with dramatic tension. Both adults and children like to read fairy tales, everyone will find meaning in them. The composition of his stories, surprisingly complete, lack of action. Most of his works are written in the form of diaries, letters, confessions. The number of actors is very limited. His work is characterized by the accuracy of observation and the certainty of expressions of thought. Simple designation of objects and facts. A short, polished phrase such as: “Hot. The sun burns. The wounded man opens his eyes, sees bushes, a high sky...”
A special place in the writer's work is occupied by the theme of art and its role in the life of society. He could depict not a large outside world, but a narrow "own". He knew how to keenly feel and artistically embody social evil. That is why the imprint of deep sorrow lies on many of Garshin's works. He was burdened by the injustice of modern life, the mournful tone of his work was a form of protest against a social order based on callousness and violence. And this determined all the features of his artistic manner.
All written works of art fit in one volume, but what he created has firmly become a classic of Russian literature. Garshin's work was highly appreciated by literary peers of the older generation. His works have been translated into all major European languages. Garshin's artistic gift, his predilection for fantastic figurativeness was especially clearly manifested in the fairy tales he created. Although in them Garshin remains true to his creative principle of depicting life in a tragic perspective. Such is the tale of the futility of knowing the vast and complex world of human existence through "common sense" (That which was not"). The plot of "The Tale of the Toad and the Rose" forms a complex interweaving of two oppositional structures: the images of a beautiful flower and a disgusting toad intending to "devour" it are parallel to the tragic confrontation between a sick boy and death approaching him.
In 1880 Shaken by the death penalty of a young revolutionary, Garshin became mentally ill and was placed in a mental hospital. March 19 (31), 1888 after a painful night, he left his apartment, went down the floor below and threw himself down the stairs into the flight. On April 24 (April 5), 1888, Garshin died without regaining consciousness in the Red Cross hospital.
It is characteristic that Garshin ended his short journey in literature with a cheerful fairy tale for children “Frog Traveler”.Tragism is the dominant feature of Garshin's work. The only exception is the full of zest for life, sparkling with humor "The Frog Traveler". Ducks and frogs, the inhabitants of the swamp, in this fairy tale are completely real creatures, which does not prevent them from being fairy-tale characters. The most remarkable thing is that the fantastic journey of the frog reveals in it a purely human character - the type of a kind of ambitious dreamer. The method of doubling the fantastic image is also interesting in this tale: not only the author, but also the frog composes a funny story here. Having fallen from heaven through her own fault into a dirty pond, she begins to tell its inhabitants a story she composed about “how she thought all her life and finally invented a new, unusual way of traveling on ducks; how she had her own ducks that carried her wherever she pleased, how she visited the beautiful south ... ". He refused a cruel end, his heroine remains alive. It is fun for him to write about a frog and ducks, to saturate a fairy tale plot with quiet and subtle humor. It is significant that Garshin's last words were addressed to children against the background of other works, sad and disturbing, this tale is, as it were, living evidence that the joy of life never disappears, that "the light shines in the darkness."
Garshin's excellent personal qualities were fully embodied in his work. This, perhaps, is the guarantee of the inexhaustible interest of many generations of readers in the remarkable artist of the word.
It can be stated with absolute certainty that the impetus for writing each work was the shock experienced by the author himself. Not excitement or chagrin, but shock, and therefore each letter cost the writer "a drop of blood." At the same time, Garshin, according to Yu. Aikhenvald, “did not breathe anything sick and restless into his works, did not frighten anyone, did not show neurasthenia in himself, did not infect others with it ...”.
Many critics wrote that Garshin portrayed the fight not with evil, but with an illusion or metaphor of evil, showing the heroic madness of his character. However, in contrast to those who create illusions that he is the ruler of the world, who has the right to decide other people's destinies, the hero of the story died with the belief that evil can be defeated. Garshin himself belonged to this category.
Analysis of fairy tales
3.1 Analysis of the fairy tale by V.M. Garshin "The Frog is a Traveler"
- Frog Traveler
- About animals
- How can we take you? You don't have wings, exclaimed the duck.
The frog was breathless with fear.
