Life, culture, spiritual life in the XVI-XVII centuries. Life and way of life of Russian people of the XVI century in "Domostroy"

Culture and life of the Russian people in the XVI century.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Christianity played a decisive role in influencing the culture and life of the Russian people. It played a positive role in overcoming the harsh morals, ignorance and wild customs of ancient Russian society. In particular, the norms of Christian morality had a huge impact on family life, marriage, and the upbringing of children. Is it true. theology then adhered to a dualistic view of the division of the sexes - into two opposite principles - "good" and "evil". The latter was personified in women, determining her position in society and the family.

For a long time, the Russian peoples had a large family, uniting relatives in direct and lateral lines. The distinctive features of a large peasant family were collective farming and consumption, common ownership of property by two or more independent married couples. The urban (posad) population had smaller families and usually consisted of two generations of parents and children. The families of feudal lords were, as a rule, small, so the son of a feudal lord, having reached the age of 15, had to serve the sovereign's service and could receive both his own separate local salary and a granted estate. This contributed to early marriages and the emergence of independent small families.

With the introduction of Christianity, marriages began to be formalized through a church wedding ceremony. But the traditional Christian wedding ceremony ("joy") was preserved in Rus' for about another six or seven centuries. Church rules did not stipulate any obstacles to marriage, except for one: the "possession" of the bride or groom. But in real life, the restrictions were quite strict, primarily in social terms, which were regulated by customs. The law did not formally forbid the feudal lord to marry a peasant woman, but in fact this happened very rarely, since the class of feudal lords was a closed corporation, where marriages were encouraged not just with persons of their own circle, but with equals. A free man could marry a serf, but he had to get permission from the master and pay a certain amount by agreement. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, both in ancient times and in the city, marriages, in general, could only take place within one class-estate.

The dissolution of the marriage was very difficult. Already in the early Middle Ages, divorce ("dissolution") was allowed only in exceptional cases. At the same time, the rights of the spouses were unequal. A husband could divorce his wife in the event of her infidelity, and communication with strangers outside the home without the permission of the spouse was equated to treason. In the late Middle Ages (since the 16th century), divorce was allowed on the condition that one of the spouses was tonsured a monk.

The Orthodox Church allowed one person to marry no more than three times. The solemn ceremony of wedding was performed, usually, only at the first marriage. A fourth marriage was strictly forbidden.

A newborn child was to be baptized in the church on the eighth day after baptism in the name of the saint of that day. The rite of baptism was considered by the church to be the main, vital rite. The unbaptized had no rights, not even the right to burial. A child who died unbaptized was forbidden by the church to be buried in a cemetery. The next rite - "tons" - was held a year after baptism. On this day, the godfather or godfather (godparents) cut off a lock of hair from the child and gave the ruble. After the tonsure, they celebrated the name day, that is, the day of the saint in whose honor the person was named (later became known as the "angel's day"), and the birthday. The royal name day was considered an official public holiday.

All sources testify that in the Middle Ages the role of its head was extremely great. He represented the family as a whole in all its outward functions. Only he had the right to vote at the gatherings of residents, in the city council, and later - in the meetings of the Konchan and Sloboda organizations. Within the family, the power of the head was practically unlimited. He disposed of the property and destinies of each of its members. This even applied to the personal life of children whom he could marry or marry against his will. The Church condemned him only if he drove them to suicide in the process. The orders of the head of the family were to be carried out implicitly. He could apply any punishment, up to physical. "Domostroy" - an encyclopedia of Russian life of the 16th century - directly indicated that the owner should beat his wife and children for educational purposes. For disobedience to parents, the church threatened with excommunication.

Intra-estate family life was for a long time relatively closed. At the same time, ordinary women - peasant women, townspeople - did not lead a reclusive lifestyle at all. The testimonies of foreigners about the terem seclusion of Russian women refers, as a rule, to the life of the feudal nobility and eminent merchants. They were rarely even allowed to go to church.

There is little information about the daily routine of people in the Middle Ages. The working day in the family began early. Ordinary people had two obligatory meals - lunch and dinner. At noon, production activity was interrupted. After dinner, according to the old Russian habit, there followed a long rest, sleep (which was very striking for foreigners). then work began again until supper. Together with the end of daylight hours, everyone went to sleep.

With the adoption of Christianity, especially revered days of the church calendar became official holidays: Christmas, Easter, Annunciation, Trinity and others, as well as the seventh day of the week - Sunday. According to church rules, holidays should be devoted to pious deeds and religious rites. working on public holidays was considered a sin. At the same time, the poor also worked on holidays.

The relative isolation of domestic life was diversified by the receptions of guests, as well as festive ceremonies, which were arranged mainly during church holidays. One of the main religious processions was arranged for Epiphany - January 6, Art. Art. On this day, the patriarch consecrated the water of the Moscow River, and the population of the city performed the rite of Jordan (bathing with holy water). On holidays, street performances were also arranged. Wandering artists, buffoons, are known in ancient Rus'. In addition to playing the harp, pipes, songs, buffoon performances included acrobatic numbers, competitions with predatory animals. The buffoon troupe usually included an organ grinder, a gaer (acrobat), and a puppeteer.

Holidays, as a rule, were accompanied by public feasts - brothers. At the same time, common ideas about the supposedly unrestrained drunkenness of Russians are clearly exaggerated. Only during the 5-6 largest church holidays the population was allowed to brew beer, and taverns were a state monopoly. The maintenance of private taverns was strictly persecuted.

