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The attitude of the capital's theaters to the Revolution. Theaters and Soviet power. Diplomacy of the first people's commissar of education A.V. Lunacharsky. Two directions in the theatrical process of Soviet Russia: academic theaters (AKI) and the "Theatrical October" movement. New forms of revolutionary theater: theatrical performances in the areal, the creation of front-line theaters. Production of "Mystery_Buff" by V. Mayakovsky V.E. Meyerhold in 1918.

The formation of the Soviet theater in the 20-40s of the 20th century.

Creation of new theaters ( BDT, MGSPS, etc..), the first Soviet plays. V. Bill-Belotserkovsky ("Storm"), N. Erdman ("Mandate", "Suicide"), Sun. Ivanov ("Armored train 14-69") A. Afinogenov ("Mashenka"). K. Trenev ("Love Yarovaya"), M. Bulgakov ("Days of the Turbins", "Zoyka's Apartment", etc.). theatrical vanguard. Association OBURIU. Plays by D. Kharms and A. Vvedensky. Avant-garde productions by Vs. Meyerhold, E. Vakhtangov, A. Tairov. Creation of the Factory of eccentricity. (FEKS), S. Eisenstein. Agitation theaters. Creation of GOSET (State Jewish Theatre). Creativity and life path of the head of the State Jewish Theater Solomon Mikhoels. Activities of the Proletcult, RAPP (1925). First) Congress of Writers. (1935) Social realism as the only creative method. Post-revolutionary dramaturgy of Gorky. (“Egor Bulychov and others”, “Dostigaev and others”, 2nd variant “Vassa Zheleznova ..

V.E. Meyerhold and the theater of the "social mask" Performances of "The Dawns" by E. Verharn, D.E. ("Give Europe"). Constructivism and biomechanics. "The Magnanimous Cuckold" Crommelinck. Staging of the classics: Ostrovsky's "Profitable Place", "Forest", "Inspector General" by Gogol, "Woe to the Mind" by Griboyedov. "Bedbug", "Bath" Mayakovsky. The success of the play "The Lady of the Camellias" by Dumas son. Meyerhold's participation in the First director's conference in 1939. Arrest, execution in 1940.

Performances by A.Ya. Tairov in the 30s and 40s. “Madame Bovary” by G. Flaubert, “Optimistic Tragedy” Sun. Vishnevsky. Political pressure on the Chamber Theatre. SHARP CRITICISM of the Chamber Theater for the play "Bogatyrs" by D. Bedny. The merger of the troupes of the Chamber and Realistic theater. Status return. Departure of A. Tairov and A. Koonen from the theater. Concert activity of A. G. Koonen after the death of A. Tairov.

Moscow Art Theater after the revolution. Separation of the troupe, wanderings of the Kachalovsky group abroad. The first Soviet productions. The success of the performance "Armored Train 14-69" Sun. Ivanov (post. I. Sudakov.)

Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov (18 - 19) - the great Russian writer, playwright. Bulgakov's relationship and Moscow Art Theater. The history of the play "Days of the Turbins" (posted by I. Sudakov). The stage history of the plays "Zoyka's Apartment", "Crimson Island", "The Cabal of the Hypocrites" (Moliere), "Running". Bulgakov's work as a librettist at the Bolshoi Theatre.

Maly Theater in the post-revolutionary years. The success of the Soviet play "Love Yarovaya" by K. Treneva post. Plato and Prozorovsky),

Creative activity of the director Andrei Mikhailovich Lobanov(1900-1959) Studying at the Chaliapin Studio, the school of the second studio of the Art Theatre. Pedagogical activity in the studio of Y. Zavadsky. Performances in the studio of R. Simonov - "Talents and Admirers" by A.N. Ostrovsky", unconventional production of "The Cherry Orchard" by A.P. Chekhov. The legendary performance "Tanya" by A. Arbuzov with M. Babanova in the title role at the Theater of the Revolution. Work in the theater. Yermolova. Production and success of J. Priestley's play Time and the Conway Family. Work in front theaters. Theater management. Yermolova 91946-1957). The success of "quiet" performances by A. Lobanov based on the plays of Ostrovsky, Gorky, Trifonov. The last performance of A.M. Lobanova - Ostrovsky's Enough Stupidity for Every Wise Man - a triumph of theatrical Moscow.

Directing activity Alexey Dmitrievich Popov.(1892-1961). Work in the Art Theater as an artist, the first directorial work - "The Stranger" by A. Blok in the Mansurov Studio (incomplete). Social canvases of the 1920s - "Virineya" by L. Saifullina, "Break" by Lavrenev. Work in the theater of the Revolution. The best production of this time: Romeo and Juliet. Central Theater of the Red Army. Best performances: Admiral's Flag by A. Stein, Virgin Soil Upturned by M. Sholokhov. Work in developing the skill of an actor. Pedagogical activity of A.D. Popov.

N.P. Akimov (and the Leningrad Comedy Theatre. Repressions of 1937-39. The fate of directors Vs. Meyerhold, L. Kurbas, S. Akhmetelli, S. Mikhoels. and others.

Drama by A. Afinogenov (Mashenka, Fear), A. Korneichuk (Front, Platon Krechet), Sun. Vishnevsky ("Optimistic Tragedy"), E. Schwartz "Ordinary Miracle", "Cinderella", "Dragon"), A. Arbuzov ("Tanya", "Years of Wandering")

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• Introduction
• Chapter 1. The main milestones in the history of the Soviet theater in the post-revolutionary period
• 1.1 Leading creative trends in the development of the Soviet theater in the 1920s-1930s
• 1.2 Theatrical innovation and its role in the development of Soviet art
• 1.3 A new viewer of the Soviet theater: the problems of adapting the old and preparing a new repertoire
• Chapter 2
• 2.1 Soviet theater in the ideological system of the new government: role and tasks
• 2.2 A. V. Lunacharsky as a theorist and ideologist of the Soviet theater
• 2.3 Political censorship of theatrical repertoire
• Conclusion
• List of sources used
• List of used literature

IN conducting

The first post-revolutionary decades became a very important period for the formation of the new Soviet theater. The social and political structure of society has changed radically. Culture and art - theater, literature, painting, architecture - sensitively responded to changes in the social structure. New trends, styles and directions appeared. The avant-garde flourished in the 1920s. Outstanding directors V. E. Meyerhold, A. Ya. Tairov, E. B. Vakhtangov made their creative discoveries on the new stages of St. Petersburg and Moscow. The Alexandrinsky and Maly theaters continued the traditions of Russian drama. Searches in line with the psychological theater went to the Moscow Art Theater under the direction of K. S. Stanislavsky. By the end of 1920 - the beginning of the 1930s. this period has come to an end. There was an era of totalitarianism with its ideological press and total censorship. However, in the 1930s theater in the Soviet Union continued an active creative life, talented directors and actors appeared, interesting original performances were staged on important, modern and classical subjects.

Relevance. Studying the cultural life of society, one can get an idea of ​​the general historical background of the period under study, trace the social and political changes that took place in the first decades of the formation of the new Soviet power. Theater under the influence of revolutionary events is undergoing significant changes. Theatrical art begins to serve the interests and needs of the new government, turns into another tool of mass ideological education. In modern society, similar situations can occur when the government subjugates the elements of spiritual culture, through which it propagates the ideology it needs, and tries to create the social views it needs. Consequently, the processes of the relationship between politics and culture have not lost their relevance until now.

The purpose of the final qualifying work: to consider the first decades of the existence and development of the Soviet theater in a historical perspective.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

To present the development of the Soviet theater in the 1920s-1930s. within the framework of the general historical process and socio-political phenomena that took place in the specified period in our country;

To note the features of the 1920s as a period of serious upsurge in theatrical art;

Consider and characterize the figure of A. Lunacharsky as a leading figure and theorist of culture of this era;

To trace the relationship between art and ideology, and also to find out what trends appeared in the history of the theater in the 1930s in connection with the censorship and political press.