- About the adventures of a frog, a frog, who once decided to go with ducks to the beautiful south. The ducks carried her on a twig, but the frog croaked and fell down, fortunately falling not on the road, but in the swamp. There she began to tell other frogs all sorts of fables.
- Frog decisive, inquisitive, cheerful, boastful. Ducks are friendly,
- A very good and instructive story. Boasting leads to not very good consequences. To cultivate positive qualities: respectful attitude towards each other, self-esteem, not to be conceited and not to brag. You have to be humble and content.
3.2. Analysis of the fairy tale by V.M. Garshin "The Tale of the Toad and the Rose"
- The Tale of the Toad and the Rose
- About animals (household)
- And the hedgehog, frightened, pulled a prickly fur coat over his forehead and turned into a ball. The ant delicately touches the thin tubes protruding from the aphids on the back. The dung beetle is busily and diligently dragging its ball somewhere. The spider watches over flies like a lizard. The toad was barely breathing, inflating its dirty gray, warty and sticky sides.
- The tale of a toad and a rose, embodying good and evil, is a sad, touching story. The toad and the rose lived in the same abandoned flower garden. A little boy used to play in the garden, but now that the rose had blossomed, he lay in bed and died. The nasty toad hunted at night and lay among the flowers during the day. The smell of a beautiful rose annoyed her, and she decided to eat it. Rosa was very afraid of her, because she did not want to die such a death. And just as she almost got to the flower, the boy's sister came up to cut the rose to give to the sick child. The girl threw away the insidious toad. The boy, having inhaled the fragrance of the flower, died. The rose stood at his coffin, and then it was dried. Rose helped the boy, she made him happy.
- Toad terrible, lazy, gluttonous, cruel, insensitive
Rose kind, beautiful
Boy softhearted
Sister kind
- This short fairy tale teaches us to strive for the beautiful and the good, to avoid evil in all its manifestations, to be beautiful not only on the outside, but, above all, in the soul.
Conclusion
In his works, Garshin portrayed the significant and acute conflicts of our time. His workwas "restless", passionate, militant. He displayed the heavy consideration of the people, the horrors of bloody wars, the glorification of the heroism of freedom fighters, the spirit of pity and compassion pervades all his work. The significance is that he was able to feel acutely and artistically embody social evil.
Bibliography
- garshin. lit-info.ru›review/garshin/005/415.ht
- people.su›26484
- tunnel.ru›ZhZL
- Abramov Ya. "In memory of V.M. Garshin".
- Arseniev Ya. V.M. Garshin and his work.
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As a manuscript
Vasina Svetlana Nikolaevna
Poetics of V.M. Garshin: psychologism and
narration
Specialty: 10. 01. 01 - Russian literature
dissertations for a degree
candidate of philological sciences
Moscow - 2011
The dissertation was completed at the State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education of the city of Moscow "Moscow City Pedagogical University" at the Institute for the Humanities at the Department of Russian Literature and Folklore
Scientific director: Alexander Petrovich Auer, Doctor of Philology, Professor
Official Opponents: Gacheva Anastasia Georgievna, Doctor of Philology, Senior Research Fellow, Institute of World Literature. A.M. Gorky RAS Kapyrina Tatyana Alexandrovna, Candidate of Philology, Editor of the Moscow State Regional Social and Humanitarian Institute
GOU VPO "State Institute
Lead organization:
Russian language them. A.S. Pushkin"
The defense will take place on February 28, 2011 at 15:00 at a meeting of the dissertation council D850.007.07 (specialties: 10.01.01 - Russian literature, 10.02.01 - Russian language [philological sciences]) at the State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Moscow City Pedagogical University" in address: 129226, Moscow, 2nd Selskokhozyaystvenny proezd, 4, building 4, aud. 3406.
The dissertation can be found in the library of the State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Moscow City Pedagogical University" at the address: 129226, Moscow, 2nd Selskokhozyaistvenny proezd, 4, building 4.