Public life also included games and fun - both military and peaceful, for example, the capture of a snowy city, wrestling and fistfight, towns, leapfrog, etc. . Of gambling, dice games became widespread, and from the 16th century - in cards brought from the west. Hunting was a favorite pastime of kings and nobility.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, although the life of a Russian person in the Middle Ages, although it was relatively monotonous, was far from being limited to the production and socio-political spheres, it included many aspects of everyday life that historians do not always pay due attention to

Culture and life of the Russian people in the XVI century. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Culture and life of the Russian people in the XVI century." 2017, 2018.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

ROSTOV STATE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMY

Faculty of Law

ABSTRACT

on the course: “Patriotic history”

topic: “Life of the Russian people XVI-XVII centuries”

Completed by: 1st year student, group No. 611 of full-time education

Tokhtamysheva Natalia Alekseevna

Rostov-on-Don 2002

XVI - XVII centuries.

2.Culture and life of the Russian people in XVI century.

3. Culture, life and social thought in the XVII century.

Literature.

1. Socio-political situation in Russia in XVI - XVII centuries.

In order to understand the origins of the conditions and causes that determine the way of life, way of life and culture of the Russian people, it is necessary to consider the socio-political situation in Russia at that time.

By the middle of the 16th century, Rus', having overcome feudal fragmentation, turned into a single Muscovite state, which became one of the largest states in Europe.

For all the vastness of its territory, the Muscovite state in the middle of the 16th century. It had a relatively small population, no more than 6-7 million people (for comparison: France at the same time had 17-18 million people). Of the Russian cities, only Moscow and Novgorod the Great had several tens of thousands of inhabitants, the proportion of the urban population did not exceed 2% of the total mass of the country's population. The vast majority of Russian people lived in small (several households) villages spread over the vast expanses of the Central Russian Plain.

The formation of a single centralized state accelerated the socio-economic development of the country. New cities arose, crafts and trade developed. There was a specialization of individual regions. Thus, Pomorie supplied fish and caviar, Ustyuzhna supplied metal products, salt was brought from the Kama Salt, grain and livestock products were brought from the Zaoksky lands. In different parts of the country there was a process of folding local markets. The process of forming a single all-Russian market also began, but it dragged on for a long time and, in general terms, took shape only by the end of the 17th century. Its final completion dates back to the second half of the 18th century, when, under Elizabeth Petrovna, internal customs duties that still remained were abolished.

Thus, in contrast to the West, where the formation of centralized states (in France, England) went parallel to the formation of a single national market and, as it were, crowned its formation, in Rus' the formation of a single centralized state took place before the formation of a single all-Russian market. And this acceleration was explained by the need for the military and political unification of the Russian lands in order to liberate them from foreign enslavement and achieve their independence.

Another feature of the formation of the Russian centralized state in comparison with the Western European states was that it arose from the very beginning as a multinational state.

The lag of Rus' in its development, primarily economic, was due to several unfavorable historical conditions for it. Firstly, as a result of the devastating Mongol-Tatar invasion, material values ​​accumulated over the centuries were destroyed, most of the Russian cities were burned, and most of the country's population perished or was taken captive and sold in slave markets. It took more than a century just to restore the population that existed before the invasion of Batu Khan. Rus' lost its national independence for more than two and a half centuries and fell under the rule of foreign conquerors. Secondly, the lag was explained by the fact that the Muscovite state was cut off from the world's trade routes and, above all, sea routes. Neighboring powers, especially in the west (the Livonian Order, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) practically carried out an economic blockade of the Muscovite state, preventing its participation in economic and cultural cooperation with European powers. The absence of economic and cultural exchange, isolation within its narrow internal market fraught with the danger of growing lagging behind European states, which was fraught with the possibility of turning into a semi-colony and losing its national independence.

The Grand Duchy of Vladimir and other Russian principalities on the Central Russian plain were part of the Golden Horde for almost 250 years. And the territory of the Western Russian principalities (the former Kiev state, Galicia-Volyn Rus, Smolensk, Chernigov, Turov-Pinsk, Polotsk lands), although they were not part of the Golden Horde, were extremely weakened and depopulated.

The vacuum of power and power that arose as a result of the Tatar pogrom was used by the Lithuanian principality that arose at the beginning of the 14th century. It began to expand rapidly, incorporating Western and South Russian lands into its composition. In the middle of the 16th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a vast state stretching from the shores of the Baltic Sea in the north to the Dnieper rapids in the south. However, it was very loose and fragile. In addition to social contradictions, it was torn apart by national contradictions (the vast majority of the population were Slavs), as well as religious ones. The Lithuanians were Catholics (like the Poles), and the Slavs were Orthodox. Although many of the local Slavic feudal lords converted to Catholicism, the bulk of the Slavic peasantry staunchly defended their original Orthodox faith. Realizing the weakness of the Lithuanian statehood, the Lithuanian lords and gentry sought outside support and found it in Poland. Since the 14th century, attempts have been made to unite the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with Poland. However, this unification was completed only with the conclusion of the Union of Lublin in 1569, which resulted in the formation of the united Polish-Lithuanian state of the Commonwealth.

Polish pans and gentry rushed to the territory of Ukraine and Belarus, seizing lands inhabited by local peasants, and often driving out local Ukrainian landowners from their possessions. Large Ukrainian magnates, such as Adam Kisel, Vyshnevetsky and others, and part of the gentry converted to Catholicism, adopted the Polish language, culture, and renounced their people. The movement to the East of Polish colonization was actively supported by the Vatican. In turn, the forcible imposition of Catholicism was supposed to contribute to the spiritual enslavement of the local Ukrainian and Belarusian population. Since the overwhelming mass of it resisted and steadfastly held on to the Orthodox faith in 1596, the Union of Brest was concluded. The meaning of the approval of the Uniate Church was that, while maintaining the usual architecture of temples, icons and worship in the Old Slavonic language (and not in Latin, as in Catholicism), this new church should be subordinated to the Vatican, and not to the Moscow Patriarchate (Orthodox Church). The Vatican placed special hopes on the Uniate Church in promoting Catholicism. At the beginning of the XVII century. Pope Urban VIII wrote in a message to the Uniates: “O my Rusyns! Through you, I hope to reach the East…” However, the Uniate Church spread mainly in the west of Ukraine. The bulk of the Ukrainian population, and above all the peasantry, still adhered to Orthodoxy.

