Plan

Introduction

1. Social institution: concept, types, functions

2. Essence, features of the process of institutionalization

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Social institutions are necessary for the organization of joint activities of people in order to meet their social needs, a reasonable distribution of resources available to society:

The state carries out its appointment through the coordination of heterogeneous interests, through the formation on their basis of the general interest and its implementation with the help of state power;

- Right- it is a set of rules of conduct that regulate the relationship of people in accordance with generally accepted values ​​and ideals;

- Religion is a public institution that realizes the need of people in search of the meaning of life, truth and ideals.

For society, a stable set of formal and informal rules, principles, norms, and attitudes that regulate various spheres of human activity and organize them into a system of roles and statuses is extremely important.

Any social institution, in order to become a stable form of organizing the joint activities of people, has evolved historically, throughout the development of human society. Society is a system of social institutions as a complex set of economic, political, legal, moral and other relations.

Also historically there was a process of institutionalization, i.e. the transformation of any social, political phenomena or movements into organized institutions, formalized, ordered processes with a certain structure of relations, a hierarchy of power at various levels, and other signs of an organization, such as discipline, rules of conduct, etc. The initial forms of institutionalization arose at the level of public self-government and spontaneous processes: mass or group movements, unrest, etc., when orderly, directed actions arose in them, leaders capable of leading them, organizing, and then permanent leadership groups. More developed forms of institutionalization are represented by the established political system of society with established social and political institutions and the institutional structure of power.

Let us consider in more detail such categories of sociology as social institution and institutionalization.

Social institution: concept, types, functions

Social institutions are the most important factor in social life. They are the foundation of society, on which the building itself rises. They are the "pillars on which the entire society rests." Sociology. Under the editorship of Professor V. N. Lavrinenko. M.: UNITI, 2009, p. 217. It is thanks to social institutions that "society survives, functions and evolves." Ibid, p. 217.

The determining condition for the emergence of a social institution is the emergence of social needs.

Social needs are characterized by the following features:

Mass manifestation;

Stability in time and space;

Invariance in relation to the conditions of existence of a social group;

Conjugation (the emergence and satisfaction of one need entails a whole range of other needs).

The main purpose of social institutions is to ensure the satisfaction of important vital needs. Social institutions (from the Latin Institutum - establishment, establishment, device) are "historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities and relations between people that perform socially significant functions." Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology. M.: Publishing House "Library", 2004, p. 150. I.e. a social institution is defined as an organized system of social ties and social norms that combines generally valid values ​​and procedures that satisfy certain social needs.

The following definition is also given: a social institution is:

- “Role system, which also includes norms and statuses;

A set of customs, traditions and rules of conduct;

Formal and informal organization;

A set of norms and institutions that regulate a certain area of ​​social relations. Kravchenko A.I. Sociology. M.: Prospekt, 2009, p. 186.

The final definition of social institutions: these are specific entities that perform socially significant functions and ensure the achievement of goals, the relative stability of social ties and relations within the framework of the social organization of society. Social institutions are historically established stable forms of organization of joint activities of people.

Characteristic features of social institutions:

Constant and strong interaction between the participants of communications and relations;

A clear definition of the functions, rights and obligations of each of the participants in the communication and relationship;

Regulation and control of these interactions;

Availability of specially trained personnel to ensure the functioning of social institutions.

Basic social institutions(depending on the scope of action, institutions are relational - defining the role structure of society according to various criteria, and regulatory - defining the boundaries of an individual's independent actions to achieve personal goals):

The institution of the family, which performs the function of the reproduction of society;

Institute of Public Health;

Institute of Social Protection;

State Institute;

Church, business, media, etc.

In addition, an institution is understood as a relatively stable and integrated set of symbols that governs a specific area of ​​social life: religion, education, economics, government, power, morality, law, trade, etc. That is, if we summarize the entire list of elements of social institutions, then they will appear “as a global social system that has existed for a historically long time, satisfies the urgent needs of society, has legitimate power and moral authority and is regulated by a set of social norms and rules.” Sociology. Under the editorship of Professor V.N. Lavrinenko. M.: UNITI, 2009, p. 220.

Social institutions have institutional features, i.e. features and properties that are inherent in all organically and express their inner content:

Standards and patterns of behavior (loyalty, responsibility, respect, obedience, subordination, diligence, etc.);

Symbols and signs (state coat of arms, flag, cross, wedding ring, icons, etc.);

Codes and statutes (prohibitions, laws, rules, habits);

Physical objects and structures (home for the family, public buildings for government, factories and factories for production, classrooms and auditoriums, libraries for education, temples for religious worship);

Values ​​and ideas (love for the family, democracy in a society of freedom, Orthodoxy and Catholicism in Christianity, etc.). From: Kravchenko A.I. Sociology. M.: TK Velby, Prospekt, 2004, p. 187.

The listed properties of social institutions are internal. But there are also external properties of social institutions that are somehow perceived by people.

These properties include the following:

Objectivity, when people perceive the institutions of the state, property, production, education and religion as certain objects that exist independently of our will and consciousness;

Coercion, since institutions impose on people (while not depending on the will and desires of people) such behavior, thoughts and actions that people would not want for themselves;

Moral authority, legitimacy of social institutions. For example, the state is the only institution that has the right to use force on its territory on the basis of adopted laws. Religion has its authority on the basis of tradition and the moral trust of the people in the church;

Historicity of social institutions. There is even no need to prove this, because behind each of the institutions lies a centuries-old history: from the moment of its inception (emergence) to the present.