Scientific secretary of the dissertation council, candidate of philological sciences, professor V.A. Kokhanova
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK
Unrelenting interest in the poetics of V.M. Garshin indicates that this area of research remains very relevant for modern science. The writer's work has long been the object of study from the standpoint of various trends and literary schools. However, in this research diversity, three methodological approaches stand out, each of which brings together a whole group of scientists.
The first group should include scientists (G.A. Byalogo, N.Z. Belyaeva, A.N.
Latynin), who consider Garshin's work in the context of his biography. Describing the prose writer's writing style in general, they analyze his works in chronological order, correlating certain "shifts" in poetics with the stages of his creative path.
In studies of the second direction, Garshin's prose is covered mainly in a comparative typological aspect. First of all, here we should mention the article by N.V. Kozhukhovskaya "Tolstoy's tradition in the military stories of V.M. Garshin” (1992), where it is specifically noted that in the minds of Garshin’s characters (as well as in the minds of L.N. Tolstoy’s characters) there is no “protective psychological reaction” that would allow them not to be tormented by feelings of guilt and personal responsibility. Works in Garshin studies of the second half of the 20th century are devoted to comparing the work of Garshin and F.M.
Dostoevsky (article by F.I. Evnin “F.M. Dostoevsky and V.M. Garshin” (1962), candidate’s thesis by G.A. Skleinis “Typology of characters in F.M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov” and in .M. Garshin in the 80s.”
The third group consists of the works of those researchers who focused their attention on the study of individual elements of the poetics of Garshin's prose, including the poetics of his psychologism. Of particular interest is the dissertation research of V.I. Shubin “The mastery of psychological analysis in the work of V.M. Garshin" (1980). In our observations, we relied on his conclusions that a distinctive feature of the writer's stories is “... internal energy that requires a short and lively expression, the psychological richness of the image and the entire narrative. ... The moral and social problems that permeate all of Garshin's work have found their vivid and deep expression in the method of psychological analysis based on the comprehension of the value of the human personality, the moral principle in a person's life and his social behavior. In addition, we took into account the research results of the third chapter of the work “Forms and means of psychological analysis in the stories of V.M. Garshin”, in which V.I. Shubin distinguishes five forms of psychological analysis: internal monologue, dialogue, dreams, portrait and landscape. Supporting the conclusions of the researcher, we nevertheless note that we consider the portrait and landscape in a wider, from the point of view of the poetics of psychologism, functional range.
Various aspects of the poetics of Garshin prose were analyzed by the authors of the collective study “Poetics of V.M. Garshin” (1990) Yu.G.
Milyukov, P. Henry and others. The book touches upon, in particular, the problems of theme and form (including types of narration and types of lyricism), images of the hero and the “counterhero”, considers the writer’s impressionistic style and the “artistic mythology” of individual works, raises the question of the principles for studying Garshin’s unfinished stories ( reconstruction problem).
In the three-volume collection "Vsevolod Garshin at the turn of the century"
(“Vsevolod Garshin at the turn of the century”) presents research by scientists from different countries. The authors of the collection pay their attention not only to various aspects of poetics (S.N. Kaidash-Lakshina “The image of a “fallen woman” in the work of Garshin”, E.M. Sventsitskaya “The concept of personality and conscience in the work of Vs. Garshin”, Yu.B. Orlitsky "Poems in prose in the work of V.M. Garshin", etc.), but also solve the complex problems of translating the writer's prose into English (M. Dewhirst "Three Translations of Garshin" s Story "Three Red Flowers" ", etc. .).
Problems of poetics occupy an important place in almost all works devoted to the work of Garshin. However, most of the structural studies are still private or episodic. This applies primarily to the study of narration and the poetics of psychologism. In those works that come close to these problems, it is more about posing a question than about solving it, which in itself is an incentive for further research. Therefore, the identification of forms of psychological analysis and the main components of the poetics of narration can be considered relevant, which allows us to come close to the problem of the structural combination of psychologism and narration in Garshin's prose.
Scientific novelty The work is determined by the fact that for the first time a consistent consideration of the poetics of psychologism and narration in Garshin's prose, which is the most characteristic feature of the writer's prose, is proposed. A systematic approach to the study of Garshin's work is presented.