Almost 300 years of separate existence, the influence of other languages ​​and cultures (Tatar in Great Russia), Lithuanian and Polish in Belarus and Ukraine, led to the isolation and formation of three special nationalities: Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. But the unity of origin, the common roots of ancient Russian culture, a single Orthodox faith with a common center - the Moscow Metropolis, and then, from 1589 - the Patriarchate, played a decisive role in the desire for the unity of these peoples.

With the formation of the Moscow centralized state, this thrust intensified and the struggle for unification began, which lasted about 200 years. In the 16th century, Novgorod-Seversky, Bryansk, Orsha, Toropets ceded to the Moscow state. A long struggle began for Smolensk, which repeatedly passed from hand to hand.

The struggle for the reunification of the three fraternal peoples in a single state went on with varying success. Taking advantage of the severe economic and political crisis resulting from the loss of the long Livonian War, the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible and the unprecedented crop failure and famine of 1603, the Commonwealth nominated the impostor False Dmitry, who seized the Russian throne in 1605 with the support of the Polish and Lithuanian pans and the gentry. After his death, the interventionists put forward new impostors. Thus, it was the interventionists who initiated a civil war in Rus' (“Time of Troubles”), which lasted until 1613, when the highest representative body, the Zemsky Sobor, which assumed supreme power in the country, elected Mikhail Romanov to reign. During this civil war, an open attempt was made to re-establish foreign domination in Rus'. At the same time, it was also an attempt to “break through” to the East, to the territory of the Moscow State of Catholicism. No wonder the impostor False Dmitry was so actively supported by the Vatican.

However, the Russian people found the strength, rising in a single patriotic impulse, to nominate such folk heroes as the Nizhny Novgorod Zemstvo headman Kuzma Minin and the voivode Prince Dmitry Pozharsky from their midst, organize a nationwide militia, defeat and expel foreign invaders from the country. Simultaneously with the interventionists, their servants from the state political elite were thrown out, who organized the boyar government (“seven boyars”), for the sake of protecting their narrow selfish interests, called the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne and were even ready to give the Russian crown to the Polish king Sigismund III. The Orthodox Church and its then head, Patriarch Hermogenes, who set an example of perseverance and self-sacrifice in the name of his convictions, played a major role in preserving independence, national identity and recreating Russian statehood.

dwelling

The life of the Russian peasant and city dweller has changed very slowly and little over the course of centuries. The Russian traditional house, which had developed in antiquity, remained the same one-room building with small windows plugged with a bull's bladder or cloth soaked in hemp oil. Inside the house, a significant part was occupied by a stove, heated on black: smoke accumulated under the roof (there were no ceilings) and exited through the door and special windows made in the upper part of the wall. These features were common to both rural and urban houses. The rural house of a nobleman or son of a boyar differed from the peasant one only in a slightly larger size. Judging by some of the remains of old houses in Trubchevsk, the city house was sometimes built of stone. The walls were made very thick - up to two meters. The lower semi-underground part of the house - the basement - had vaulted ceilings. There were iron rings in the ceiling for hanging food. The upper part of the house was sometimes decorated with stucco door and window casings. Artistically executed lattices were inserted into the windows. These were rare houses of very wealthy people.
As before, the main furniture in the house was a table and fixed benches. Wooden and earthenware utensils were stored on the shelves. Glassware was used in the richest houses. Large and small chests contained various goods: clothes, tablecloths, towels. Separately, the dowry for the daughter's wedding was formed. The most valuable part of the furnishings were the icons hanging in the "red" (beautiful) corner.
The door from the house led to the vestibule - an unheated room, usually made not of logs, but of boards or twigs. Various tools of labor, part of household supplies were stored in the hallway.
In general, a residential building was either a hut (mainly in the north and east of the Bryansk region), or a hut - in the south and southwest. The roof of the hut is double-pitched, the hut is four-pitched. Huts were placed with a narrow (end) part on the street, huts - wide. The hut was often made of poles, between which logs or poles were placed. The entire building was covered with clay. A common feature for the hut and the hut was that in the Bryansk region they were usually set up without a basement, characteristic of the Russian North. The house on the basement is better than the ground one, it is adapted for protection from deep snow and spring floods. The door from the hallway led to the courtyard. Compared to the XIV-XV centuries, the number of outbuildings for peasants and townspeople increased. This indicates an increase in the well-being of the population. There were barns, sheds, cages, bathhouses in the yards. Merchants arranged warehouses for goods at the house. The craftsman, if he worked outside the home, had a special room for work. There was a garden attached to the house.
The world of things that surrounded the family life of a person in the 16th-17th centuries consisted mainly of wooden objects. In the forest region, wood was the most accessible and easily processed material. In addition to wood, clay was often used. Iron products were comparatively rare. They made the working parts of tools, tools, weapons. Metal products were highly valued.