Social institutions are characterized by a clear delineation of the functions and powers of each of the subjects of interaction; coherence, coherence of their actions; rather high and rigid level of regulation and control over this interaction.

Social institutions help solve vital problems for a large number of people who turn to them. A person falls ill - he goes to the health institute (clinic, hospital, polyclinic). For procreation, there is the institution of seven and marriage, etc.

At the same time, institutions act as instruments of social control, because, thanks to their normative order, they stimulate people to obey and be disciplined. Therefore, the institution is understood as a set of norms and patterns of behavior.

The role of social institutions in society is similar to the functions of biological instincts in nature. Man in the process of development of society has lost almost all his instincts. And the world is dangerous, the environment is constantly changing, and he must survive in these conditions. How? Social institutions come to the rescue and play the role of instincts in human society. They help the individual and the entire society to survive.

If social institutions function normally in a society, then this is good for it. If not, they become a colossal evil. Institutions are constantly evolving, and each of them performs its main functions. For example, the institution of family and marriage relations performs the functions of caring, nursing and raising children. Economic institutions perform the functions of obtaining food, clothing, housing. Educational ones perform the functions of socializing people, familiarizing them with the basic values ​​of human society and the practice of real life. Etc. But there are a number of functions that are performed by all social institutions.

These functions are common to social institutions:

1. Satisfying a specific social need;

2. Functions of consolidation and reproduction of social relations. This function is realized in the stabilization of social interaction by reducing them to predictable patterns of social roles.

3. regulative function. With her help. social institutions develop standards of behavior to create predictability in human interaction. Through social control, any institution ensures the stability of the social structure. Such regulation is necessary for joint activities and is carried out on the basis of the fulfillment by each of the role requirements - expectations and the rational distribution of resources available in society.

4. integrative function. It promotes cohesion, interconnection and interdependence of members of social groups through a system of rules, norms, sanctions and roles. The most important social institution in the implementation of the function of integrating society is politics. It coordinates the heterogeneous interests of social groups and individuals; forms generally accepted goals on their basis and ensures their implementation by directing the necessary resources for their implementation.

5. The function of translation is to transfer the accumulated experience to new generations. Each social institution seeks to ensure the successful socialization of the individual, passing on cultural experience and values ​​for the full performance of various social roles.

6. The communication function involves the distribution of information both within the institution for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with the norms, and for interaction between institutions. A special role in the implementation of this function is played by the mass media (media), which are called the "fourth power" after the legislative, executive and judicial.

7. The function of protecting members of society from physical danger, ensuring the personal safety of citizens is performed by legal and military institutions.

8. The function of regulating power relations. This function is carried out by political institutions. They ensure the reproduction and sustainable preservation of democratic values, as well as the stabilization of the existing social structure in society.

9. The function of controlling the behavior of members of society. It is carried out by political and legal institutions. The action of social control is reduced, on the one hand, to the application of sanctions against behavior that violates social norms, on the other hand, to the approval of behavior desirable for society.

These are the functions of social institutions.

As we can see, each function of a social institution lies in the benefit that it brings to society. For a social institution to function means to benefit society. If a social institution harms society, then these actions are called dysfunction. For example, at present in Russia there is a crisis of the institution of the family: the country has come out on top in terms of the number of divorces. Why did it happen? One of the reasons is the incorrect distribution of roles between husband and wife. Another reason is the inefficient socialization of children. There are millions of homeless children abandoned by their parents in the country. The consequences for society can be easily imagined. Here there is a dysfunction of a social institution - the institution of family and marriage.

Not everything is going smoothly with the institution of private property in Russia either. The institution of property in general is new for Russia, since it has been lost since 1917, generations were born and grew up who did not know what private property was. Respect for private property has yet to be instilled in people.

Social ties (statuses and roles within which people carry out their behavior), social norms and procedures (standards, patterns of behavior in group processes), social values ​​(generally recognized ideals and goals) are elements of a social institution. Society must have a system of ideas that forms the meanings, goals and standards of behavior of people united for joint activities to meet a certain social need - an ideology. Ideology explains to each member of society the need for the existence of this institution, compliance with social norms in order to achieve the goals.

In order for social institutions to develop, there must be objectively specified conditions in society that are necessary for the development of social institutions:

Some kind of social need must appear and spread in society, which many members of society are sure to realize. Since it is conscious, it should become the main prerequisite for the formation of a new institution;

The society must have operational means to satisfy this need, i.e. the established system of procedures, operations, clear actions aimed at realizing a new need;

To really fulfill their role, social institutions need resources - material, financial, labor, organizational, which society must constantly replenish;

To ensure the self-formation and self-development of any social institution, a special cultural environment is needed - a certain set of rules of behavior, social actions that distinguish people belonging to this institution (organizational, corporate, etc. culture).

If there are no such conditions, the emergence, formation and development of a particular social institution is impossible.

Thus, social institutions are characterized as organized social systems with stable structures, integrated elements and a certain variability of their functions. Their activity is considered positively functional if it contributes to maintaining the stability of society. If not, then their activity is dysfunctional. The normal functioning of any social institution is a necessary condition for the development of society.

If there is a so-called “failure” in the functioning of social institutions, then this will instantly cause tension in the social system as a whole.