The supporting categories in the poetics of the writer's psychologism (confession, "large narrative forms in Garshin's prose, such as description, narration, reasoning, other people's speech (direct, indirect, improperly direct), points of view, categories of the narrator and narrator are identified.
Subject of research are eighteen stories by Garshin.
The purpose of the dissertation research is to identify and analytically describe the main artistic forms of psychological analysis in prose.
In accordance with the goal, specific tasks research:
consider confession in the poetics of the author's psychologism;
determine the functions of "close-up", portrait, landscape, environment in the poetics of the writer's psychologism;
to study the poetics of narration in the writer's works, to reveal the artistic function of all narrative forms;
Garshin's narration;
describe the functions of the narrator and narrator in the writer's prose.
The methodological and theoretical basis of the dissertation are the literary works of A.P. Auera, M.M. Bakhtin, Yu.B. Boreva, L.Ya.
Ginzburg, A.B. Esina, A.B. Krinitsyna, Yu.M. Lotman, Yu.V. Manna, A.P.
Skaftymova, N.D. Tamarchenko, B.V. Tomashevsky, M.S. Uvarova, B.A.
Uspensky, V.E. Khalizeva, V. Schmid, E.G. Etkind, as well as the linguistic studies of V.V. Vinogradova, N.A. Kozhevnikova, O.A. Nechaeva, G.Ya.
Solganika. Based on the works of these scientists and the achievements of modern narratology, a methodology of immanent analysis was developed, which makes it possible to reveal the artistic essence of a literary phenomenon in full accordance with the author's creative aspiration. The main methodological reference point for us was the "model" of immanent analysis, presented in the work of A.P. Skaftymov "Thematic composition of the novel" Idiot "".
The theoretical significance of the work lies in the fact that on the basis of the results obtained, an opportunity is created to deepen the scientific understanding of the poetics of psychologism and the structure of narration in Garshin's prose. The conclusions made in the work can serve as a basis for further theoretical study of Garshin's work in modern literary criticism.
Practical significance The work consists in the fact that its results can be used in the development of a course in the history of Russian literature of the 19th century, special courses and special seminars dedicated to the work of Garshin.
Dissertation materials can be included in an elective course for classes in the humanities in a secondary school.
Basic provisions submitted for defense:
1. Confession in Garshin's prose contributes to a deep penetration into the inner world of the hero. In the story "Night", the hero's confession becomes the main form of psychological analysis. In other stories ("Four Days", "The Incident", "Coward") it is not given a central place, but nevertheless it becomes an important part of poetics and interacts with other forms of psychological analysis.
2. "Close-up" in Garshin's prose is presented: a) in the form of detailed descriptions with comments of an evaluative and analytical nature ("From the memoirs of Private Ivanov"); b) when describing dying people, the reader's attention is drawn to the inner world, the psychological state of the hero who is nearby ("Death", "Coward"); c) in the form of a list of the actions of the heroes who perform them at the moment when the consciousness is turned off (“Signal”, “Nadezhda Nikolaevna”).
3. Portrait and landscape sketches, descriptions of the situation in Garshin's stories enhance the author's emotional impact on the reader, visual perception and largely contribute to the identification of the inner movements of the characters' souls.
4. The narrative structure of Garshin's works is dominated by three scenic and informational) and reasoning (nominal evaluative reasoning, reasoning to justify actions, reasoning to prescribe or describe actions, reasoning with the meaning of affirmation or negation).
5. Direct speech in the texts of the writer can belong to both the hero and objects (plants). In the works of Garshin, the internal monologue is built as a character's appeal to himself. The study of indirect and improperly direct speech shows that these forms of someone else's speech in Garshin's prose are much less common than direct speech. For the writer, it is more important to reproduce the true thoughts and feelings of the characters (which are much more convenient to convey through direct speech, thereby preserving the inner feelings and emotions of the characters). Garshin's stories contain the following points of view: in terms of ideology, spatio-temporal characteristics and psychology.
6. The narrator in Garshin's prose manifests himself in the forms of presentation of events from the first person, and the narrator - from the third, which is a systemic pattern in the poetics of the writer's narration.