Settlements

Having gone beyond the boundaries of his yard, a person found himself on the street of a village, village or city. Until the 16th century in Russia, in the course of the development of territories, more and more new villages appeared in one or two courtyards. Now the number of households in rural settlements has begun to grow. By the end of the 16th century, villages of 10-20 households were becoming habitual. There were villages with several dozen households, such as Suponevo, which belonged to the Svinsky Monastery and stretched along a large trade road. The estates of the peasants were located in one line in cases where the village was built along the road or along the river bank. In other cases, there was no noticeable order in the layout of the settlements. It was only in the 17th century that the street planning of villages began to appear. A notable building in the village was a church, usually wooden. Near the church were the courtyards of the clergy.
Cities had more of the same type of construction. In the XVI-XVII centuries, the system of urban development, which had developed in antiquity, continued to exist. There was a fortress in the center of the city. Roads radiated from the fortress. Streets sprang up along these roads. These streets were formed not by houses, as in modern cities, but by estates, enclosed by more or less high fences. A sign of urban development was that the estates adjoined each other. They did not form a straight line, and one estate protruded forward, closer to the road, the other retreated from it. Because of this, the street in some places became narrower, then wider. Streets, as well as settlements, were often separated from each other by vegetable gardens, streams, meadows. They were somewhat isolated from each other, especially since the settlements were usually inhabited by people of the same kind of service. Such are the Streltsy, Pushkar, Zatinnye, Cossack, Soldier, Yamsky settlements in Bryansk, Karachev, Sevsk. At night, the streets were not lit and were not paved.
In the cities of southwestern Russia, the central fortresses were wooden. The walls of the Bryansk fortress were made of oak and covered with boards. The fortress had 9 towers, two of which had gates to enter the fortress. In the second half of the 17th century, an extension of several towers with gates was made to the old fortress. The territory of the fortress has doubled. Among the gray wooden buildings and greenery, churches stood out for their height, especially those made of stone. There were many churches in Bryansk, Sevsk, Starodub. Most of them were built of wood, apparently in the traditional tent style for the 16th-17th centuries - with high pyramidal tops, reminiscent of a tent to a Russian person. The Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery near Sevsk preserved such stone tents in its architectural appearance. Although it was built at the very beginning of the 18th century, its buildings show features of the architecture of the previous era. In the middle of Starodub today stands the Nativity Cathedral, built in the 17th century. It consists, as it were, of three large and wide towers clinging to each other. This is how temples were built in Ukraine. The building is decorated with convex, as if protruding from the walls, details - patterned architraves on the windows, shoulder blades - flat ledges at the corners of the cathedral. Each tower is crowned with a dome. Over time, there were more and more decorations on churches - the era of the dominance of a bizarre, elegant baroque style was approaching. Features of this style are noticeable in the architecture of the stone gate church of the Svensky Monastery. The appearance of the churches of the Bryansk region combined the features of Russian and Ukrainian art.
In the center of the city on the square there was a market, where city dwellers came every day. It was the busiest place in the city. The shops in the market stood in rows - one line of shops, as it were, looked at the same opposite line. In a row, as a rule, they traded a certain set of goods. So, in Bryansk on the market there were rows of fish, meat, mosquito (haberdashery). Near the market there was a guest yard where visiting merchants stayed.

The shape of the population. Everyday life

The clothes of ordinary inhabitants of the region have changed little since ancient times. Residents of villages and cities wore shirts made of homespun cloth. Women's shirts were decorated with embroidery. In winter, they wore clothes made of sheep's skin - sheepskin. Shoes were mostly leather, in some cases they wore bast shoes.
Ordinary life, both in the city and in the village, began early. Even before dawn, the women got up to send the cattle to the common rural or urban herd. There was no breakfast in our modern view, we ate the remnants of yesterday's food. Then work began in the field or workshop. At lunch the family got together again. The men sat down to dine, the women waited on them. Then the whole house went to sleep. Slept for two hours. Then work resumed again until the evening. After dinner, the family rested and went to bed.
Holidays brought variety to the usual routine. The family went to a solemn service in the church, went out to watch the youth play in the city or in a meadow near the city. Many games were ancient, pagan in nature. Guests were taken to the feast, which took place from day to evening.

Spiritual life

The spiritual needs of the population were satisfied by reading religious books and worship. Every church, every monastery had at least a small collection of liturgical books. Handwritten and printed books appeared together with the Old Believer settlers in the southwestern districts of Russia. Some of them came from the printing house of Ivan Fedorov.
Songwriting was of great importance in the life of the population. Some of the songs that have survived to this day reflected historical events, features of life in the Russian borderlands, in particular in the lands of Sevsk. Some songs reflected the impressions of the people from the Time of Troubles. They ridiculed people who, out of interests of profit and profit, easily ran from one contender for power to another. Songwriting was akin to proverbs and sayings. From an environment clearly hostile to False Dmitry I and his supporters, sayings came out in which, in the form of fables, the impostor was called a piglet and cancer: "Sevchane met cancer with bells", "Look, brother, the voivode is crawling and dragging a bristle in his teeth", " The Sevchans planted a piglet on a perch, saying: "Don't kill yourself, don't kill yourself - the hen can stand on two legs." Yelets is the father of all thieves, and Karachev is a sacrifice (option: they are in addition), and Livny is marvelous to all thieves, and Dmitrovtsy (option: Komarinians) are not betrayers of old thieves. , probably already after the civil war, but according to fresh memories, when it was possible to laugh at the inhabitants of those areas who tried to support unsuccessful applicants for the throne of Moscow.As before, the people used to have ancient ritual songs associated with events in the family. Strengthening the family, the complication of wedding ceremonies gave birth to new and new songs. Weddings lasted for several days, and each of them corresponded to certain customs. With songs and rituals, agricultural work took place, especially sowing and harvesting.
The life of the inhabitants of the southwestern districts of Russia was distinguished by the preservation of many ancient features. This is explained by the fact that large areas of this region were isolated by dense forests from large trade routes and cities, from central and local authorities.

Goals and objectives of the lesson:

To trace what influence the unification of Russian lands had on culture;

Consider the features of the development of Russian culture in the 16th century;

To study the daily and cultural life of the inhabitants of Russia in the 16th century.