Each institution performs its own characteristic social function. The totality of these social functions has developed into the general social functions of social institutions, which are mentioned above. Each institution represents a certain kind of social system. The functions are diverse, but a certain ordered system - the classification of social institutions - exists.

Social institutions differ from each other in their functional qualities:

1. Economic and social institutions. Their categories are property, exchange, money, banks, business associations of various types. They provide the totality of the production and distribution of social wealth, interacting with other areas of social life;

2. political institutions. Here: the state, parties, trade unions and other public organizations that pursue political goals and are aimed at establishing and maintaining any political power. Political institutions "ensure the reproduction and sustainable preservation of ideological values, stabilize the dominant social class structures in society." Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology. M.: Biblionics, 2004, p. 152;

3. Sociocultural and educational institutions. Their goal is the development and subsequent reproduction of cultural and social values, the inclusion of a person in a certain subculture and the socialization of people through the assimilation of sustainable socio-cultural standards of behavior, as well as the protection of values ​​and norms.

4. Normative-orienting social institutions. They are mechanisms of moral and ethical regulation of people's behavior. Their goal is to give behavior and motivation a moral argument, an ethical basis. It is these institutions that establish imperative universal human values, special codes and ethics of behavior in society;

5. Normative-sanctioning social institutions. They are engaged in public regulation of the behavior of members of society on the basis of norms, rules and regulations that are legally enshrined, i.e. laws or administrative acts. These norms are obligatory, they are enforced;

6. Ceremonial-symbolic and situational-conventional institutions. These institutions are based on treaty norms and their formal and informal consolidation. These norms govern the daily contacts and interaction of people, various acts of group and intergroup behavior, regulate the methods of transmission and exchange of information, greetings, addresses, etc. rules of meetings, meetings, activities of any associations.

These are the types of social institutions. Obviously, social organizations are the form of social institutions, i.e. such a way of joint activity in which it takes the form of an orderly, regulated, coordinated and aimed at achieving a common goal of interaction. Social organizations are always purposeful, hierarchical and subordinated, functionally specialized and have a certain organizational structure, as well as their own mechanisms, means of regulation and control over the activities of various elements.

People tend to live in groups that exist for a long time. However, despite the advantages of collective life, it does not in itself ensure the automatic preservation of societies. For the preservation and reproduction of society as an integral system, it is necessary to find and use certain forces and resources. This aspect of the existence of societies is studied in the context of social needs or social functions.

J. Lenski singled out six basic conditions for the existence of society:

Communication between its members;
- production of goods and services;
- distribution;
- protection of members of society;
- replacement of retiring members of the society;
- control of their behavior.

The elements of social organization that regulate the use of society's resources and direct the joint efforts of people to meet social needs are social institutions (economic, political, legal, etc.).

social institution(lat. institutum - establishment, device) - a historically established, relatively stable form of organization and regulation of social relations, ensuring the realization of the needs of society as a whole. By creating social institutions and participating in their activities, people affirm and consolidate the relevant social norms. From the content side, social institutions are a set of standards of behavior in certain situations. Thanks to social institutions, the stability of the forms of behavior of people in society is maintained.

Any social institution includes:

The system of roles and statuses;
- rules governing human behavior;
- a group of individuals undertaking organized social action;
- material resources (buildings, equipment, etc.).

Institutions arise spontaneously. institutionalization is the ordering, standardization and formalization of people's activities in the relevant sphere of social relations. Although this process may be perceived by people, its essence is determined by objective social conditions. A person can only correct it with competent management activities based on scientific comprehension of this process.

The variety of social institutions is determined by the differentiation of types of social activity. Therefore, social institutions are divided into economic(banks, stock exchanges, corporations, consumer and service enterprises), political(the state with its central and local authorities, parties, public organizations, foundations, etc.), institutes of education and culture(school, family, theater) and social in the narrow sense(institutions of social security and guardianship, various amateur organizations).

The nature of the organization varies formal(based on strict prescriptions and bureaucratic in spirit) and informal social institutions (setting their own rules and exercising social control over their implementation through public opinion, tradition or custom).

Functions of social institutions:

- meeting the needs of society: organization of communication between people, production and distribution of material goods, setting and achieving common goals, etc.;

- regulation of the behavior of social subjects with the help of social norms and rules, bringing people's actions into line with more or less predictable patterns of social roles;

- stabilization of social relations, consolidation and maintenance of sustainable social ties and relationships;

- social integration, rallying individuals and groups throughout society.

The conditions for the successful functioning of institutions are:

Clear definition of functions;
- rational division of labor and organization;
- depersonalization, the ability to function regardless of the personal qualities of people;
- the ability to effectively reward and punish;
- involvement in a larger system of institutions.

The mutual connection and integration of institutions in society is based, firstly, on the regularity in the manifestations of the personal properties of people, the homogeneity of their needs, secondly, on the division of labor and the subject connection of the functions performed, and thirdly, on the dominance in society of institutions of one specific type , which is due to the peculiarities of its culture.

Social institutions stabilize people's activities. However, the institutions themselves are diverse and changeable.
The activities of social institutions are carried out through social organizations. The basis for the emergence of the organization is people's awareness of the need to achieve common goals and carry out joint activities.

The concepts of "social institution" and "social role" belong to the central sociological categories, allowing you to introduce new angles into the consideration and analysis of social life. They draw our attention primarily to normativity and rituals in social life, to social behavior organized according to certain rules and following established patterns.