7. Psychologism and narration in Garshin's poetics are in constant interaction. In such a combination, they form a mobile system within which structural interactions occur.
research was presented in scientific reports at conferences: at the X Vinogradov Readings (GOU VPO MGPU. 2007, Moscow); XI Vinogradov readings (GOU VPO MGPU, 2009, Moscow); X conference of young philologists "Poetics and comparative studies" (GOU VPO MO "KSPI", 2007, Kolomna). 5 articles were published on the topic of the study, including two in publications included in the list of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia.
The structure of the work is determined by the goals and objectives of the study.
The dissertation consists of an Introduction, two chapters, a Conclusion and a list of references.
In the first chapter the forms of psychological analysis in Garshin's prose are consistently considered. In the second chapter narrative models are analyzed, according to which the narration in the writer's stories is organized.
The work ends with a list of literature, including 235 items.
MAIN CONTENT OF THE THEsis
The "Introduction" gives a history of the study of the issue and a brief review of critical works devoted to the analysis of Garshin's literary activity;the purpose, tasks, relevance of the work are formulated; the concepts of "narrative", "psychologism" are specified; the theoretical and methodological basis of the study is characterized, the structure of the work is described.
In the first chapter of Garshin, the forms of psychological analysis in the writer's works are consistently considered. In the first paragraph "The Artistic Nature of Confession"
works, speech organization of the text, part of psychological analysis.
It is this form of confession that can be discussed in the context of Garshin's work. This speech form in the text performs a psychological function.
The analysis showed that the elements of confession contribute to a deep penetration into the inner world of the hero. It was revealed that in the story "Night" the hero's confession becomes the main form of psychological analysis.
In other stories (“Four Days”, “The Incident”, “Coward”), she is not given a central place, she becomes only part of the poetics of psychologism, but a very important part, interacting with other forms of psychological analysis. In these works, as in the story "Night", the characters' confession becomes an artistic way of revealing the process of self-consciousness. And this is the main artistic function of confession in the poetics of Garshin's psychologism. With all the plot and compositional difference of the above stories, the confessions in the poetics of Garshin's psychologism acquire common features: the presence of the figure of the confessor, the hero's reflections aloud, frankness, sincerity of statements, an element of insight in views on life and people.
In the second paragraph "The psychological function of the "close-up"", based on the theoretical definitions of the "close-up" (Yu.M. Lotman, V.E.
Khalizev, E.G. Etkind) consider its psychological function in Garshin's prose. In the story “Four Days”, the “close-up” is voluminous, maximally enlarged due to the method of introspection, narrowing the time (four days) and spatial extent. In Garshin's story "From the Memoirs of Private Ivanov", the "close-up" is presented differently. He not only conveys in detail the inner state of the hero, but also the feelings and experiences of the people around him, which leads to an expansion of the space of the events depicted.
Private Ivanov's worldview is meaningful, there is some assessment of the chain of events. There are episodes in this story where the hero's consciousness is turned off (even if only partially) - it is in them that you can find a "close-up". The "close-up" focus can also be directed to the portrait of the character. This is rare, and not every such description will be a “close-up”, but nevertheless, a similar example can be found in the story “From the Memoirs of Private Ivanov”.
Attention is drawn to the episodes where the "close-up" turns into lengthy comments. It is impossible to separate them for the reason that one smoothly follows from the other, they are connected by a logical chain of memories (in the story “From the Memoirs of Private Ivanov”). "Close-up" can also be noted in Garshin's sketch "Death", in the portrait of the dying E.F. A detailed external description of the patient is followed by an image of the narrator's internal perception of the situation, a detailed analysis of his feelings. "Close-up" is found when describing dying people, this is not only a detailed image of the appearance and wounds of the characters, but also the inner world of the main characters nearby at that moment. It is their thoughts and perception of the surrounding reality that prove the presence of a “close-up” in the text fragment (“Death”, “Coward”). It is important to note that the "close-up"
can be a list of the actions of the heroes who perform them at the moment of “turning off consciousness” (“Signal”, “Nadezhda Nikolaevna”).