Object of study: Soviet theater as one of the key components of Russian culture of this period.

Subject of study: the development of Soviet theatrical art in the first post-revolutionary decades under the conditions of a new political system, under the influence of ideology and censorship.

The methodological basis of the work is the principle of historicism, historical-comparative and historical-systemic approaches, as well as the principle of objectivity, which allow us to analyze and take into account all possible factors influencing the development of the Soviet theater in this period, and to consider the situation in a specific historical situation. In this work, we use not only methods characteristic of historical science, but also an interdisciplinary approach that allows us to apply the methods and approaches of studying a number of other humanities, namely cultural studies, art history, theater studies, historical and cultural anthropology, political science, social psychology.

The scientific novelty of the study is determined by the need to analyze and summarize a wide range of publications on the history of the Soviet theater that have been published in recent decades in Russia and abroad.

The chronological framework of the study covers the period from 1917 to the present. to 1941 The lower limit is determined by turning, revolutionary events. In November 1917 a decree was issued on the transfer of theaters to the department of arts of the People's Commissariat of Education, from that moment a new stage in the development of Soviet theatrical art began. We define the upper limit as a turning point for Russian history in 1941.

The territorial scope of this work covers the borders of the RSFSR within the 1920-30s.

Source review. The following types of sources were used in the work: legislative (decrees, etc.) acts, journalism, sources of personal origin, periodicals.

The most important historical document of any society is legislation that fully regulates the activities of state and public organizations. Legislative acts require a thorough and objective analysis, their study requires certain techniques in order to most fully reveal the content, meaning and features. The scheme of analysis in general looks like this: firstly, it is necessary to try to reconstruct the process of creating this act; secondly, to analyze the content of the act; third, view the practical application, the implementation of the act.

During this period, the number of official documentation especially increased. The Bolsheviks, paying tribute to the French Revolution, in their manner began to call documents issued by the supreme power, declarations, decrees. But declarations soon ceased to be issued, and decrees became the main legislative document of the Soviet government. Decrees of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Central Committee of the CPSU also belong to this period.

Of paramount importance for us are the published documents under the direction of A. Z. Yufit The Soviet Theater. Documents and materials. 1917-1967. In 4 volumes - L .: Art, 1968-1982., which contain the most significant sources on the history of the Soviet theater. A valuable source is also a collection of documents on Soviet political censorshipHistory of Soviet political censorship. Documents and comments. - M.: Russian political

encyclopedia (ROSSPEN), 1997. - 672 p.

Journalism, as we know, expresses the opinion of a certain social group. There is a rather conditional classification of journalistic works: author's journalistic works; journalism of mass popular movements; projects of state reforms and constitutions. We will attribute the works of A. V. Lunacharsky to the author's works, but it must be borne in mind that he, being a representative of the authorities, could not bypass matters relating to state reforms. A. V. Lunacharsky, giving public lectures to the people and publishing numerous articles, explained the cultural policy of Narompros, of which he was a representative.

It should be noted that A. V. Lunacharsky left a very significant literary legacy, writing a large number of articles, essays and books on various issues of the development of Soviet culture and art. We will use some of them in our study Lunacharsky A.V. Memories and impressions. - M.: Soviet Russia, 1968. - 386 p.; Lunacharsky A.V. Research and materials. - L.: Nauka, 1978. - 240 p.; Lunacharsky A. About art. In 2 vols. M.: Art,

1982. - 390 p.; Lunacharsky A. V. Collected works in 8 vols. - M .: Fiction, 1963-1967 .. Publications of such articles, memoirs, lectures, theoretical studies are an invaluable source that allows you to delve into the essence of the views of Anatoly Vasilyevich and trace the formation of his ideas about the development of the theatrical process in Soviet Russia. In the works devoted to the theater, A. V. Lunacharsky appears as a true connoisseur and connoisseur of theatrical art. Lunacharsky A. V. Fundamentals of the theatrical policy of the Soviet government. - M.-L.: Gosizdat, 1926; Lunacharsky A.V. Theater today. Assessment of contemporary repertoire and stage. -M.-L.: MODPiK, 1927 .. He did everything to preserve and pass on to the descendants the achievements of world culture.

The works of theater workers of that period constitute an extensive material for study. Sources of personal origin help to establish interpersonal, communicative connections. These include diaries, private correspondence (epistolary sources), memoirs-autobiographies, memoirs - "modern stories", essays, confessions. When studying such sources, one must keep in mind that they are very subjective, focused on the future, so their authors tend to give importance to their figure, embellish their activities, often selecting only profitable information. To such works we will refer the memoirs of the Soviet theater critic and theorist P. A. Markov Markov P. A. Book of memories. - M .: Art, 1983. 608 p., actor and director E. B.

The periodical press serves to form public opinion and provide feedback, and the means to achieve the goal is the dissemination of information. There are three varieties of this genre: newspapers, magazines, time-based publications of scientific societies. In this work, we will mainly use logs. In 1921-1927. there has been a dramatic increase in theatrical journalism. Never before in the history of our country have there been so many periodicals dedicated to the performing arts. It should be noted that the theatrical press abandoned the newspaper form of publication. Since 1923 only magazines were published, but they also served as newspapers. The published material in one issue of the journal was not inferior in terms of informativeness to the weekly volume of newspaper materials. The magazines were divided into publications of Soviet institutions managing theaters (a group of official periodicals), intra-theater, trade union and private publications.

The use of this material allows you to more fully immerse yourself in the topic and consider it in more detail, because. each article is usually devoted to a narrow aspect of creativity, a separate production or connection of a creative person with contemporary trends in art or other cultural figures.

Here it is necessary to mention the journal "Bulletin of the Theater" (1919-1921, the official organ of the TEO) N.L. On new paths: Moscow theaters during the revolution // Bulletin of the theater. 1919. No. 33; Kerzhentsev M.P. Theater of the RSFSR "Dawns" // Bulletin of the theater. 1920. No. 74; Kogan P.S. Theater-tribune // Bulletin of the theater. 1919. February 6-7; Theater Bulletin. 1920. No. 74; Zagorsky M. "Dawns". Etude. // Bulletin of the theater, 1920, No. 74, on the pages of which the issues of the theory of theatrical art were discussed, as well as state issues in the management of theaters.

Historiographic review. Historiography of works on the formation of the Soviet theater in the 1920-1930s. very extensive. It includes a number of studies by famous historians, theater critics, biographers, as well as a significant amount of memoirs and art history literature. In this work, we will divide historiography into Soviet, modern Russian and foreign.