Social institution (from lat. institutum - device, establishment) - sustainable forms of organization and regulation of public life; a stable set of rules, norms, and attitudes that regulate various spheres of human activity and organize them into a system of social roles and statuses.

Events, actions, or things that seem to have nothing in common with each other, such as a book, a wedding, an auction, a meeting of parliament, or the celebration of Christmas, at the same time have an essential similarity: they are all forms of institutional life, i.e., all organized in accordance with certain rules, norms, roles, although the goals that are achieved in this case may be different.

E. Durkheim figuratively defined social institutions as "factories of reproduction" of social relations and connections. The German sociologist A. Gehlen interprets the institution as a regulatory institution that directs people's actions in a certain direction, just as instincts guide the behavior of animals.

According to T. Parsons, society appears as a system of social relations and social institutions, and the institutions act as "nodes", "bundles" of social relations. Institutional aspect of social action- such an area in which the normative expectations operating in social systems, rooted in culture and determining what should be done by people in various statuses and roles, are revealed.

Thus, a social institution is a space in which an individual is accustomed to consistent behavior, living by the rules. Within the framework of a social institution, the behavior of each member of society becomes quite predictable in terms of its orientations and forms of manifestation. Even in the case of violations or significant variations in role behavior, the main value of the institution remains precisely the normative framework. As P. Berger noted, institutions encourage people to follow the beaten paths that society considers desirable. The trick will succeed because the individual is convinced that these paths are the only possible ones.

The institutional analysis of social life is the study of the most repetitive and most stable patterns of behavior, habits, and traditions that are passed down from generation to generation. Accordingly, non-institutionalized or non-institutional forms of social behavior are characterized by randomness, spontaneity, and less controllability.

The process of the formation of a social institution, the institutionalization of norms, rules, statuses and roles, which makes it possible to satisfy a particular social need, is called "institutionalization".

Well-known American sociologists P. Berger and T. Luckman singled out the psychological, social, and cultural sources of institutionalization.

Psychological ability human addictive memorization precedes any institutionalization. Thanks to this ability, people narrow the field of choice: out of a hundred possible ways of acting, only a few are fixed, which become a model for reproduction, thereby ensuring the direction and specialization of activity, saving decision-making efforts, freeing up time for careful thinking and innovation.

Further, institutionalization takes place wherever there is mutual typing of habitual actions on the part of actors, i.e. the emergence of a specific institution means that actions of type X must be performed by agents of type X (for example, the institution of the court establishes that heads will be cut off in a specific way under certain conditions and that certain types of individuals will be engaged in this, namely executioners or members of an impure caste, or those who the oracle will point to). The use of typifications is in the ability to predict the actions of another, which relieves the tension of uncertainty, saving time and energy both for other actions and in a psychological sense. The stabilization of individual actions and relationships will create the possibility of a division of labor, opening the way for innovations that require a higher level of attention. The latter lead to new habits and typifications. This is how the roots of the developing institutional order emerge.

Institute assumes historicity, i.e. the corresponding typings are created in the course of a common history, they cannot arise instantly. The most important moment in the formation of an institution is the ability to pass on habitual actions to the next generation. As long as nascent institutions are still created and maintained only through the interaction of specific individuals, the possibility of changing their actions always remains: these and only these people are responsible for constructing this world, and they are able to change or cancel it.

Everything changes in the process of transferring one's experience to a new generation. The objectivity of the institutional world is strengthened, that is, the perception of these institutions as external and coercive, not only by children, but also by parents. The formula "we do it again" is replaced by the formula "this is how it's done". The world becomes stable in consciousness, becomes much more real and cannot be easily changed. It is at this point that it becomes possible to speak of the social world as a given reality opposed to the individual, like the natural world. It has a history which precedes the birth of the individual and is beyond the reach of his memory. It will continue to exist even after his death. An individual biography is understood as an episode placed in the objective history of a society. Institutions exist, they resist attempts to change or circumvent them. Their objective reality does not become less because the individual can

ns understand their purpose or mode of action. A paradox arises: a person creates a world, which he later perceives as something different from a human product.

Development of special mechanisms social control turns out to be necessary in the process of passing on the world to new generations: it is more likely that someone will deviate from the programs set for him by others than from the programs he himself helped to create. Children (however, like adults) must "learn to behave" and, having learned, "adhere to the existing rules."

With the advent of a new generation, there is a need for legitimation social world, i.e. in the ways of its "explanation" and "justification". Children cannot comprehend this world based on memories of the circumstances under which this world was created. There is a need to interpret this meaning, to give the meaning of history and biography. So, the dominance of a man is explained and justified either physiologically (“he is stronger and therefore can provide his family with resources”), or mythologically (“God created a man first, and only then a woman from his rib”).

The developing institutional order develops a canopy of such explanations and justifications that the new generation is introduced to in the process of socialization. Thus, the analysis of people's knowledge of institutions turns out to be an essential part of the analysis of the institutional order. This can be knowledge both at the pre-theoretical level in the form of a collection of maxims, teachings, sayings, beliefs, myths, and in the form of complex theoretical systems. It does not really matter whether it corresponds to reality or is illusory. More significant is the agreement it brings to the group. The significance of knowledge for the institutional order causes the need for special institutions involved in the development of legitimations, therefore, for specialist ideologists (priests, teachers, historians, philosophers, scientists).