"Close-up" in Garshin's prose is presented: a) in the form of detailed descriptions with comments of an evaluative and analytical nature ("From the memoirs of Private Ivanov"); b) when describing dying people, the reader's attention is drawn to the inner world, the psychological state of the hero who is nearby ("Death", "Coward"); c) in the form of a list of the actions of the heroes who perform them at the moment when the consciousness is turned off (“Signal”, “Nadezhda Nikolaevna”).
In the third paragraph "The psychological function of a portrait, landscape, setting" we come to the conclusion that the psychological function of a portrait, landscape, setting largely contributes to the identification of the inner movements of the characters' souls. Depicting both living and dead people, the writer succinctly points out outstanding, characteristic features. It is important to note that Garshin often shows the eyes of people, it is in them that one can see the suffering, fear and torment of the heroes. In the portrait characteristics, Garshin, as it were, makes sketches of external features through which he conveys the inner world, the experiences of the characters. Such descriptions perform primarily the psychological function of a portrait: the inner state of the characters is reflected in their faces.
The Garshi landscape is compressed, expressive, nature minimally reflects the inner state of the hero. An exception may be the description of the garden in the story "The Red Flower". Nature serves as a kind of prism through which the hero's spiritual drama is seen more sharply and clearly. On the one hand, the landscape reveals the psychological state of the patient, on the other hand, it preserves the objectivity of the image of the outside world. The landscape is more connected with the chronotope, but in the poetics of psychologism it also occupies a fairly strong position due to the fact that in some cases it becomes the “mirror of the soul” of the hero.
Garshin's heightened interest in the inner world of a person largely determined the image of the world around him in his works. As a rule, small landscape fragments woven into the experiences of the characters and the description of events begin to function in full accordance with the principle of psychological parallelism.
The setting in a literary text often performs a psychological function. It was revealed that the situation performs a psychological function in the stories "Night", "Nadezhda Nikolaevna", "Coward". When depicting an interior, it is typical for a writer to concentrate his attention on individual objects, things (“Nadezhda Nikolaevna”, “Coward”). In this case, we can talk about a passing, concise description of the environment of the room.
In the second chapter “Poetics of Narrative in V.M. Garshin"
narration in Garshin's prose. In the first paragraph "Types of Narrative"
narrative, description and reasoning are considered. With the advent of the works “functional-semantic type of speech” (“certain logical-semantic and structural types of monologue statements that are used as models in the process of speech communication”1). O.A. Nechaeva identifies four structural and semantic "descriptive genres": landscape, portrait of a person, interior (furnishings), characterization.
In Garshin's prose, descriptions of nature are given little space, but nevertheless they are not devoid of narrative functions. Landscape sketches appear in the story "Bears", which begins with a lengthy description of the area. A landscape sketch precedes the story.
The description of nature is an enumeration of the general features that make up the topographic description. In the main part, the depiction of nature in Garshin's prose is episodic. As a rule, these are short passages, consisting of one to three sentences.
In Garshin's stories, the description of the external features of the hero undoubtedly helps to show their inner, mental state. The story "The Orderly and the Officer" presents one of the most detailed portrait descriptions.
It should be noted that most of Garshin's stories are characterized by a completely different description of the characters' appearance. The writer focuses on reasoning) / O.A. Nechaev. - Ulan-Ude, 1974. - S. 24.
reader, rather, on the details. Therefore, it is logical to talk about a compressed, incidental portrait in Garshin's prose. Portrait characteristics are included in the poetics of the narrative. They reflect both permanent and temporary, momentary external features of the characters.
Separately, it should be said about the description of the hero's costume as a detail of his portrait. Garshin's costume is both a social and psychological characteristic of a person. The author describes the clothes of the character if he wants to emphasize the fact that his characters follow the fashion of that time, and this, in turn, speaks of their financial situation, financial capabilities and some character traits. Garshin also deliberately draws the reader's attention to the clothes of the hero, if it is an unusual life situation or a costume for a celebration, a special occasion. Such narrative gestures contribute to the fact that the clothes of the hero become part of the poetics of the writer's psychologism.