It must be borne in mind that Soviet historiography, devoted to the cultural aspect of the post-revolutionary period, is partly politicized, which requires the reader to be careful when perceiving the assessments of the facts presented and the significance of the events of theatrical life. But, of course, we will consider and analyze the rich material accumulated by Soviet researchers. Agitation-Mass Art. Decoration of festivities. Ed. V.P. Tolstoy. - M. 1984; From the history of Soviet theater science. 20s. - M., 1988.; Agitation-mass art of the first years of October. Materials and research. - M. 1971; Russian Drama Theatre. Ed. B.N. Aseeva, A.G. exemplary. - M.: Enlightenment, 1976. - 382 p.; History of the Soviet Drama Theater in 6 vols. - M.: Nauka, 1966 - 1971.; Lebedev P. I. Soviet art during the period of foreign intervention and civil war. - M.-L.: Iskusstvo, 1949. - 514 p. Much attention in Soviet historiography was paid to productions, personalities, the main events of the theatrical world, through which researchers showed the social life of that time Khaychenko GA Pages of the history of the Soviet theater. - M.: Art, 1983. - 272 p.; Shulpin A. P. V. Lunacharsky. Theater and revolution. - M.: Art 1975. - 159 p.. By studying such works, one can get a fairly vivid idea of ​​how people lived in the newly formed state, what worried them, what they were interested in. Gradually, in Soviet historiography, there is an interest in the relationship between ideology and culture. A special place is occupied by works showing how power, with the help of economic and political mechanisms, influenced the way of thinking and views of the most intelligent and educated people, who were always forced to “look back” at the “party line” and take it into account in their writings, here we can name the works of a prominent figure Soviet theater studies A. Z. Yufit Yufit A.Z. Theater and revolution. - L.: Art, 1977. - 270 p.; and theater expert - criticism of D. I. Zolotnitsky D. Zolotnitsky Dawns of theatrical October. - L.: Art, 1976. - 382 p.; He: Weekdays and holidays of theatrical October. - L.: Art, 1978. - 256 p.; He: Academic theaters on the paths of October. - L.: Art, 1982. - 343 p. As a result, we can say that the works published in the Soviet period on the development of the theater and its interaction with the authorities are very numerous and are of paramount importance for researchers of this issue. They reflect the theatrical realities of the 1920-1930s as accurately and in detail as possible.

In recent decades, there has been a great interest in national history and culture. Modern historical science is distinguished by a variety of approaches and assessments, the use of a pluralistic methodological basis. At this stage, there is a very wide range of research problems. It should be noted that some features of Soviet historiography are preserved, great emphasis is placed on the political aspect of the problem and the economic development of Lebedev M.V. People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR in November 1917 - February 1921: Management experience: dis. ... cand. ist. Sciences. M., 2004; Tereshchuk S.V. Formation and development of state control bodies in the RSFSR - USSR: 1917-1934: dis. ... cand. ist. Sciences. - M., 2005, etc. The theatrical process must be analyzed in the context of the development of culture and art in general. When studying the era of the formation of the Soviet theater, one must take into account the significance of the concepts and trends that were fundamental to the era. Therefore, much attention is paid to key historical and cultural events and trends of the period under review Golomshtok I. Totalitarian Art. - M. Galart. 1994. - 296p.; Art and artistic life of Russia in the Soviet period (1917-1941). Vitebsk: EE "VSU named after P. M. Masherova, 2006. - 172 p.; Avant-garde and theater of the 1910-1920s: an anthology. - M.: Nauka, 2008. - 704 p. In the post-Soviet era, the study of the influence of politics and ideology on art has become widespread. The fundamental work that continues this topic was the work of the modern theater historian V. S. Zhidkov. Questions of the power of culture are raised in the work of B.I. Kolonitsky B.I. Kolonitsky Symbols of power and the struggle for power. - M., 2001. The author focuses on the political culture of Russia during the period of revolutionary processes in 1917. Kolonitsky shows the process of the formation of new state symbols and paraphernalia, the influence of culture on the formation of Soviet political consciousness. In general, the works written by modern Russian researchers are characterized by the use of a wide source base based on official documents, periodicals and memoirs, which made it possible to expand empirical knowledge about early Soviet history. These works are quite objective and consider a broad aspect of the cultural life of Soviet society.

Of course, we cannot ignore foreign historiography. Foreign researchers showed great interest in the development of our country in the post-revolutionary decades. In his work, Professor of the University of Marburg Sh. Plaggenborg Plaggenborg Sh. Revolution and Culture. Cultural landmarks in the period between the October Revolution and the era of Stalinism. - St. Petersburg, 2000, -416s. considers not economic and political changes, but the worldview and lifestyle of people. The German researcher M. Rolfa studies the formation of Soviet cultural standards through mass holidays. He interprets them as conduits of powerful ideas, as a way of manipulating people's minds and, at the same time, as a form of communication, the development of which was facilitated by the activities of experts, the first of whom was A.V. Lunacharsky.

The American historian S. Fitzpatrick reveals the nature of the Soviet system, the problems of public sentiments of various social strata of the population S. Fitzpatrick. Everyday Stalinism. Social history of Soviet Russia in the 30s - M., 2001 .. Cultural and political conditions of the 20s, the relationship of power to cultural figures are analyzed in the works of K. Aimermacher, R. Pipes, N. Tumarkin Tumarkin N. Lenin alive! The cult of Lenin in Soviet Russia. - SPb., 1997. - 285 pp. Basically, these works are complex, here the revolutionary history, culture, public sentiments and worldview of Soviet society are generally considered. Foreign historiography had a significant impact on the further development of domestic science.

Summing up the historiographic review presented in the study, it is worth noting that the problem of the development of the Soviet theater at the moment has been studied in sufficient detail in the works of Soviet, modern Russian and foreign researchers. It is also necessary to pay attention to a wide range of works on various aspects of cultural life. In the works of most authors, the socio-cultural and political interaction of art and power is considered, where culture is a form of agitation and propaganda. In other studies, questions of an art history nature are studied, and there are also a lot of works devoted to individuals whose activities are directly related to the Soviet theater.

This work consists of two chapters, introduction, conclusion, list of references and scientific literature.

In the first chapter, in chronological order, a general overview of the development of the Soviet theater in this era is given, key names and events are named, innovative theatrical trends are considered and creative directions developed by directors and theater workers are described, and the differences between the new Soviet audience and its requirements for art are revealed. .

In the second chapter, we pay attention to the historically most important topic of the influence of ideology on Soviet culture in general and on the theater in particular. Here we turn to the iconic figure of the era, A. V. Lunacharsky, and consider the issue of political censorship of the theatrical repertoire.

soviet theater lunacharsky

Chapter 1. The main milestones in the history of the Soviet theater in the post-revolutionary period 1.1. Leading creative trends in the development of the Soviet theater in the 1920s-1930s.

The revolution of 1917 completely changed the whole way of life in Russia, completely different trends appeared in the development of art in general and, of course, in the theater too. Without exaggeration, this time was the beginning of a new stage in the theatrical life of our country.

The political leaders of the Soviet state realized the importance of cultural development in the newly formed country. As for the theatrical sphere, everything was organized here immediately after the Revolution: on November 9, 1917, a decree was issued by the Council of People's Commissars on the transfer of all Russian theaters to the art department of the State Commission for Education, which soon became the People's Commissariat for Education. The Soviet government chose "the path of organizational, purposeful influence on the art of the theater by state bodies of public education" History of the Soviet Drama Theater in 6 volumes. T. 1. 1917-1920. - M.: Nauka, 1966. S. 63. Note that after October 1917, V.I. Lenin repeatedly visited the Bolshoi, Maly and Art Theaters.

In January 1918, the Theater Department of the People's Commissariat of Education was established, which was responsible for the general management of theatrical business in the RSFSR. History of the Soviet Drama Theater in 6 volumes. T. 1. 1917-1920. - M.: Nauka, 1966. S. 63 ..

Two years later, on August 26, 1919, V.I. Lenin signed another decree - "On the unification of theatrical business", which announced the complete nationalization of theaters. Such actions were in line with global plans to transfer all enterprises in the country, including those involved in the field of culture and leisure, to state ownership. For the first time in the history of our country, private theaters ceased to exist. There were pros and cons to this phenomenon. The main disadvantage was the dependence of the creative thought of the directors and the repertoire on the decision of the leadership and on the ideological attitudes that largely regulated art. True, this trend became apparent a little later, while in the 1920s the theater was still developing quite freely, innovative searches were taking place, completely original productions were being carried out, and various trends in art - realism - found their place on different stages in the work of directors. , constructivism, symbolism, etc.