The fundamental point of the institutionalization process is giving the institution an official character, its structuring, technical and material organization: legal texts, premises, furniture, machines, emblems, letterheads, personnel, administrative hierarchy, etc. Thus, the institute is endowed with the necessary material, financial, labor, organizational resources so that it can actually fulfill its mission. Technical and material elements give the institution a tangible reality, demonstrate it, make it visible, declare it to everyone. Officiality, as a statement to everyone, essentially means that everyone is taken as a witness, called to control, invited to communicate, thereby making an application for stability, solidity of the organization, its independence from a particular case.

Thus, the process of institutionalization, i.e. the formation of a social institution, involves several successive stages:

• 1) the emergence of a need, the satisfaction of which requires joint organized actions;
• 2) the formation of common ideas;
• 3) the emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction carried out by trial and error;
• 4) the emergence of procedures related to rules and regulations;
• 5) institutionalization of norms and rules, procedures, i.e. their adoption, practical application;
• 6) the establishment of a system of sanctions to maintain norms and rules, the differentiation of their application in individual cases;
• 7) material and symbolic design of the emerging institutional structure.

The process of institutionalization can be considered complete if all of the above steps have been completed. If the rules of social interaction in any field of activity have not been worked out, are subject to change (for example, the rules for holding elections to local authorities in a number of regions of Russia could change already during the election campaign), or do not receive proper social approval, in these cases they say, that these social ties have an incomplete institutional status, that this institution has not fully developed or is even in the process of dying out.

We live in a highly institutionalized society. Any sphere of human activity, be it the economy, art or sports, is organized according to certain rules, the observance of which is more or less tightly controlled. The diversity of institutions corresponds to the diversity of human needs, such as the need to produce goods and services; the need for the distribution of benefits and privileges; the need for security, protection of life and well-being; the need for social control over the behavior of members of society; the need for communication, etc. Accordingly, the main institutions include: economic (the institution of the division of labor, the institution of property, the institution of taxation, etc.); political (state, parties, army, etc.); institutions of kinship, marriage and family; education, mass communications, science, sports, etc.

Thus, the central purpose of such institutional complexes that provide economic functions in society, such as contract and property, is the regulation of exchange relations, as well as the rights related to the exchange of goods, including money.

If property is the central economic institution, then in politics the central place is occupied by the institution of state power, designed to ensure the fulfillment of obligations in the interests of achieving collective goals. Power is associated with the institutionalization of leadership (the institution of the monarchy, the institution of the presidency, etc.). The institutionalization of power means that the latter is moving from ruling persons to institutional forms: if earlier rulers exercised power as their own prerogative, then with the development of the institution of power they appear as agents of the highest power. From the point of view of the governed, the value of the institutionalization of power is in limiting arbitrariness, subordinating power to the idea of ​​law; from the point of view of the ruling groups, institutionalization provides stability and continuity to their advantage.

The institution of the family, historically emerging as a means of limiting the total competition of men and women for each other, provides a number of important human burials. Considering the family as a social institution means, having singled out its main functions (for example, regulation of sexual behavior, reproduction, socialization, attention and protection), to show how, in order to perform these functions, the family union is formalized into a system of rules and norms of role behavior. The institution of the family is accompanied by the institution of marriage, which involves documenting sexual and economic rights and obligations.

Most religious communities are also organized into institutions, namely, they function as a network of relatively stable roles, statuses, groups, and values. Religious institutions vary in size, doctrine, membership, origin, connection with the rest of society; accordingly, the church, sects, and cults are singled out as forms of religious institutions.

Functions of social institutions. If we consider in the most general form the activity of any social institution, then we can assume that its main function is to satisfy the social need for which it was created and exists. These expected and necessary functions are called in sociology explicit functions. They are written down and declared in codes and charters, constitutions and programs, fixed in the system of statuses and roles. Since the explicit functions are always announced and in every society this is accompanied by a rather strict tradition or procedure (for example, the oath of the president upon taking office; mandatory annual meetings of shareholders; regular elections of the president of the Academy of Sciences; adoption of special sets of laws: on education, health, prosecutors, social provision, etc.), they turn out to be more formalized and controlled by society. When an institution fails to fulfill its explicit functions, it is in danger of disorganization and change: its explicit functions can be transferred or appropriated by other institutions.

Along with the direct results of the actions of social institutions, there may be other results that are not planned in advance. The latter are called in sociology latent functions. Such results can be of great importance for society.

The existence of the latent functions of institutions is most conspicuously shown by T. Veblen, who wrote that it would be naive to say that people eat black caviar because they want to satisfy their hunger and buy a luxurious Cadillac because they want to buy a good car. Obviously, these things are not acquired for the sake of satisfying obvious urgent needs. T. Veblen concludes that the production of consumer goods can perform a hidden, latent function, for example, to satisfy the needs of certain social groups and individuals to increase their own prestige.

Often one can observe, at first glance, an incomprehensible phenomenon when some kind of social institution continues to exist, although it not only does not fulfill its functions, but even prevents their implementation. Obviously, in this case, there are hidden functions that make it possible to satisfy the undeclared needs of certain social groups. Examples would be sales organizations without customers; sports clubs that do not demonstrate high sports achievements; scientific publications that do not enjoy the reputation of a quality publication in the scientific community, etc. By studying the latent functions of institutions, one can present a picture of social life in a more voluminous way.