During the classes

Organizing time

Checking homework

1. What role did the parish church play in the neighborhood?

2. What is the contention between the Josephites and nonpossessors?

3. Tell us about the manifestation of heresy in Rus'? And representatives of the associates of heresy

3. Why was the support of the church important for secular authorities?

3. Learning new material
Problematic question of the lesson: "How the creation of a single state influenced the development of the culture of the peoples of Russia"
Lesson plan:

1. Features of the development of Russian culture in the 16th century.

2. Enlightenment. Beginning of printing

3. Chronicle. historical works

4. Publicism. secular literature.

5. Architecture

6. Visual arts

7. Music

8. Religious holidays and life.

Features of the development of Russian culture in the 16th century

The creation of a single state led to changes in the spheres of society, including cultural ones. In the 16th century, the culture of Russia experienced a cultural upsurge.

This is when education begins.unified Russian culture, which was formed on the basis of the cultural achievements of all Russian lands, as well as peoples with whom they had close ties.

In the 16th century, historical events were reflected in the works of culture, as well as the problems facing Russia. Heroic themes prevailed in them, the ideas of patriotism and strong state power were expressed. But also more and more interest was shown in the inner world of man.

The spiritual and cultural life of Russia is still under the influence of the Orthodox Church.

Education. Beginning of printing

With the formation of a single state, the need for literate people increased.At the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551 it was decided to open schools in Moscow and other cities at churches and monasteries, "so that priests and deacons and all Orthodox Christians in every city would give them their children for the teaching of reading and writing and the teaching of book writing." Special “masters” of non-clerical rank also began to teach literacy, who taught literacy for two years for “porridge and a hryvnia of money”.

In the 16th century savvy Russian population, regardless of social status, was approximately15% . Moreover, the children of peasants were significantly more educated than the children of city dwellers.

Children were taught inprivate schools at churches and monasteries. However, the most important science remainedchurch charter , she pushed into the backgroundarithmetic and grammar .

The most important breakthrough in science and education was the beginningtypography. The first printing houses were opened in Russia. The first printed books wereHoly Scripture and the Apostle.

Thanks to the professionalism of the father of book printing in RussiaIvan Fedorov , books were not only printed, but also substantially edited: he made his own accurate translations of the Bible and other books into Russian.

Unfortunately, printing did not make books more accessible to ordinary people, since it was mainly literature for church ministers that was printed. Many secular books were still copied by hand.

The largest event of Russian culture in the middle of the XVI century. was the emergencetypography I . It began at the initiative of Tsar Ivan the Terrible and with the support of the church. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets printed the first Russian dated book at the Printing House in Moscow. It was called "Apostle". In 1565, the Book of Hours was published - the first Russian book for teaching literacy.

In the first half of the 16th century a circle of people close to Metropolitan Macarius created the famous "Father Menaion". "The Fourth" in Rus' was called books intended for reading, in contrast to church books used in worship. "Menaias" - collections where all works are distributed by months and days in which they are recommended to be read. In the 16th century Sylvester wrote the famous Domostroy, which contained instructions on housekeeping, raising children, and observing religious norms and rituals in the family. One of the main ideas of "Domostroy" was the idea of ​​subordinating the entire life of the state to the royal power, and in the family - to its head.

Chronicle. historical works

In the 16th century Russian chronicle reaches the pinnacle of its development. Grandiose chronicles of large volume and significant chronological coverage are being created.

In the first half of the 16th century was the most pronouncedmetropolitan chronicle tradition . It belongs to himtwo major annals of the Russian Middle Ages -Nikonovskaya And Resurrection . The names given to him in the scientific literature are accidental: on the lists of both chronicles from the collection of the BAN one can read the contribution of Patriarch Picon to the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery. In order to somehow distinguish between these chronicles, one of them was namedNikonovskaya , and the other Resurrection . In fact, these are different monuments of chronicle writing, united only by the nature of the generalizing codes, which can be considered a typical feature of Russian literacy of the 16th century.

Of these two chronicles, the first was compiledNikonovskaya . It brings the presentation of Russian history to 1522. Its compilation was preceded by a great deal of work, which was headed by Metropolitan Daniel. Many of the news of the Nikon chronicle are unique; they have no analogue in any other chronicle.

In terms of its tasks and principles of compilation, it turns out to be close to the Nikon ChronicleResurrection chronicle . It is a monument of the grand ducal annals and brings the account of events to 1541. The last metropolitan in the early lists is Joasaph, and the name of the next metropolitan Macarius, who was elevated to the metropolitan see in the spring of 1542, is added above the line. Consequently, the Resurrection Chronicle was compiled at the end of 1541 or at the beginning of 1542. It is believed that it reflects the political position of Metropolitan Joasaph.

Publicism.

The problem of strengthening state power, its authority both within the country and abroad, occupied in the 16th century. Russian society. This led to the emergencenew literary genre -journalism . One of the most interesting publicists of the 16th century. wasIvan Semenovich Peresvetov . In his petitions addressed to Ivan the Terrible, he proposed reform projects that were supposed to strengthen the autocratic power of the tsar, relying on the nobility. Questions about the nature of royal power and its relationship with subjects were the main ones in the correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and the princeAndrey Kurbsky. Kurbsky expressed his viewsin "The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" and messages to Ivan the Terrible.

In the mid 60s. 16th century written by an unknown author"The Legend of the Kingdom of Kazan" ("Kazan history").

Architecture.

Strengthening the central government, giving it autocratic features required the appropriate design of the capital of the Russian state. From all over the country, the best craftsmen moved to Moscow. Special bodies appeared that dealt with the issues of the architectural appearance of the capital - the City Order, the Order of Stone Affairs.Moscow becomes the center of Russian architecture . New architectural styles and trends are emerging here. Even the most remote cities are guided by the tastes of Moscow.