After the Revolution, the largest, leading theaters received the status of academic theaters (the Bolshoi and Maly Theaters, the Moscow Art Theater, the Alexandrinsky Theater, etc.). Now they reported directly to the people's commissar of education, enjoyed extensive artistic rights and an advantage in financing, although, according to the people's commissar of education, very little was spent on academic theaters, only 1/5 of what was spent under the tsar. In 1919, the Maly Theater in Moscow became academic, in 1920 - the Moscow Art Theater (MKhT) and Alexandrinsky, which was renamed the Petrograd State Academic Drama Theater. In the 1920s, despite the difficult period of the formation of the state, the most difficult economic and political situation in the country, new theaters began to open, which indicates creative activity in the theater world. “The theater turned out to be the most stable element of Russian cultural life. The theaters remained in their premises, and no one robbed or destroyed them. Artists used to get together and work there, and they continued to do so; the tradition of government subsidies remained in place. “Astonishing as it may seem, Russian dramatic and operatic art has passed unscathed through all the storms and upheavals and is alive to this day. It turned out that over forty performances are given in Petrograd every day, we found about the same thing in Moscow, ”wrote the English science fiction writer G. Wells, who visited our country at that time. So, only in Moscow over the years appeared the 3rd Studio of the Moscow Art Theater (1920), which was later renamed the Theater. Vakhtangov; Theater of the Revolution (1922), which then became the Theater. Mayakovsky; Theatre. MGSPS (1922), now - Theater. Moscow City Council. The Bolshoi Drama Theater (1919) and the Theater of Young Spectators (1922), which still exist today, were opened in Petrograd. On December 22, 1917, the Belarusian Soviet Theater was opened in Minsk, at the end of 1917 the first Uzbek theater was created in Ferghana, and this happened throughout the country. Theaters were created in autonomous republics and regions. On November 7, 1918, the first children's theater was opened. Its organizer and leader was Natalia Sats, who later received the title of People's Artist of the RSFSR. She was the chief director of a unique children's musical theater that still exists today.

In addition to professional theaters, amateur theaters began to develop actively. So, in 1923, a theater called the Blue Blouse was opened in Moscow, the founder was Boris Yuzhanin, a journalist and cultural figure. This theater was distinguished by the fact that the artists did not change into costumes for each performance, but performed all the time in the same blue blouses. In addition, they themselves wrote the lyrics for the skits and songs they performed. This style has gained immense popularity. By the end of the 1920s, there were about a thousand such groups in Soviet Russia. Many of them employed non-professional actors. Basically, they devoted their activities to the creation of performances and programs dedicated to the theme of building a young Soviet state. Also in the second half of the 1920s, the first theaters of working youth appeared - "trams", on the basis of which the Theaters of the Lenin Komsomol were born.

At the Third Congress of the RCP(b) in 1923, it was decided to "raise in practical form the question of using the theater for the systematic mass propaganda of the struggle for communism." Cultural and theatrical figures, fulfilling the "state order" and acting in the spirit of the times, actively developed the direction of the areal mass theater with elements of agitation and mystery style. The theater workers who accepted the revolution were looking for new forms of theatrical spectacle. Thus was born the theater of mass action.

The new theatrical art required a completely different approach to staging a performance, updated imagery and expressive means. At this time, productions began to appear that were shown not on ordinary stages, but on the streets, stadiums, which made it possible to make the audience much more massive. Also, the new style made it possible to involve the audience themselves in action, to captivate them with what is happening, to make them empathize with ideas and events.

A vivid example of such spectacles is "The Capture of the Winter Palace" - a performance that took place on the third anniversary of the Revolution on November 7, 1920 in Petrograd. It was a grandiose large-scale performance that told about very recent revolutionary days that have already gone down in history (dir. A. Kugel, N. Petrov, N. Evreinov). This spectacle did not just play historical events in a theatrical form, it was intended to evoke a response and completely specific emotions in the audience - an inner uplift, empathy, a surge of patriotism and faith in the beautiful future of the new Soviet Russia. It is interesting that the performance was shown on the Palace Square, where the events of 1917 actually took place. An unusual number of artists, extras, musicians took part in the performance - only ten thousand people, and a hundred thousand spectators, a record for that era, saw it. It was the time of the civil war, and “the propaganda and political theater actively participated in the common struggle of the people for a new, happy life Khaichenko G. A. Pages of the history of the Soviet theater. - M .: "Art", 1983. S. 15 ..

In addition, in this genre were staged in Petrograd "Action about the Third International" (1919), "The Mystery of Emancipated Labor", "Towards the World Commune" (all - 1920); in Moscow - "Pantomime of the Great Revolution" (1918); in Voronezh - "Praise of the Revolution" (1918); in Irkutsk - "The Struggle of Labor and Capital" (1921) and others. Even the titles of these mass theatrical performances speak of their timely content, innovative content, plot basis and form.

Among the new original spectacular forms, one should also mention "Proletkult theatres, soldiers' theatres, agitation theatres, Live Newspaper - this is by no means a complete list of theater groups that arose in those years" The history of Russian drama theater: from its origins to the end of the 20th century. - M.: Russian University of Theater Arts-GITIS, 2011. S. 548..

D. I. Zolotnitsky wrote: “...such theaters formed important common features of the mass art of their time. Here, improvisation experiments, self-preparation of plays and entire programs, prompt responses to questions and events of the day, deliberate directness of influence, bordering on primitiveness, a tribute to the street “game”, stage, and circus meant a lot. The theater of the times of "war communism" willingly drew expressive means in the flow of folk art and with a broad hand returned what was created to the people.

It should be noted that not only the organizational structure of the theaters and their state subordination has changed. A whole new audience has emerged. Theatrical performances began to be attended by those who had previously seen only street performances and fair booths. These were ordinary workers, peasants who settled in cities, soldiers and sailors. In addition, even during the Civil War, entire theater groups and some of the largest actors traveled to workers' clubs, to villages, to the fronts, popularizing this art among the common population, which a few years ago was elitist.

In general, this period in art and in the theater in particular was very difficult. Despite the appearance that art has completely embarked on a “new track”, began to actively perform the functions of a political and social mouthpiece, operating with completely new, relevant topics that are interesting to the mass audience, there were also retrograde moods. This view of things was actively supported by theatrical literature of the Soviet era. Unsuitable themes and plots were forgotten, art took a new path. But in fact, both the audience, and the directors, and the ideologists of the theater of those years were the same people who lived in the Russian Empire before 1917, and they could not all change their views, interests and beliefs at the same time. Artists (as, indeed, the entire population of the country) took opposite positions of supporters and opponents of the revolution. Not all those who remained in the Soviet Union immediately and unconditionally accepted the changed state structure and the updated concept of cultural development. Many of them aspired to continue on the traditional path. They were not ready to give up their views and concepts. On the other hand, "the excitement of a social experiment aimed at building a new society was accompanied by the artistic excitement of experimental art, the rejection of the cultural experience of the past" History of Russian Drama Theater: from Its Origins to the End of the 20th Century. - theatrical art-GITIS, 2011. S. 556 ..

D. I. Zolotnitsky notes: “Not immediately and not suddenly, overcoming the skills of the past and the difficulties of the external conditions of life, people of creativity, old and young, recognized and unrecognized, went over to the side of the Soviet government. They determined their place in the new life not by speeches and declarations, but above all by creativity. Blok's The Twelve, Mayakovsky's and Meyerhold's Mystery Buff, Altman's portrait Leniniana were among the first real values ​​of revolutionary art.

V. E. Meyerhold belonged to the figures of the Soviet theater who enthusiastically accepted the change in the socio-political situation and saw in it ways to renew art. In 1920, the First Theater of the RSFSR was opened in Moscow, which was directed by this director. One of the best performances of this theater was "Mystery Buff" based on the play by V. Mayakovsky, which embodied both the current revolutionary theme and the aesthetic search for a new theatrical art. Heading the "left front" of art, V. E. Meyerhold published a whole program called "Theatrical October", in which he proclaimed "the complete destruction of the old art and the creation of a new art on its ruins." The theatrical figure P. A. Markov wrote about this: “The announced “Theatrical October” had an exciting and irresistible effect on us. In it we found an outlet for all our vague searches. For all the inconsistency of this slogan, it contained a lot that corresponded to the time, era, heroism of people who overcame hunger, cold, devastation with their work, and we almost did not notice the simplification of the complexity of tasks contained in this slogan ”Markov P. A. Book of Memoirs. - M .: Art, 1989. P. 137 ..