To describe the situation in Garshin's prose works, the static nature of objects is characteristic. In the story "Meeting" descriptions of the situation play a key role. Garshin focuses the reader's attention on the material from which things are made. This is significant: Kudryashov surrounds himself with expensive things, which is mentioned several times in the text of the work, so it is important what they were made of. All things in the house, like the whole environment, are a reflection of the philosophical concept of "predation"
Kudryashov.
Descriptions-characteristics are found in three stories by Garshin "Batman and officer", "Nadezhda Nikolaevna", "Signal". The characterization of Stebelkov (“Batman and Officer”), one of the main characters, includes both biographical information and facts that reveal the essence of his character (passivity, primitiveness, laziness). This monologue characteristic is a description with elements of reasoning. Completely different characteristics are given to the main characters of the stories "Signal" and "Nadezhda Nikolaevna" (diary form). Garshin introduces the reader to the biographies of the characters.
The description (landscape, portrait, setting) is characterized by the use of a single time plan: otherwise, we can talk about the dynamics, the development of the action, which is more characteristic of the narrative; the use of the real (indicative) mood - the presence or absence of any signs of the objects described - does not imply unreality;
reference words are used that carry the function of enumeration. In the portrait, when describing the external features of the characters, nominal parts of speech (nouns and adjectives) are actively used for expressiveness.
In the description-characteristic, it is possible to use the surreal mood, in particular the subjunctive (the story "The orderly and the officer"), there are also verb forms at different times.
Narration in Garshin's prose can be specific stage, general stage and informational. In the concrete-stage narrative, the dismembered concrete actions of the subjects are reported (a kind of scenario is presented). The dynamics of the narrative is transmitted through conjugated forms and the semantics of verbs, participles, adverbial formants. In a generalized stage narrative, repetitive actions typical of a given situation are reported.
The development of the action occurs with the help of auxiliary verbs, adverbial phrases. Generalized stage narration is not intended for staging. In the informational narrative, two varieties can be distinguished: the form of retelling and the form of indirect speech (themes of the message sound in the passages, there is no specifics, certainty of actions).
The following types of reasoning are presented in Garshin's prose:
nominal evaluative reasoning, reasoning for the purpose of justifying actions, reasoning for the purpose of prescribing or describing actions, reasoning with the meaning of affirmation or negation. The first three types of reasoning are correlated with the scheme of the inferential sentence. For nominal evaluative reasoning, it is typical in the conclusion to evaluate the subject of speech;
noun, implements various semantic and evaluative characteristics (superiority, irony, etc.). It is with the help of reasoning that a characterization of an action is given in order to justify it.
Reasoning with the aim of prescribing or describing substantiates the prescribing of actions (if there are words with a prescriptive modality - with the meaning of necessity, obligation). Reasoning with the meaning of affirmation or negation is reasoning in the form of a rhetorical question or exclamation.
In the second paragraph "Alien speech" and its narrative functions, direct, indirect, improperly direct speech in Garshin's stories is considered. First of all, the internal monologue is analyzed, which is the character's appeal to himself. In the stories "Nadezhda Nikolaevna" and "Night" the narration is in the first person: the narrator reproduces his thoughts. In the rest of the works ("Meeting", "Red Flower", "Batman and Officer"), the events are described in the third person.
reality. With all the desire of the writer to move away from diary entries, he continues to show the inner world of the characters, their thoughts.
Direct speech is characterized by the transfer of the inner world of the character.
The hero can refer to himself aloud or mentally. Tragic reflections of the characters are often found in the stories. Garshin's prose is characterized by direct speech, consisting of only one sentence. So, in the story "The Tale of the Proud Haggai" the hero's thoughts are conveyed by short one-part and two-part sentences.
An analysis of examples of the use of indirect and improperly direct speech shows that they are much less common than direct speech in Garshin's prose.
It can be assumed that it is fundamental for a writer to convey the true thoughts and feelings of the characters (it is much more convenient to “retell” them using direct speech, thereby preserving the inner experiences and emotions of the characters).
