The end of the 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquiz landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic plots with oriental flavor ("Turkish baths"); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like Karl Bryullov, for example) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academism. Numerous art academies served as his "hotbeds". In the middle of the 19th century, a young generation gravitating towards realism rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.
Sculpture
The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. Sculptors such as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated in France on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plasticity in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.
Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were at first depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral). 
Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.
Architecture
For details see Palladianism, Empire, neo-Greek.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century. 
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-1774), urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were erected in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-1792) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.
The most significant classicist interiors were designed by the Scotsman Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function. 
Literature
The French poet Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons, is considered the founder of the poetics of classicism. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673). 
Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. Classical English prose (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by latinized syntax.
Classicism of the 18th century develops under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (-) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Dramatic works are characterized by three unities: the unity of time (the action takes place one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (one storyline).
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was, in fact, an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable generic, timeless signs that act as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, genres that imply an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality have received great development in Russian classicism: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin). Lomonosov creates his own theory of the Russian literary language based on the experience of Greek and Latin rhetoric, Derzhavin writes Anacreontic Songs as a fusion of Russian reality with Greek and Latin realities, notes G. Knabe.
The dominance in the era of the reign of Louis XIV "the spirit of discipline", the taste for order and balance, or, in other words, the fear of "violating established customs", instilled by the era in the art of classicism, were considered in opposition to the Fronde (and historical and cultural periodization was built on the basis of this opposition). It was believed that in classicism "forces striving for truth, simplicity, reasonable" and expressed in "naturalism" (harmoniously correct reproduction of nature), while aggravation ("idealization" or, conversely, " coarsening" of nature).
Determining the degree of convention (how accurately reproduced or distorted, translated into a system of artificial conditional images, nature) is a universal aspect of style. "School of 1660" was described by its first historians (I. Taine, F. Brunetier, G. Lanson; Ch. Sainte-Beuve) synchronously, as basically an aesthetically undifferentiated and ideologically conflict-free community that survived the stages of formation, maturity and withering in its evolution, and private "oppositions - such as Brunetier's antithesis of Racine's "naturalism" to Corneille's craving for the "extraordinary" - were derived from the inclinations of individual talent.
A similar scheme of the evolution of classicism, which arose under the influence of the theory of the “natural” development of cultural phenomena and spread in the first half of the 20th century (cf. in the academic “History of French Literature” the titles of the chapters: “The Formation of Classicism” - “The Beginning of the Decomposition of Classicism”), was complicated by another aspect contained in the approach of L. V. Pumpyansky. His concept of historical and literary development, according to which, French literature, in contrast to even those similar in type of development (“la découverte de l'antiquité, la formation de l'idéal classique, its decomposition and transition to new forms of literature that have not yet been expressed ”) of the New German and Russian, represents a model of the evolution of classicism, which has the ability to clearly distinguish between stages (formations): the “normal phases” of its development appear with “extraordinary paradigm”: “the delight of gaining (the feeling of awakening after a long night, finally the morning), education eliminating ideal (restrictive activity in lexicology, style and poetics), its long domination (associated with the established absolutist society), noisy fall (the main event that happened to modern European literature), the transition to<…>era of freedom. According to Pumpyansky, the flowering of classicism is associated with the creation of the ancient ideal (“<…>relation to antiquity is the soul of such literature"), and degeneration - with its "relativization": "Literature, which is in a certain relation to not its absolute value, is classical; relativized literature is not classical.
After the "school of 1660" was recognized as a research "legend", the first theories of the evolution of the method began to emerge based on the study of intraclassical aesthetic and ideological differences (Molière, Racine, La Fontaine, Boileau, La Bruyère). So, in some works, the problematic "humanistic" art is divorced as actually classic and entertaining, "decorating secular life" . The first concepts of evolution in classicism are formed in the context of philological controversy, which was almost always built as a demonstrative elimination of the Western (“bourgeois”) and domestic “pre-revolutionary” paradigms.
Two "currents" of classicism are distinguished, corresponding to trends in philosophy: "idealistic" (experienced by the neo-stoicism of Guillaume Du Ver and his followers) and "materialistic" (formed by Epicureanism and skepticism, mainly by Pierre Charron). The fact that in the 17th century the ethical and philosophical systems of late antiquity - skepticism (Pyrrhonism), Epicureanism, Stoicism - are in demand, experts consider, on the one hand, a reaction to civil wars and explain it by the desire to "preserve the individual in an environment of cataclysms" (L. Kosareva ) and, on the other hand, are associated with the formation of secular morality. Yu. B. Vipper noted that at the beginning of the 17th century these currents were in a tense confrontation, and he explains its causes sociologically (the first developed in the court environment, the second - outside it).