The appearance of the Moscow Kremlin has changed. Almost all boyar estates were withdrawn from its territory, artisans and merchants were evicted.The Kremlin became the administrative and spiritual center of the Russian state. Trade and diplomatic missions of foreign states appeared here, as well as official state institutions - the Printing and Ambassadorial Courts, buildings of orders.

The artistic merits of Russian architecture in the 16th century are especially bright. appeared inchurch buildings . An outstanding monument of tent architecture has becomeChurch of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow , erected in 1532 . in honor of the birth of the long-awaited heir to Vasily III - the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

The pinnacle of Russian architecture is considered to be erected in 1555–1560 . on Red (then Torgovaya) Square, in close proximity to the Kremlin Intercession Cathedral (it is also called St. Basil's Cathedral, after the famous Moscow holy fool, who was buried in one of the aisles). Amazing in its beauty, the cathedral was dedicated to the capture of Kazan by Russian troops, it was built by Russian masters Barma and Postnik. The idea of ​​the temple is simple: just as Moscow united the Russian lands around itself, so the huge central tent unites the colorful variety of eight separate domes into a single whole.

Urban construction was widely developed, fortresses and monasteries were built. Particularly impressive were fortifications of Smolensk built under the guidance Fyodor Konya . The length of the fortress walls along the perimeter was 6.5 km. Throughout their length, 38 towers were evenly placed. Masons and craftsmen from all over Russia were gathered for the construction of the fortress.

After the conquest of the Kazan Khanate, by royal decree, 200 Pskov masters were sent to Kazan, headed by the famous architects Barma and Shiryai. They created a number of outstanding architectural structures in the city.

art

Russian painting, as in previous centuries, developed mainly within the framework oficon painting and church painting . The main place where new ideas and techniques of painting were born was the Moscow Kremlin.

The largest representative of the Moscow school of painting of the late 15th century. - early 16th century there was a former prince who became a monk, -Dionysius. He painted part of the icons and frescoes for the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. On the icons of Dionysius, the saints were depicted framed by genre scenes illustrating individual episodes of their lives. During the reign of Ivan IV, subjects reflecting real historical events were increasingly included in religious painting. In the middle of the 16th century in Moscow, a huge, 4 m in size, icon-picture was painted"Church Militant" dedicated to the capture of Kazan.

Music

In the 16th century, singing art for the first time went beyond the church. This is evidenced by the emergence of a genre called"verse of repentance." Poems of repentance existed outside the temple, were not associated with a specific liturgical rite, and the influence of folk songs affected their style.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, theatricalmusical performances in which biblical scenes were played out. Narrating about Adam, Cain, Joseph, Moses, Samson, David, they were part of the festive divine services. The most popular was"Caving Action" performed before Christmas. Its content is connected with the story of three youths, who, by order of King Nebuchadnezzar, were thrown into a red-hot furnace for refusing to worship the Babylonian gods and were saved by an angel of heaven.

Gradually, European musical entertainments “take root” in court life - listening to “overseas” music played on the organ and clavichords.

Religious holidays and life.

Life in the 16th century basically kept the same features. Russian people sincerely professed Christianity and always celebrated Orthodox religious holidays. The most respected holiday wasEaster . This holiday was dedicated to the resurrection of Jesus Christ and was celebrated in the spring. It began with a procession. The symbols of the Easter holiday were painted eggs, Easter cakes, cottage cheese Easter. However, in addition to church holidays, pagan traditions were preserved among the people. Such were the festivities. Christmastide was the 12 days between Christmas and Epiphany. And if the church called for these “holy days” to be spent in prayers and chants, then according to pagan traditions they were accompanied by peculiar rituals and games (the ancient Romans had January “calends”, hence the Russian “carols”). The Orthodox Church fought against these pagan customs. So,Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551 strictly forbade "Hellenic possession, games and splashing, calenda celebrations and dressing up."

In the peasant agricultural calendar was noticed almost every day of the year and almost every hour during the day, the appearance of every cloud, rain, snow, and their properties was explained. The use of the agricultural calendar made it possible to carry out agricultural work based on the natural conditions of each specific area.

The life of the Russian population in the 16th century depended primarily on material well-being. The food at that time was quite simple, but varied: pancakes, loaves, jelly, vegetables and cereals.

Relatively inexpensive meat for those times was salted in oak tubs and kept for future use. Also, special love was enjoyed by fish dishes, which were consumed in all possible variations: salted, dried and dried.

Drinks were represented by non-alcoholic fruit drinks and compotes. Low-alcohol drinks tasted very much like modern beer, they were made on the basis of honey and hops.

In the 16th century, fasts were strictly observed, in addition to the main four fasts, people refused fast food on Wednesdays and Fridays.

Family relations were built on the basis of complete subordination to the head of the family. For disobedience of a wife or children, corporal punishment was a common practice of that time. Corporal punishment was applied even to boyar wives and children.

Young people entered into marriage mainly at the behest of their parents. This was especially common among the boyars, who, through the marriage unions of their children, tried to increase their well-being and strengthen their position in society. Peasant youth were given the right to choose their own future spouse.

4. Fixing

1. What style dominated the architecture of the 16th century?

2. What subjects began to be included in religious painting?

3. What influenced the spread of literacy in Russia?

4. What genres developed in the literature of the 16th century?

5. What folk holidays and traditions were celebrated and observed in the 16th century?

5. Summing up

Many historical factors influenced the culture and life of the Russian people in the 16th century. Which, however, contributed to the preservation of its originality and integrity.

6. Homework

Preparation for k.r.