In the third paragraph "Functions of the narrator and narrator in the writer's prose" the subjects of speech are analyzed. In Garshin's prose, there are examples of the presentation of events by both the narrator and the narrator.
narrator. In the works of Garshin, the relationship is clearly presented:
narrator - "Four Days", "From the Memoirs of Private Ivanov", "A Very Short Novel" - narration in the form of the first person, two narrators - "Artists", "Nadezhda Nikolaevna", narrator - "Signal", "Frog Traveler", "Meeting ”, “Red Flower”, “The Tale of the Proud Haggai”, “The Tale of the Toad and the Rose” - a narration in the form of a third person. In Garshin's prose, the narrator is a participant in the ongoing events. The story "A Very Short Romance" presents a conversation between the main character, the subject of speech, and the reader. The stories "Artists" and "Nadezhda Nikolaevna" are diaries of two storytelling characters. The narrators in the above works are not participants in the events and are not portrayed by any of the characters. A characteristic feature of the subjects of speech is the reproduction of the thoughts of the characters, the description of their actions, deeds. Thus, we can talk about the relationship between the forms of depicting events and the subjects of speech. The revealed pattern of Garshin's creative manner boils down to the following: the narrator manifests himself in the forms of presentation of events from the first person, and the narrator - from the third.
B.A. Uspensky "Poetics of composition". The analysis of the stories makes it possible to identify the following points of view in the writer's works: the ideological plan, the plan of spatio-temporal characteristics and psychology. The ideological plan is clearly presented in the story "The Incident", in which three evaluative points of view meet: the "look" of the heroine, the hero, the author-observer. The point of view in terms of spatio-temporal characteristics is revealed in the stories "Meeting" and "Signal": there is a spatial attachment of the author to the hero; The narrator is in close proximity to the character.
The point of view in terms of psychology is presented in the story "Night". Internal state verbs help to formally identify this type of description.
"Points of view" are as close as possible to the poetics of the narrative. On the most narrative form. At some points, narrative forms even become a structural element in the poetics of Garshin's psychologism.
The “Conclusion” sums up the general results of the work. An important scientific result of the dissertation research is the conclusion that narration and psychologism in Garshin's poetics are in constant relationship. They form such a flexible artistic system that allows narrative forms to pass into the poetics of psychologism, and the forms of psychological analysis can also become the property of the narrative structure of Garshin's prose. All this refers to the most important structural regularity in the poetics of the writer.
Thus, the results of the dissertation research show that the basic categories in Garshin's psychologism poetics are confession, close-up, portrait, landscape, setting. According to our conclusions, such forms as description, narration, reasoning, other people's speech (direct, indirect, improper direct), points of view, categories of the narrator and narrator dominate in the poetics of the writer's narration.
The main provisions of the dissertation are reflected in publications, including publications included in the list of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia:
1. Vasina S.N. Confession in the poetics of psychologism V.M. Garshina / S.N.
Vasina // Bulletin of the Buryat State University. Release 10.
Philology. - Ulan-Ude: Publishing House of the Buryat University, 2008. - P. 160-165 (0.25 pp).
2. Vasina S.N. From the history of the study of prose by V.M. Garshina / S.N. Vasina // Bulletin of the Moscow City Pedagogical University.
Science Magazine. Series "Philological education" No. 2 (5). - M .: GOU VPO MGPU, 2010. - S. 91-96 (0.25 pp).
Vasina S.N. Psychologism in the poetics of V.M. Garshina (on the example of the story "Artists") / S.N. Vasina // Philological science in the XXI century: the view of the young.
- M.-Yaroslavl: REMDER, 2006. - S. 112-116 (0.2 p.l.).
Vasina S.N. The psychological function of the "close-up" in the poetics of V.M.
Garshina / S.N. Vasina // Rational and emotional in literature and folklore. Proceedings of the IV International Conference in memory of A.M.
Bulanova. Volgograd, October 29 - November 3, 2007 Part 1. - Volgograd: Publishing house of VGIPK RO, 2008. - P. 105–113 (0.4 p.l.).
Vasina S.N. Description in the narrative structure of V.M.
Garshina (portrait and landscape) / S.N. Vasina // Beginning. - Kolomna: MGOSGI, 2010. - S. 192–196 (0.2 pp).
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