It is rather paradoxical that it was Meyerhold who became the ideologist of this direction, because before the Revolution he was focused on studying the traditions of the past and on classical theater in general. At the same time, he became an exemplary figure from the point of view of how a new historical era “gave birth” to new artists who were ready for all kinds of creative experiments and changes, it was after the October Revolution that he created his best innovative productions.

The director's innovative ideas found stage expression within the framework of the activities of the Theater of the RSFSR 1st, created by him. On this famous stage, various new plays were staged on topical issues, including in the fashionable and topical genre of the “performance-rally”. Meyerhold was also interested in such classical works of literature, drama such as N. Gogol's The Inspector General and others. An experimenter by nature, he worked with completely diverse expressive means. In his productions, there was a place for stage conventions, grotesque, eccentricity, biomechanics, and, at the same time, classical theatrical techniques. Destroying the boundaries between the viewer and the stage, the audience and the actors, he often transferred part of the action directly to the auditorium. In addition, Meyerhold belonged to the opponents of the traditional "scene-box". In addition to the means of scenography and costumes, the director used film frames that were completely unusual for those times, which were shown on the "backdrop", as well as unusual constructivist elements.

In the mid-20s, the formation of a new Soviet drama began, which had a very serious impact on the development of all theatrical art as a whole. Among the major events of this period, we can mention the premiere of the play "Storm" based on the play by V. N. Bill-Belotserkovsky at the Theater. MGSPS, the production of "Lyubov Yarovaya" by K. A. Trenev at the Maly Theater, as well as "The Break" by playwright B. A. Lavrenev at the Theater. E. B. Vakhtangov and at the Bolshoi Drama Theater. Also, the play “Armored Train 14-69” by V.V. Ivanov on the stage of the Moscow Art Theater became resonant. At the same time, despite numerous recent trends, an important place in the repertoire of theaters was given to the classics. In academic theaters, leading directors made interesting attempts at a new reading of pre-revolutionary plays (for example, A. N. Ostrovsky’s “Hot Heart” at the Moscow Art Theater). Supporters of the "left" art also turned to classical subjects (we note "The Forest" by A. N. Ostrovsky and "The Government Inspector" by N. V. Gogol at the Meyerhold Theater).

One of the most talented directors of the era A. Ya. Tairov advocated for

refraction of topical themes in the staging of plays by the great classics

past centuries. The director was far from politics and alien to the tendency to politicize art. Even during these years of experiments and new trends, he worked with great success in the genre of a tragic performance - he staged a landmark production of Phaedra (1922) based on a play by Racine based on an ancient myth. Tairov was also interested in the genre of harlequinade (“Zhirofle-Zhiroflya” by Ch. Lecoq, 1922). From a conceptual point of view, the director sought to combine all the elements of the performing arts (words, music, pantomime, dance, pictorial design), that is, to the so-called "synthetic theater". Tairov contrasted his artistic program with both Meyerhold's "conventional theater" and naturalistic theater.

In February 1922, the theater-studio began its existence under the direction of E. B. Vakhtangov. In the era of the NEP, theaters, in an effort to attract a new audience (the so-called "Nepmen"), sought to stage plays of the "light genre" - fairy tales and vaudeville. In this vein, Vakhtangov staged a performance based on Gozzi's fairy tale "Princess Turandot", which has become immortal, where sharp social satire was hidden behind the outward lightness and comedy of situations. Actor and director Yu. A. Zavadsky recalled: “According to Vakhtangov’s plan, the play “Princess Turandot” was first of all addressed to the deep human essence of the viewer. He had great life-affirming power. That is why all those who saw the Turandot performances for the first time will keep them in their memory as a vital event, as something after which a person looks at himself and others differently, lives differently.

“If an artist wants to create “new”, to create after it has come, the Revolution, then he must create “together” with the People,” said Vakhtangov Vakhtangov E. B. Collection / Comp., Comm. L. D. Vendrovskaya, G. P. Kaptereva. - M.: VTO, 1984. 583 p. P.24..

In 1926, the premiere of Trenev's play Love Yarovaya took place at the Moscow Maly Theater, which became very popular in the following decades. This performance told about one of the episodes of the recently ended civil war, about the courage and heroism of the people.

In October 1926, the premiere of M. A. Bulgakov’s play “Days of the Turbins” took place at the Art Theater. The director of the production was K. S. Stanislavsky, the director was I. Ya. Sudakov. The play aroused the indignation of critics, who saw in it the justification of the Whites. “The sharpness and intransigence of most of the then reviews of the Days of the Turbins is partly due to the fact that the Artistic Theater was generally considered by the critics of the “left front” as a theater “bourgeois”, “alien to the revolution” History of the Soviet Drama Theater in 6 volumes. T.3. 1926-1932. - M.: Nauka, 1967. S. 49 ..

In the first post-revolutionary decade, the main rule that determined the success of both the audience and the authorities was precisely experimentation, the path of innovation and the embodiment of the most original ideas. At the same time, it was a time (the only decade in the entire existence of the USSR) when completely different styles and directions coexisted on the stages. For example, it was only during this period that one could see on different stages Meyerhold’s “futuristic politicized “performances-rallies”, Tairov’s refined, emphatically asocial psychologism, Vakhtangov’s “fantastic realism”, and young N. Sats’ experiments with performances for children, and poetic biblical Habima theater and eccentric FEKS "History of Russian drama theater: from its origins to the end of the 20th century: - M .: Russian University of Theater Arts-GITIS, 2011. P. 563 .. It was a truly wonderful time for figures of theatrical art .

In parallel, there was also a traditional direction, which was broadcast by the Moscow Art Theater, the Maly Theater, Alexandrinsky. By the mid-1920s, the Moscow Art Theater became the most influential theater with its psychologism of the stage play (“Hot Heart” by A.N. Ostrovsky, “Days of the Turbins” by M.A. Bulgakov, 1926, “Crazy Day, or The Marriage of Figaro” by Beaumarchais, 1927) . The second generation of actors of the Moscow Art Theater announced itself loudly: A.K. Tarasova, O.N. Androvskaya, K.N.

Elanskaya, A.P. Zueva, N.P. Batalov, N.P. Khmelev, B.G. Dobronravov, B.N. Livanov, A.N. Gribov, M.M. Yashin and others. Developing on the basis of the method of socialist realism, the Soviet theater continued the best traditions of pre-revolutionary realistic art. But these theaters also developed in the spirit of modernity and staged performances in popular new styles - revolutionary and satirical - into their repertoire, but it was more difficult for these theaters during the period of emphasis on innovation than before the Revolution. An important role in the development of Soviet theatrical art continued to be played by the Stanislavsky system, created before 1917, designed to completely immerse the actor in what was happening, to achieve psychological authenticity.

The next period in the history of the Russian Soviet theater began in 1932. It was opened by the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations." The time of creative searches and artistic experiments seemed to be in the past. But at the same time, talented directors and artists continued to work in Soviet theaters, who, despite censorship and political control over art, continued to create interesting productions and develop theatrical art. The problem now was that the ideology had significantly narrowed the boundaries of what was “allowed”—themes, images, works that could be used, and options for interpreting them. The approval of artistic councils and authorities received mainly performances of a realistic direction. What a few years ago was perceived with a bang by both critics and spectators - symbolism, constructivism, minimalism - was now condemned for tendentiousness, formalism. Nevertheless, the theater of the first half of the 30s impresses with its artistic diversity, the courage of director's decisions, the true flowering of acting, in which famous masters and young, very diverse artists competed.