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Continuation of the II part of the book "On the steppe borderland: the Upper Don in the XVI-XVII centuries".

Chapter 4

Holidays

In this chapter, I invite the reader to plunge into the everyday world of a Russian person of the 17th century in order to better understand what the people of the steppe frontier were like. This material is offered to the reader in the form of small essays, sketches, observations and reflections of the author.

The 17th century is the time when the Russian national flavor, Russian self-consciousness, was most fully and vividly manifested, since it was at this time that the Russian people finally realized themselves as residents of a single state. In the difficult years of the Troubles, patriotism, national spirit, citizenship, the concept of common national unity appear. If earlier in the 16th century, the country was perceived as the patrimony of one sovereign - the Grand Duke of Moscow, now the Muscovite state became Russia. Russia entered the political arena as an original and original country in the 17th century.

One of the main features of pre-Petrine Rus' was the relationship between power and society, which were built on a single basis: Orthodoxy, communal spirit and autocracy. These three features were most clearly manifested in the state ideology of that time, reflected in Orthodox holidays. In 17th-century Russia, there were almost no secular holidays. All the holidays were Orthodox, had ritual significance and were celebrated by everyone: from the king to the simple peasant.

Holidays of the 17th century can be divided into three categories: calendar, personal and related to events in the royal family.

Holidays in the past were an important aspect of social and family life. The religious consciousness of people perceived the holiday as something sacred, the opposite of everyday life - everyday life. If weekdays were interpreted as a time when a person should be engaged in worldly affairs, earning their daily bread, then the holiday was understood as a time of merging with the divine and familiarizing with the sacred values ​​of the community, its sacred history. On the holiday, people had to achieve a special psycho-physiological state of the fullness of life, and a feeling of inner unity with God and with each other. Such a philosophical awareness of the holiday at the everyday level was fixed in a number of rules that every Russian person learned from an early age.

The holiday also assumed complete freedom from any work. On this day, a Russian person was forbidden to plow, mow, reap, sew, clean the hut, chop wood, spin, weave, that is, perform their daily duties. The holiday obligated people to dress smartly, to choose pleasant, joyful topics for conversation, to behave differently: to be cheerful, friendly, hospitable. A characteristic feature of the holiday of old Rus' was the crowd. The streets of villages, villages, cities were filled with invited and uninvited guests - beggars, wanderers, pilgrims, walkers, leaders with bears, booths, puppeteers, fair traders, peddlers. The holiday was perceived as a day of special transformation of the city, house, person. Severe measures were applied to persons who violated the rules of the holiday: from a fine to lashing. This tradition of celebrating the holiday by the whole world today manifests itself in the patronal or most important annual holidays of remote villages and villages. Elegant and cheerful, excited and noisy residents gather near the houses, go to the temple, visit each other. It also happened in antiquity, only the scale was wider - it covered the whole of Orthodox Rus'. When Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich performed ablutions on Pure Thursday of Great Lent, he knew that a peasant in Zemlyansky district also performs the same ritual action.

In old Rus', all holidays were included in a single multi-stage sequence. They coped from year to year, from century to century, in a certain order established by tradition.

The most important side of the social life of pre-Petrine Rus' was the holidays associated with events in the royal family: these are marriages, births, name days, christenings. All of them were celebrated nationwide and without fail, while the society itself controlled and strictly ensured that all residents participated in such celebrations.

In the winter of 1648, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich married Maria Ilinichnaya Miloslavskaya. This event was celebrated throughout the country. Ryazan Archbishop Moses decided to hold a big prayer for the royal family on this occasion. Letters from the archbishop were sent to various churches and monasteries in the districts of the diocese: to pray to God for an heir to the throne, “so that the All-Merciful God grants the sovereigns noble children as the inheritance of the sovereign family ... and preserve the kingdom of the sovereign peacefully and serenely.” It was necessary to pray all night from 9 to 10 February. The organization of universal prayer was carried out by the clergy and local churches. However, in the city of Pronsk, the archery chief Mark Nemedov refused to go to church. His absence was noted. Then his spiritual father, the priest of the church of John Chrysostom, Evdokim sent his sexton to him. But Nemedov replied to persuasion that it was "slippery for him to go up the mountain." The inhabitants of Pronsk filed a collective complaint against the chief of the archery and asked the governor to punish him as a criminal.

Earlier, in 1629, after the birth of the long-awaited heir in the royal family - Tsarevich Alexei, the Voronezh residents asked the sovereign for permission to make at the main Voronezh church - the Annunciation Cathedral, a side chapel "of the Sovereign Tsarevich and Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich of All Rus', an angel in the name of Alexei, a man of God". In 1613, a church appeared in Yelets in honor of Mikhail Melein, the patron saint of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich.

Personal holidays were associated not only with family events in a person’s personal life (birth, baptism, wedding, etc.). Often a holiday was arranged by a person in honor of one or another saint as a kind of ritual of petition and gratitude. So, a person could devote any day of the year to Nicholas or the Virgin. On this day, he prayed to the saint or the Mother of God at home and in the church, his relatives and friends prayed, then a feast was held in honor of the saint with the invitation of a large number of guests. The meaning of such an action is to render special honor to the saint, in the hope of fulfilling a cherished request, a successful solution to an important matter. For example, marriage or an important business trip. On the other hand, such festivities were held as gratitude for the happy outcome of any business.

Nikolay Ugodnik, who acted in the minds of the people as a reliable mediator between God and man, was especially popular on such holidays. As a rule, the most cherished requests were addressed to him. For example, in 1615, Malik Yuryev, a resident of Yeltsin, asked for permission to brew wine in order to “pray to Nikola” as a thank you for a successful marriage.