Interaction and development of social institutions. The more complex the society, the more developed the system of institutions it has. The history of the evolution of institutions follows the following pattern: from the institutions of a traditional society, based on the rules of behavior and family ties prescribed by ritual and custom, to modern institutions based on achievement values ​​(competence, independence, personal responsibility, rationality), relatively independent of moral prescriptions. In general, the general trend is institutional segmentation, i.e., the multiplication of their number and complexity, which is based on the division of labor, the specialization of activities, which, in turn, causes the subsequent differentiation of institutions. At the same time, in modern society there are so-called total institutions, that is, organizations covering the full daily cycle of their charges (for example, the army, the penitentiary system, clinical hospitals, etc.) that have a significant impact on their psyche and behavior.

One of the consequences of institutional segmentation can be called specialization, reaching such a depth that special role knowledge becomes understandable only to the initiated. The result may be increased social disunity and even social conflicts between so-called professionals and non-professionals due to the latter's fear of being manipulated.

A serious problem of modern society is the contradiction between the structural components of complex social institutions. For example, the executive structures of the state tend to professionalize their activities, which inevitably entails their certain closeness and inaccessibility for people who do not have a special education in the field of public administration. At the same time, the representative structures of the state are called upon to provide an opportunity for representatives of the most diverse groups of society to engage in state activities without taking into account their special training in the field of public administration. As a result, conditions are created for an inevitable conflict between the bills of deputies and the possibility of their implementation by the executive power structures.

The problem of interaction between social institutions also arises if the system of norms inherent in one institution begins to spread to other areas of social life. For example, in medieval Europe, the church dominated not only in spiritual life, but also in the economy, politics, family, or in the so-called totalitarian political systems, the state tried to play a similar role. The consequence of this may be the disorganization of public life, the growing social tension, the destruction, the loss of any of the institutions. For example, the scientific ethos requires organized skepticism, intellectual independence, free and open dissemination of new information, and the formation of a scientist's reputation depending on his scientific achievements, and not on administrative status, from members of the scientific community. Obviously, if the state seeks to turn science into a branch of the national economy, centrally controlled and serving the interests of the state itself, then the principles of behavior in the scientific community must inevitably change, i.e. the institute of science will begin to regenerate.

Some problems may be caused by different rates of change in social institutions. Examples are a feudal society with a modern army, or the coexistence in one society of supporters of the theory of relativity and astrology, traditional religion and scientific worldview. As a result, difficulties arise in the general legitimization of both the institutional order as a whole and specific social institutions.

Changes in social institutions can be caused internal and external reasons. The former, as a rule, are associated with the inefficiency of existing institutions, with a possible contradiction between existing institutions and the social motivations of various social groups; the second - with a change in cultural paradigms, a change in cultural orientation in the development of society. In the latter case, one can speak of transitional societies experiencing a systemic crisis, when their structure and organization change, and social needs change. Accordingly, the structure of social institutions is changing, many of them are endowed with previously uncharacteristic functions. Modern Russian society gives many examples of such processes of loss of former institutions (for example, the CPSU or Goskomplan), the emergence of new social institutions that did not exist in the Soviet system (for example, the institution of private property), a serious change in the functions of institutions that continue their work. All this determines the instability of the institutional structure of society.

Thus, social institutions perform contradictory functions on the scale of society: on the one hand, they represent “social knots” thanks to which society is “connected”, the division of labor is streamlined in it, social mobility is directed, social transmission of experience is organized to new generations; on the other hand, the emergence of ever new institutions, the complication of institutional life means segmentation, fragmentation of society, which can lead to alienation and mutual misunderstanding between participants in social life. At the same time, the growing need for cultural and social integration of the modern post-industrial society can only be satisfied by institutional means. This function is associated with the activities of the media; with the revival and cultivation of national, city, state holidays; with the advent of special professions focused on negotiating, reconciling interests between different people and social groups.

LECTURE No. 17. Social institutions

1. The concept of a social institution
2. Types of social institutions
3. Functions of social institutions
4. Basic characteristics of social institutions
5. Development of social institutions and institutionalization

1. The concept of a social institution

Social institutions are stable forms of organization and regulation of public life. They can be defined as a set of roles and statuses designed to meet certain social needs.
The term "social institution" in sociology, as well as in everyday language or in other humanities, has several meanings. The combination of these values ​​can be reduced to four main ones:
1) a certain group of persons called to perform tasks that are important for living together;
2) certain organizational forms of a set of functions performed by some members on behalf of the entire group;
3) a set of material institutions and means of activity that allow certain authorized individuals to perform social impersonal functions aimed at satisfying the needs or regulating the behavior of group members;
4) some social roles that are especially important for the group are sometimes called institutions. For example, when we say that a school is a social institution, then by this we can mean a group of people working in a school. In another sense, the organizational forms of the functions performed by the school; in the third sense, the most important for the school as an institution will be the institutions and means that it has at its disposal in order to fulfill the functions entrusted to it by the group, and finally, in the fourth sense, we will call the social role of the teacher an institution. Therefore, we can talk about different ways of defining social institutions: material, formal and functional. In all these approaches, however, we can identify certain common elements that form the main component of the social institution.