In the 1930s, the Soviet theater significantly enriched its repertoire by including dramatic works of Russian and Western European classics. It was then that performances were created that brought fame to the Soviet theater as the deepest interpreter of the work of the great English writer Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet at the Revolution Theater (1934), Othello at the Maly Theater, King Lear at GOSET (1935), Macbeth » History of the Soviet Drama Theater in 6 volumes. T.4. 1933-1941. - M .: Nauka, 1967. S. 15 .. Also, this period was marked by a mass appeal of theaters to the figure of M. Gorky, who was not so interesting to directors before the Revolution. The combination of socio - political and personally - emotional themes was simply doomed to success. At the same time, they possessed, in addition to the qualities necessary from the point of view of ideology, remarkable artistic merits. Such plays are "Egor Bulychov and Others", "Vassa Zheleznova", "Enemies".

It is important to understand that during this period, a criterion that did not exist before for evaluating any work of art appeared: ideological-thematic. In this regard, we can recall such a phenomenon in the Soviet theater of the 1930s as the performances of the "Leninians", in which V. Lenin appeared not as a real person, but as some kind of epic historical character. Such productions performed rather social and political functions, although they could be interesting, filled and creatively. These include "A Man with a Gun" (Vakhtangov Theatre), where the wonderful actor B. Shchukin played the role of Lenin, as well as "Pravda" in the Theater of the Revolution, M. Strauch played the role of Lenin.

Still the 1930s. somewhat tragically reflected in Russian culture. Many talented people, including the figures of the Russian theater, were repressed. But the development of the theater did not stop, new talents appeared who, unlike the representatives of the older generation, knew how to live in new political conditions and managed to “manoeuvre”, embodying their own creative ideas and acting within the framework of censorship. New director names appeared on the leading theater stages of Leningrad and Moscow in the 1930s: A. Popov, Yu. Zavadsky, R. Simonov, B. Zakhava, A. Dikiy, N. Okhlopkov, L. Vivien, N. Akimov, N. Gerchakov, M. Knebel, and others.

In addition, talented, educated, original directors worked in other cities of the Soviet Union. Here it is necessary to note an important fact connected with the development of culture in the Soviet era. If before the revolution the province lived quite simply, there were practically no cultural centers outside of St. Petersburg and Moscow (the exception was Nizhny Novgorod and several other cities), then in the post-revolutionary period, the country's leadership set the task of bringing the entire population of the country to a new cultural level. The level of education grew everywhere, public libraries, schools, and, of course, theaters began to appear.

The 1920s and 1930s gave the country a new generation of actors. These were artists of the “new formation” who were educated in the Soviet era. They had no need to relearn from the old stereotypes, they organically felt themselves in the performances of the new, modern repertoire. In the Moscow Art Theater, along with such luminaries as O. Knipper-Chekhova, V. Kachalov, L. Leonidov, I. Moskvin, M. Tarkhanov, N. Khmelev, B. Dobronravov, O. Androvskaya, A. Tarasova, K. Elanskaya, M. Prudkin and others. Actors and directors of the Moscow Art Theater School - I. Bersenev, S. Birman, S. Giatsintova - worked with great success at the Moscow Theater of the Lenin Komsomol (former TRAM). Artists of the older generation A. Yablochkina, V. Massalitinova, V. Ryzhova, A. Ostuzhev, P. Sadovsky continued their creative activity in the Maly Theater; young actors took a prominent place next to them: V. Pashennaya, E. Gogoleva, M. Zharov, N. Annenkov, M. Tsarev, I. Ilyinsky (one of the most popular actors of this period, who began with Meyerhold).

In the former Alexandrinsky Theatre, which in 1937 was named after A. Pushkin, the highest creative level was still maintained thanks to such famous old masters as E. Korchagina-Aleksandrovskaya, B. Gorin-Goryainov, Yu. Yuriev, I. Pevtsov. Together with them, new talents appeared on the stage - N. Rashevskaya, E. Karyakina, E. Wolf-Israel, N. Cherkasov. On the stage of the Vakhtangov Theater one could see such talented actors as B. Shchukin, A. Orochko, Ts. Mansurova. They were not inferior to them in terms of the creative level of the theater troupes. Moscow City Council (former MGSPS and MOSPS), where V. Maretskaya, N. Mordvinov, O. Abdulov played, Theater of the Revolution, Theater. Meyerhold (M. Babanova, M. Astangov, D. Orlov, Yu. Glizer, S. Martinson, E. Garin worked here). Most of these names are inscribed in the history of the theater today and are included in encyclopedias.

Let us note one quantitative indicator: by the mid-1930s, the number of actors in the USSR had increased fivefold compared to 1918. This fact suggests that the number of theaters (and vocational schools) was steadily growing, new drama and musical theaters were opened in all cities of the country, which were very popular among all segments of the country's population. The theater developed, enriched with new forms and ideas. Outstanding directors staged grandiose performances, talented actors of the era appeared on the stage.

1.2 Theatrical innovation and its role in the development of the Soviet art

The October Revolution evoked inspiration and faith in a real future, removing social barriers to education, culture, and creative self-expression. Art was filled with new ideals and new subjects. The revolutionary struggle, the civil war, the change in the social structure, public life, the beginning of a completely different historical stage, the formation of the "Soviet" type of personality became the main themes in art.

The creative intelligentsia of Russia, for the most part, perceived the events of 1917 as the beginning of a new era not only in the history of the country, but also in art: “Lenin turned the whole country upside down - just like I do in my paintings” Cited. Quoted from: Golomshtok I.N. totalitarian art. - M .: Galart, 1994. S. 16., - wrote Marc Chagall, then still a commissar for art at the Lunacharsky People's Commissariat of Education.

How did those who created it see the path of the new theatrical art? For example, so enthusiastically, but quite in the spirit of the times - the director and theorist Zavadsky spoke about this: “We look around us - life is rapidly developing, beautiful features of a new, Soviet person are emerging. But next to this beauty lives the ugly: rudeness, arrogance, bribery, dudes, speculators, thieves, townsfolk and vulgar people who insult our lives. And we do not want to put up with their existence! Our devotion to the great super-task obliges us to be irreconcilable. Raise and praise the light, castigate the dark, fall upon it with Gogol's passion. Remember his words about our great satirists? "The fire of lyrical indignation ignited the merciless power of their mockery." Yes, fury, fire, inspiration - all these manifestations of classical Russian creativity - should be our strength today, our military weapon” Zavadsky Yu. A. About the art of the theater. - M.: VTO, 1965. S. 140 ..

Today these words seem to us pretentious, too agitational, exaggeratedly ardent. But in reality, the art of the theater of the 1920s - early 1930s. was truly imbued with this ardor, the desire to create new ideals, to demonstrate how life in the country is changing for the better, to show on stage a renewed, more morally perfect person.

From a conceptual point of view, this was undoubtedly an innovation, because. pre-revolutionary theater (as well as literature) was much more focused on the inner world of a person, the sphere of personal relationships and gravitated towards everyday and family topics. At the same time, and within the framework of such topics, it was possible to touch upon the highest and global life issues, but the Soviet theater needed a slightly different selection of plots and an approach to their implementation.

What was it about? The ideology broadcast new values ​​that were actively (including through theatrical productions) introduced into society and "inculcated" in Soviet people. The personal began to be considered secondary and insignificant in comparison with the collective. A person had to give all his strength to the construction of a new state. And the theatre, first based on the sincere belief in this idea of ​​cultural figures, and then on a strict political setting, offered the viewer this idea in different styles and productions. Without a doubt, “the workers' and peasants' state considered the theater an important area for the education of the people. The Bolshevik Party saw the theater as a conductor of its influence on the masses. The construction of a new culture became a national matter” Zolotnitsky D.I. Dawns of theatrical October. - L .: Art, 1976. S. 27 ..