In addition to Nicholas the Wonderworker, ceremonial wine was made for the Blessed Mary. On December 15, the Yelets archer Taras Filimonov and his neighbor, the widow Marya, asked for wine "Remember Taras' parents, and pray to Mary." At the end of February 1616, the Yelets Cossack Aleksey Milakov asked for wine to be brewed for the rite in honor of his patron, Saint Alexei the Man of God.

A large place among personal holidays was occupied by the rite of remembrance of the dead. The commemoration of parents was an important ritual action in the life of a person in the 17th century. People did not doubt that there is another life, and the souls of their dead parents are real. The world where the souls of the dead are located is just as real as this one. Moreover, one who lives in this world can have a certain influence on the inhabitant of that world, and vice versa. Such an impact occurs through the correct performance of the rite. It was believed that until the day of the Last Judgment, the fate of the deceased could be changed. The power of remembrance is such that even a soul in hell can be forgiven and saved.

Among all the holidays was the main holiday, which, from the point of view of the peasants, had the greatest sacred power - Easter. Great holidays (Christmas, Trinity, Maslenitsa, Ivanov and Petrov days) and small holidays, the so-called semi-holidays, associated with the beginning of various kinds of peasant work, were celebrated in Rus' joyfully and reverently: the first day of sowing grain, harvesting cabbage for the winter, etc.

Russian holidays also differed in their origin. The established Orthodox dogma included Easter with the Twelve, that is, twelve feasts in honor of Jesus Christ and the Mother of God, and temple holidays - local holidays celebrated on the days of the consecration of churches or on days of memory of significant events in the life of the saints, in whose honor churches were built. Holidays not directly related to church tradition included Christmas time, Shrovetide.

One of the main holidays of an Orthodox person is Christmas. It belonged to the most massive holidays: Christmas festivities were nationwide. From Christmas to Epiphany there were Christmas time, also very popular among the people. Christmas time had a special atmosphere of intertwining two worlds: the living and the dead, namely, at this time a person could touch the other world of spirits. This festivity of life at Christmas time, and, at the same time, a certain gloom of the other world, was deeply reflected in Russian traditional culture. The most striking action that took place at Christmas time was caroling, which was accompanied by going from house to house, theatrical performances, singing religious songs and praising the hosts.

In 1649, an unpleasant incident occurred in the Efremov district at Svyatki. A group of young people walked around the villages and villages of the county "Praise the Nativity of Christ", but not everywhere the mummers were received well. Ritual dressing up as demons was perceived negatively by many. So in one of the villages, the landowner Anton Ivanovich Pomonov “barked obscenely and beat with a plate” one of the carolers. Such a reaction was perceived as an insult and dishonor, the father of the caroling Vasily Bosoy wrote a complaint against Pomonov and an investigation began that established his guilt.

In 1650, a big robbery happened at carols in Livny. In the midst of the festivities, 20 pounds of honey, beef, dressed sheepskin, openers, two braids, a quarter of wheat and buckwheat were stolen from the landowner Gavriil Antonovich Pisarev at the height of the festivities. As it turned out, a large company of Syabry friends came to him (in the documents, the landowners called their friends the word "Syabry"). Pisarev accused Savely Sergeev of stealing, but he categorically denied everything. The Syabry shamed Pisarev in every possible way because he accuses them of stealing and even by force "led him to the cross" so that he would not take revenge and write complaints against them. But Pisarev refused to swear on the cross and nevertheless wrote a complaint.

Another popular holiday of the Christmas cycle is the woman's porridge, celebrated on December 26, now almost completely forgotten. This holiday is associated with the birth of children, and was celebrated as a holiday of midwives and women in childbirth. The population went to women in labor and midwives with treats and drinks. There was a special ceremony associated with the use of alcohol. People with children went to the midwives and brought wine, pies, pancakes and all sorts of food. A similar visit and feast with midwives took place from evening to morning. Of course, this was not a simple pastime, but a special rite, a ritual, apparently connected with the birth of children.

One of the interesting holidays of the winter cycle was the celebration of women's porridge at the royal court. “When the queen had a family or baptismal table, then, by the way, porridge was also served with it, probably symbolic, and a pair of sables worth 5 rubles was attached to it ... which the queen always favored the foster grandmother.”

In conclusion of this short essay on holidays, it is worth paying attention to the fact that Ancient Rus' did not know secular holidays. All holidays were church holidays and were celebrated by "the whole world", from the king to the beggar. The Orthodox Church, thus, acted as a unifying principle, which allowed it to influence society with much more power than it did in subsequent times.

Notes:

1. Novombergsky N.Ya. The word and deed of the sovereign. M…..T. 1. S. 196.
2. RGADA. F. 210. Moscow table. D. 40. L. 55.
3. See Lyapin D.A. Russian holidays of the autumn-winter cycle in the 17th century // Living Antiquity. 2009, No. 4. S. 38-41.
4. Ibid.
5. Pigin A.V. Visions of the Other World in Russian Manuscript Books. SPb., 2006. S. 198-199.
6. See: Piskulin A.A. Russian calendar holidays in I.A. Bunin // Buninskaya Russia: county. Yelets, 2007, pp. 65-69.
7. Shangina I.I. Russian traditional holidays: from Christmas time to Christmas time. SPb., 2008. S. 23-24.
8. RGADA. F. 210. Op. 1. D. 273. L. 94-96.
9. Ibid. L. 375.
10. Zabelin I.E. Home life of Russian tsars in the 16th - 17th centuries. M., 2005. S. 546.

The article was prepared based on the materials of the book by D.A. Lyapin "On the steppe border: the Upper Don in the XVI-XVII centuries", published in 2013. The article reproduces all the images used by the author in his work. The punctuation and style of the author are preserved.