2. Types of social institutions

In total, there are five fundamental needs and five basic social institutions:
1) the need for the reproduction of the genus (the institution of the family);
2) needs for security and order (state);
3) the need to obtain means of subsistence (production);
4) the need for the transfer of knowledge, the socialization of the younger generation (institutions of public education);
5) the need for solving spiritual problems (the institute of religion).
Consequently, social institutions are classified according to public spheres:
1) economic (property, money, regulation of money circulation, organization and division of labor), which serve the production and distribution of values ​​and services. Economic social institutions provide the entire set of production relations in society, connecting economic life with other areas of social life. These institutions are formed on the material basis of society;
2) political (parliament, army, police, party) regulate the use of these values ​​and services and are associated with power. Politics in the narrow sense of the word is a set of means, functions, based mainly on the manipulation of the elements of power to establish, execute and maintain power. Political institutions (state, parties, public organizations, court, army, parliament, police) in a concentrated form express the political interests and relations existing in a given society;
3) the institutions of kinship (marriage and family) are associated with the regulation of childbearing, relations between spouses and children, and the socialization of young people;
4) institutions of education and culture. Their task is to strengthen, create and develop the culture of society, to pass it on to the next generations. These include schools, institutes, art institutions, creative unions;
5) religious institutions organize a person's attitude to transcendent forces, i.e., to supersensitive forces acting outside the empirical control of a person, and the attitude to sacred objects and forces. Religious institutions in some societies have a strong influence on the course of interactions and interpersonal relations, creating a system of dominant values ​​and becoming dominant institutions (the influence of Islam on all aspects of public life in some countries of the Middle East).

3. Functions of social institutions

Social institutions perform the following functions or tasks in public life:
1) create an opportunity for members of society to satisfy various kinds of needs;
2) regulate the actions of members of society within the framework of social relations, i.e., ensure the implementation of desirable actions and carry out repressions in relation to undesirable actions;
3) ensure the stability of public life by supporting and continuing impersonal public functions;
4) carry out the integration of the aspirations, actions and relationships of individuals and ensure the internal cohesion of the community.

4. Basic characteristics of social institutions

Taking into account E. Durkheim's theory of social facts and proceeding from the fact that social institutions should be considered the most important social facts, sociologists have deduced a number of basic social characteristics that social institutions should have:
1) institutions are perceived by individuals as an external reality. In other words, the institution for any individual person is something external, existing separately from the reality of thoughts, feelings or fantasies of the individual himself. In this characteristic, the institution resembles other entities of external reality—even trees, tables, and telephones—each of which is outside the individual;
2) institutions are perceived by the individual as an objective reality. Something is objectively real when any person agrees that it really exists, and independently of his consciousness, and is given to him in his sensations;
3) institutions have coercive power. To some extent, this quality is implied by the two previous ones: the fundamental power of the institution over the individual is precisely that it exists objectively, and the individual cannot wish it to disappear at his will or whim. Otherwise, negative sanctions may occur;
4) institutions have moral authority. Institutions proclaim their right to legitimation—that is, they reserve the right not only to punish the violator in some way, but also to issue a moral reprimand to him. Of course, institutions vary in their degree of moral strength. These variations are usually expressed in the degree of punishment imposed on the offender. The state in an extreme case can deprive him of his life; neighbors or co-workers may boycott him. In both cases, punishment is accompanied by a sense of indignant justice in those members of society who are involved in this.

5. Development of social institutions and institutionalization

The development of society goes largely through the development of social institutions. The wider the institutionalized sphere in the system of social ties, the more opportunities society has. The diversity of social institutions and their development is perhaps the most accurate criterion for the maturity and reliability of a society. The development of social institutions manifests itself in two main variants: first, the emergence of new social institutions; secondly, the improvement of already established social institutions.
The formation and formation of an institution in the form in which we observe it (and take part in its functioning) takes a rather long historical period. This process is called institutionalization in sociology. In other words, institutionalization is the process by which certain social practices become sufficiently regular and long-lasting to be described as institutions.
The most important prerequisites for institutionalization - the formation and establishment of a new institution - are:
1) the emergence of certain social needs for new types and types of social practice and the socio-economic and political conditions corresponding to them;
2) development of the necessary organizational structures and related norms and rules of conduct;
3) internalization by individuals of new social norms and values, the formation on this basis of new systems of individual needs, value orientations and expectations (and, therefore, ideas about the patterns of new roles - their own and correlated with them). The completion of this process of institutionalization is the emerging new kind of social practice. Thanks to this, a new set of roles is formed, as well as formal and informal sanctions for the implementation of social control over the corresponding types of behavior. Therefore, institutionalization is the process by which a social practice becomes sufficiently regular and continuous to be described as an institution.

What is a "social institution"? What are the functions of social institutions?

Specific formations that ensure the relative stability of social ties and relations within the framework of the social organization of society are social institutions. The term "institution" itself is used in sociology in different meanings.

Firstly, it is understood as a set of certain persons, institutions, provided with certain material resources and performing a specific social function.

Secondly, from a substantive point of view, an "institution" is a certain set of standards, norms of behavior of individuals and groups in specific situations.

When we talk about social institutions, we mean in general a certain organization of social activity and social relations, including both standards, norms of behavior, and corresponding organizations, institutions that "regulate" these norms of behavior. For example, if we talk about law as a social institution, we mean both the system of legal norms that determine the legal behavior of citizens, and the system of legal institutions (court, police) that regulate legal norms and legal relations.