In addition, the changing life of the state and society, all political and social realities also required a new approach to staging classical works, which was enthusiastically received by modern directors.

It is obvious that after the Revolution, the theater went in many ways along a different path than its previous development suggested. However, it is important to understand that the transition “to the new rails” took place gradually, although there were such irreconcilable experimenters and innovators among the directors who perceived this period as a real breath of fresh air, which allowed them to create performances in hitherto unseen styles and forms.

But this was not always the case. Many figures did not immediately, but gradually came to the understanding that new themes, plots should be embodied in the theater, new genres should appear. Examining the early history of the Soviet theater, Zolotnitsky wrote: “It would be a departure from historical truth to present the matter as if every single theater, every single theatrical figure accepted the revolution enthusiastically, instantly understood and realized that the auditorium had become different and already different requirements for he brings art with him. The path of the old theaters in the revolution was tortuous, these theaters were imbued with the ideas of socialism only under the influence of the difficult experience of life, only in the final analysis, and not immediately and not suddenly.

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• The history of the formation of personality and the activities of Soviet innovative directors in the 1930s: N.P. Okhlopkov and V.F. Torsky 2011, Candidate of Historical Sciences Petrenko, Olga Vladimirovna

• The Formation of Higher Technical Education in the Russian Far East (1918-1941): Historical Experience 2005, candidate of historical sciences Khisamutdinova, Natalya Vladimirovna

Introduction to the thesis (part of the abstract) on the topic "State policy in the field of theater in the Soviet Far East: 20s - 30s of the XX century"

The alphabet of the Old Slavonic language is a collection of written characters in a certain order, expressing specific sounds. This system developed quite independently in the territory inhabited by peoples.

Brief historical background

At the end of 862, Prince Rostislav turned to Michael (the Byzantine emperor) with a request to send preachers to his principality (Great Moravia) in order to spread Christianity in the Slavic language. The fact is that it was read at that time in Latin, which was unfamiliar and incomprehensible to the people. Michael sent two Greeks - Constantine (he will receive the name Cyril later in 869 when he became a monk) and Methodius (his older brother). This choice was not accidental. The brothers were from Thessalonica (Thessaloniki in Greek), from the family of a military leader. Both received a good education. Konstantin was trained at the court of Emperor Michael the Third, was fluent in various languages, including Arabic, Jewish, Greek, Slavonic. In addition, he taught philosophy, for which he was called - Konstantin the Philosopher. Methodius was first in military service, and then for several years ruled one of the regions in which the Slavs lived. Subsequently, the older brother went to the monastery. This was not their first trip - in 860, the brothers made a trip with a diplomatic and missionary purpose to the Khazars.

How was the system of written signs created?

In order to preach in it was necessary to translate the Holy Scriptures. But the system of written signs did not exist at that time. Konstantin set about creating the alphabet. Methodius actively helped him. As a result, in 863, the Old Slavonic alphabet (the meaning of the letters from it will be given below) was created. The system of written characters existed in two forms: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. To this day, scientists disagree on which of these options was created by Cyril. With the participation of Methodius, some Greek liturgical books were translated. So the Slavs had the opportunity to write and read in their own language. In addition, the people received not only a system of written signs. The Old Slavonic alphabet became the basis for the literary vocabulary. Some words can still be found in the Ukrainian, Russian, Bulgarian dialect.

First characters - first word

The first letters of the Old Slavonic alphabet - "az" and "beeches" - formed, in fact, the name. They corresponded to "A" and "B" and began the sign system. What did the Old Slavonic alphabet look like? Graffiti pictures were first scrawled directly on the walls. The first signs appeared around the 9th century, on the walls in the churches of Pereslavl. And in the 11th century, the Old Slavonic alphabet, the translation of some characters and their interpretation appeared in Kyiv, an event that occurred in 1574 contributed to a new round in the development of writing. Then the first printed "Old Slavic alphabet" appeared. Its creator was Ivan Fedorov.

Connection of times and events

Looking back, it is not without interest to note that the Old Slavonic alphabet was not just an ordered set of written characters. This system of signs opened to the people a new path of man on earth leading to perfection and to a new faith. Researchers, looking at the chronology of events, the difference between which is only 125 years, suggest a direct connection between the establishment of Christianity and the creation of written symbols. In one century, practically the people were able to eradicate the old archaic culture and adopt a new faith. Most historians have no doubt that the emergence of a new writing system is directly related to the subsequent adoption and spread of Christianity. The Old Slavonic alphabet, as already mentioned above, was created in 863, and in 988 Vladimir officially announced the introduction of a new faith and the destruction of a primitive cult.

The secret of the sign system

Many scientists, studying the history of the creation of writing, come to the conclusion that the letters of the Old Slavonic alphabet were a kind of cryptography. It had not only deep religious, but also philosophical meaning. At the same time, Old Slavonic letters make up a complex logical and mathematical system. Comparing the finds, the researchers come to the conclusion that the first collection of written symbols was created as a kind of holistic invention, and not as a structure that was formed in parts by adding new forms. The signs of which the Old Slavonic alphabet consisted are interesting. Most of them are symbols-numbers. The Cyrillic alphabet is based on the Greek uncial writing system. There were 43 letters in the Old Slavonic alphabet. 24 characters were borrowed from the Greek uncial, 19 were new. The fact is that there were no some sounds that the Slavs had at that time. Accordingly, there was no literal inscription either. Therefore, some of the new characters, 19, were borrowed from other writing systems, and some were specially created by Konstantin.

"higher" and "lower" part

If you look at this entire written system, you can quite clearly distinguish two of its parts, which are fundamentally different from each other. Conventionally, the first part is called "higher", and the second, respectively, "lower". The 1st group includes the letters A-F ("az" - "fert"). They are a list of character-words. Their meaning was clear to any Slav. The "lower" part began with "sha" and ended with "izhitsa". These symbols did not have a numerical value and carried a negative connotation in themselves. To understand cryptography, it is not enough just to skim it. One should read the symbols - after all, Konstantin put a semantic core into each of them. What did the signs that made up the Old Slavonic alphabet symbolize?

The meaning of the letters

"Az", "beeches", "lead" - these three characters stood at the very beginning of the system of written signs. The first letter was "az". It was used in "I". But the root meaning of this symbol is such words as "beginning", "beginning", "originally". In some letters you can find "az", which denoted the number "one": "I'll go to Vladimir". Or this symbol was interpreted as "starting with the basics" (at first). Thus, the Slavs denoted the philosophical meaning of their existence with this letter, indicating that there is no end without a beginning, there is no light without darkness, there is no evil without good. At the same time, the main emphasis was placed on the duality of the structure of the world. But the Old Slavonic alphabet itself, in fact, is compiled according to the same principle and is divided into 2 parts, as already mentioned above, "higher" (positive) and "lower" (negative). "Az" corresponded to the number "1", which, in turn, symbolized the beginning of everything beautiful. Studying the numerology of the people, researchers say that all numbers were already divided by people into even and odd. Moreover, the former were associated with something negative, while the latter symbolized something good, bright, positive.

"Buki"

This letter followed "az". "Buki" had no numerical value. However, the philosophical meaning of this symbol was no less profound. "Buki" is "to be", "will be". As a rule, it was used in revolutions in the future tense. So, for example, "bodie" is "let it be", "future" is "upcoming", "future". By this, the Slavs expressed the inevitability of upcoming events. At the same time, they could be both terrible and gloomy, and iridescent and good. It is not known exactly why Konstantin did not give a digital value to the second letter. Many researchers believe that this may be due to the dual meaning of the letter itself.

"Lead"

This character is of particular interest. "Lead" corresponds to the number 2. The symbol is translated as "own", "know", "know". Putting such a meaning in "lead", Constantine meant knowledge - as the divine highest gift. And if you add the first three characters, then the phrase "I will know" will come out. By this, Constantine wanted to show that the person who discovers the alphabet will subsequently receive knowledge. It should be said about the semantic load "lead". The number "2" is a deuce, the couple took part in various magical rituals, and in general indicated the duality of everything earthly and heavenly. "Two" among the Slavs meant the union of earth and sky. In addition, this figure symbolized the duality of the person himself - the presence of good and evil in him. In other words, "2" is a constant confrontation of the parties. It should also be noted that the "two" was considered the number of the devil - many negative properties were attributed to it. It was believed that it was she who opened a series of negative numbers that bring death to a person. In this regard, the birth of twins, for example, was considered a bad sign, bringing illness and misfortune to the whole family. It was considered a bad omen to rock the cradle together, to dry oneself with one towel for two people, and indeed to do something together. However, even with all the negative qualities of the "two", people recognized its magical properties. And many rituals involved twins or used the same items to exorcise evil spirits.

Symbols as a secret message to posterity

All Old Church Slavonic letters are capital. For the first time, two types of written characters - lowercase and uppercase - were introduced by Peter the Great in 1710. If you look at the Old Slavonic alphabet - the meaning of letters-words, in particular - you can understand that Constantine did not just make up a written system, but tried to convey a special meaning to his descendants. So, for example, if you add certain symbols, you can get phrases of an edifying nature:

"Lead the Verb" - lead the teaching;

"Tverdo Ok" - strengthen the law;

"Rtsy Word Firmly" - speak true words, etc.

Order and style

Researchers involved in the study of the alphabet consider the order of the first, "higher" part from two positions. First of all, each character is added with the next one into a meaningful phrase. This can be considered a non-random pattern, which was probably invented for easier and faster memorization of the alphabet. In addition, the system of written characters can be considered from the point of view of numerology. After all, the letters corresponded to the numbers, which were arranged in ascending order. So, "az" - A - 1, B - 2, then G - 3, then D - 4 and then up to ten. Tens started with "K". They were listed in the same order of units: 10, 20, then 30, etc. up to 100. Despite the fact that Old Slavonic letters were written with patterns, they were convenient and simple. All characters were excellent for cursive writing. As a rule, people did not experience difficulties in the image of letters.

Development of the system of written signs

If we compare the Old Slavonic and modern alphabet, we can see that 16 letters are lost. Cyrillic and today corresponds to the sound composition of Russian vocabulary. This is primarily due to the not so sharp divergence in the very structure of the Slavic and Russian languages. It is also important that when compiling the Cyrillic alphabet, Konstantin carefully took into account the phonemic (sound) composition of speech. The Old Slavonic alphabet contained seven Greek written characters, which were originally unnecessary for the transmission of the sounds of the Old Slavonic language: "omega", "xi", "psi", "fita", "izhitsa". In addition, the system included two signs each to designate the sound "i" and "z": for the second - "green" and "earth", for the first - "and" and "like". This designation was somewhat redundant. The inclusion of these letters in the alphabet was supposed to provide the sounds of Greek speech in words borrowed from it. But the sounds were pronounced in the old Russian way. Therefore, the need to use these written symbols eventually disappeared. It was important to change the use and meaning of the letters "er" ("b") and "er" (b). Initially, they were used to denote a weakened (reduced) voiceless vowel: "b" - close to "o", "b" - close to "e". Over time, weak voiceless vowels began to disappear (a process called the "falling of the voiceless"), and these characters received other tasks.

Conclusion

Many thinkers saw in the digital correspondence of written symbols the principle of the triad, the spiritual balance that a person achieves in his striving for truth, light, goodness. Studying the alphabet from its very beginnings, many researchers conclude that Constantine left to his descendants an invaluable creation, calling for self-improvement, wisdom and love, teaching, bypassing the dark paths of enmity, envy, malice, evil.

C Church Slavonic is a language that has survived to our time as the language of worship. It goes back to the Old Church Slavonic language created by Cyril and Methodius on the basis of South Slavic dialects. The most ancient Slavic literary language spread first among the Western Slavs (Moravia), then among the southern Slavs (Bulgaria), and eventually becomes the common literary language of the Orthodox Slavs. This language also became widespread in Wallachia and some regions of Croatia and the Czech Republic. Thus, from the very beginning, Church Slavonic was the language of the church and culture, and not of any particular people.
Church Slavonic was the literary (bookish) language of the peoples inhabiting a vast territory. Since it was, first of all, the language of church culture, the same texts were read and copied throughout this territory. Monuments of the Church Slavonic language were influenced by local dialects (this was most strongly reflected in spelling), but the structure of the language did not change. It is customary to talk about editions (regional variants) of the Church Slavonic language - Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, etc.
Church Slavonic has never been a spoken language. As a book, it was opposed to living national languages. As a literary language, it was a standardized language, and the standard was determined not only by the place where the text was rewritten, but also by the nature and purpose of the text itself. Elements of lively colloquial (Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian) could penetrate Church Slavonic texts in one quantity or another. The norm of each specific text was determined by the relationship between the elements of the book and the living spoken language. The more important the text was in the eyes of a medieval Christian scribe, the more archaic and stricter the language norm. Elements of spoken language almost did not penetrate into liturgical texts. The scribes followed tradition and focused on the most ancient texts. In parallel with the texts, there was also business writing and private correspondence. The language of business and private documents combines elements of the living national language (Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian, etc.) and separate Church Slavonic forms. The active interaction of book cultures and the migration of manuscripts led to the fact that the same text was copied and read in different editions. By the XIV century. came the understanding that the texts contain errors. The existence of different editions did not allow us to decide which text is older, and therefore better. At the same time, the traditions of other peoples seemed more perfect. If the South Slavic scribes were guided by Russian manuscripts, then the Russian scribes, on the contrary, believed that the South Slavic tradition was more authoritative, since it was the South Slavs who preserved the features of the ancient language. They valued Bulgarian and Serbian manuscripts and imitated their orthography.
The first grammar of the Church Slavonic language, in the modern sense of the word, is the grammar of Lawrence Zizanias (1596). In 1619, the Church Slavonic grammar of Melety Smotrytsky appeared, which determined the later language norm. In their work, the scribes sought to correct the language and text of the books being copied. At the same time, the idea of ​​what a correct text is has changed over time. Therefore, in different eras, books were corrected either according to manuscripts that the editors considered ancient, then according to books brought from other Slavic regions, then according to Greek originals. As a result of the constant correction of liturgical books, the Church Slavonic language acquired its modern look. Basically, this process was completed at the end of the 17th century, when, at the initiative of Patriarch Nikon, the liturgical books were corrected. Since Russia supplied other Slavic countries with liturgical books, the post-Nikonian appearance of the Church Slavonic language became the general norm for all Orthodox Slavs.
In Russia, Church Slavonic was the language of the Church and culture until the 18th century. After the emergence of a new type of Russian literary language, Church Slavonic remains only the language of Orthodox worship. The corpus of Church Slavonic texts is constantly replenished: new church services, akathists and prayers are being compiled. Being the direct heir of the Old Church Slavonic language, Church Slavonic has retained many archaic features of the morphological and syntactic structure to this day. It is characterized by four types of noun declension, has four past tense verbs and special nominative participle forms. The syntax preserves the tracing Greek turns (dative independent, double accusative, etc.). The spelling of the Church Slavonic language underwent the greatest changes, the final form of which was formed as a result of the "book right" of the 17th century.

In the Church Slavonic language, the alphabet consists of 40 letters, most of which correspond to Russian letters in spelling and pronunciation. Each letter of the Church Slavonic language has its own traditional name.