Social institutions- these are forms of joint activity of people, historically established stable, or relatively stable types and forms of social practice, with the help of which social life is organized, the stability of ties and relations is ensured within the framework of the social organization of society. Various social groups enter into social relations among themselves, which are regulated in a certain way. The regulation of these and other social relations is carried out within the framework of the relevant social institutions: the state (political relations), the labor collective (social and economic), the family, the education system, etc.

Each social institution has a specific goal of activity and, in accordance with it, performs certain functions, providing members of society with the opportunity to satisfy the corresponding social needs. As a result of this, social relations are stabilized, consistency is introduced into the actions of members of society. The functioning of social institutions, the performance of certain roles by people within their framework are determined by the presence of social norms in the internal structure of each social institution. It is these norms that determine the standard of people's behavior, on their basis the quality and direction of their activities are assessed, sanctions are determined against those who are characterized by deviant behavior.

Social institutions perform the following functions:

consolidation and reproduction of social relations in a certain area;

integration and cohesion of society;

regulation and social control;

communication and inclusion of people in activities.

Robert Merton introduced into sociology the distinction between explicit and latent (hidden) functions of social institutions. The explicit functions of the institution are declared, officially recognized and controlled by society.

Latent Functions- these are "not their own" functions, performed by the institution covertly or accidentally (when, for example, the education system performs the functions of political socialization that are not characteristic of it). When the discrepancy between explicit and latent functions is great, a double standard of social relations arises, threatening the stability of society. An even more dangerous situation is when, along with the official institutional system, so-called "shadow" institutions are formed, which take on the function of regulating the most important public relations (for example, criminal structures). Any social transformations are carried out through a change in the institutional system of society, the formation of new "rules of the game". First of all, those social institutions that determine the social type of society (institutions of property, institutions of power, institutions of education) are subject to change.

A social institution is a relatively stable and long-term form of social practice that is authorized and supported by social norms and through which social life is organized and the stability of social relations is ensured. Emile Durkheim called social institutions "factories for the reproduction of social relations."

Social institutions organize human activity into a certain system of roles and statuses, setting patterns of people's behavior in various spheres of public life. For example, such a social institution as a school includes the roles of teacher and student, and the family includes the roles of parents and children. There are certain role-playing relationships between them. These relations are regulated by a set of specific norms and regulations. Some of the most important norms are enshrined in law, others are supported by traditions, customs, and public opinion.

Any social institution includes a system of sanctions - from legal to moral and ethical, which ensure the observance of the relevant values ​​and norms, the reproduction of the corresponding role relations.

Thus, social institutions streamline, coordinate many individual actions of people, give them an organized and predictable character, and ensure standard behavior of people in socially typical situations. When this or that activity of people is ordered in the described way, they speak of its institutionalization. Thus, institutionalization is the transformation of people's spontaneous behavior into an organized one ("fight without rules" into "play by the rules").

Practically all spheres and forms of social relations, even conflicts, are institutionalized. However, in any society there is a certain amount of behavior that is not subject to institutional regulation. Usually there are five main complexes of social institutions. These are the institutions of kinship associated with marriage, family and the socialization of children and youth; political institutions associated with relations of power and access to it; economic institutions and institutions of stratification that determine the distribution of members of society in various status positions; cultural institutions associated with religious, scientific and artistic activities.

Historically, the institutional system has changed from institutions based on kinship and ascriptive attributes characteristic of traditional society to institutions based on formal relationships and statuses of achievement. In our time, the most important institutions of education and science are becoming, providing high social status.

Institutionalization means normative and organizational strengthening, streamlining social ties. When an institution appears, new social communities are formed, engaged in specialized activities, social norms are produced that regulate this activity, and new institutions and organizations ensure the protection of certain interests. For example, education becomes a social institution when a new society appears, professional activities for training and education in a mass school, in accordance with special norms.

Institutions can become obsolete and hinder the development of innovation processes. For example, the qualitative renewal of society in our country required overcoming the influence of the old political structures of a totalitarian society, old norms and laws.

As a result of institutionalization, such phenomena as formalization, standardization of goals, depersonalization, deindividualization may appear. Social institutions develop through overcoming the contradictions between the new needs of society and outdated institutional forms.

The specificity of social institutions, of course, is mainly determined by the type of society in which they operate. However, there is also continuity in the development of various institutions. For example, the institution of the family in the transition from one state of society to another may change some functions, but its essence remains unchanged. During periods of "normal" development of society, social institutions remain fairly stable and stable. When there is a mismatch between the actions of various social institutions, their inability to reflect public interests, to establish the functioning of social ties, this indicates a crisis situation in society. It is solved either by a social revolution and a complete replacement of social institutions, or by their reconstruction.

There are different types of social institutions:

economic, which are engaged in the production, distribution and exchange of material goods, the organization of labor, money circulation, and the like;

social, which organize voluntary associations, the life of collectives that regulate all aspects of the social behavior of people in relation to each other;

political, related to the performance of the functions of power;

cultural and educational, affirming, developing the continuity of the culture of society and passing it on to the next generations;

Religious, which organize people's attitude to religion.

All institutions are linked together in an integrated (combined) system, in which alone they can guarantee a uniform, normal process of collective life and fulfill their tasks. That is why all the listed institutions (economic, social, cultural and others) are generally referred to as social institutions. The most fundamental of them are: property, state, family, production teams, science, mass media system, upbringing and education systems, law and others.