D. D. Oblomievsky singled out two stages in the evolution of classicism of the 17th century, associated with the “restructuring of theoretical principles” (note G. Oblomievsky highlights the “rebirth” of classicism in the 18th century (“enlightenment version”, associated with the primitivization of the poetics of “contrasts and antithesis of the positive and the negative”, with the restructuring of Renaissance anthropologism and complicated by the categories of collective and optimistic) and the “third birth” of classicism of the period of the Empire (late 80s - early 90s of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century), complicating it with the “principle of the future” and “ the pathos of opposition". I note that characterizing the evolution of classicism of the 17th century, G. Oblomievsky speaks of various aesthetic foundations of classic forms; to describe the development of classicism of the 18th-19th centuries, he uses the words "complication" and "loss", "loss".) and pro tanto, two aesthetic forms: classicism of the “Mahlerbe-Cornelian” type, based on the category of the heroic, arising and becoming on the eve and during the English Revolution and the Fronde; classicism of Racine - La Fontaine - Moliere - La Bruyère, based on the category of the tragic, highlighting the idea of "the will, activity and domination of man over the real world", appearing after the Fronde, in the middle of the 17th century. and associated with the reaction of the 60-70-80s. Disappointment in the optimism of the first half of art. manifests itself, on the one hand, in escapism (Pascal) or in the denial of heroism (La Rochefoucauld), on the other hand, in a “compromising” position (Racine), which gives rise to the situation of a hero who is powerless to change anything in the tragic disharmony of the world, but who has not refused from Renaissance values (the principle of inner freedom) and "resisting evil". Classicists associated with the teachings of Port-Royal or close to Jansenism (Racine, late Boalo, Lafayette, La Rochefoucauld) and followers of Gassendi (Molière, La Fontaine).
The diachronic interpretation of D. D. Oblomievsky, attracted by the desire to understand classicism as a changing style, has found application in monographic studies and, it seems, has withstood the test of concrete material. Based on this model, A. D. Mikhailov notes that in the 1660s, classicism, which entered the “tragic” phase of development, was moving closer to precision prose: “inheriting gallant plots from the baroque novel, [he] not only tied them to real reality, but also brought to them some rationality, a sense of proportion and good taste, to some extent the desire for unity of place, time and action, compositional clarity and logic, the Cartesian principle of “dismemberment of difficulties”, the allocation of one leading feature in the described static character , one passion ". Describing the 60s. as a period of "disintegration of gallant-precious consciousness", he notes an interest in characters and passions, an increase in psychologism.
Music
Music of the Classical period or classical music, name the period in the development of European music approximately between and 1820 (see "Time Frames of Periods in the Development of Classical Music" for a more detailed discussion of issues related to the allocation of these frames). The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called the Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical composition.
The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical music", which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.
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Literature
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
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An excerpt characterizing Classicism
- Oh my god! My God! - he said. - And how do you think, what and who - what a nonentity can be the cause of people's misfortune! he said with an anger that frightened Princess Mary.She realized that, speaking of people whom he called insignificance, he meant not only m lle Bourienne, who made his misfortune, but also the person who ruined his happiness.
“Andre, I ask one thing, I beg you,” she said, touching his elbow and looking at him with eyes shining through tears. - I understand you (Princess Mary lowered her eyes). Do not think that people have made grief. People are his tools. - She looked a little higher than the head of Prince Andrei with that confident, familiar look with which they look at a familiar place in the portrait. - Woe is sent to them, not people. People are his tools, they are not to blame. If it seems to you that someone is guilty before you, forget it and forgive. We have no right to punish. And you will understand the happiness of forgiving.
- If I were a woman, I would do it, Marie. This is the virtue of a woman. But a man should not and cannot forget and forgive,” he said, and although he had not thought about Kuragin until that moment, all the unexpressed malice suddenly rose in his heart. “If Princess Mary is already persuading me to forgive, then it means that I should have been punished for a long time,” he thought. And, no longer answering Princess Marya, he now began to think about that joyful, angry moment when he would meet Kuragin, who (he knew) was in the army.
Princess Mary begged her brother to wait another day, saying that she knew how unhappy her father would be if Andrei left without reconciling with him; but Prince Andrei answered that he would probably soon come again from the army, that he would certainly write to his father, and that now the longer he stayed, the more this dissension would be aggravated.
— Adieu, Andre! Rappelez vous que les malheurs viennent de Dieu, et que les hommes ne sont jamais coupables, [Farewell, Andrei! Remember that misfortunes come from God and that people are never to blame.] were the last words he heard from his sister when he said goodbye to her.
“So it should be! - thought Prince Andrei, leaving the alley of the Lysogorsky house. - She, a miserable innocent creature, remains to be eaten by an old man who has gone out of his mind. The old man feels that he is guilty, but he cannot change himself. My boy is growing and enjoying a life in which he will be the same as everyone else, deceived or deceiving. I'm going to the army, why? - I don’t know myself, and I want to meet the person whom I despise in order to give him the opportunity to kill me and laugh at me! And before there were all the same conditions of life, but before they all knitted together, and now everything crumbled. Some meaningless phenomena, without any connection, one after another presented themselves to Prince Andrei.
Prince Andrei arrived at the main army quarters at the end of June. The troops of the first army, the one with which the sovereign was located, were located in a fortified camp near Drissa; the troops of the second army retreated, seeking to join the first army, from which - as they said - they were cut off by a large force of the French. Everyone was dissatisfied with the general course of military affairs in the Russian army; but no one thought about the danger of an invasion of the Russian provinces, no one even imagined that the war could be transferred further than the western Polish provinces.
Prince Andrei found Barclay de Tolly, to whom he was assigned, on the banks of the Drissa. Since there was not a single large village or town in the vicinity of the camp, the whole huge number of generals and courtiers who were with the army were located in a circle of ten miles around the best houses of the villages, on this and on the other side of the river. Barclay de Tolly stood four versts from the sovereign. He received Bolkonsky dryly and coldly and said in his German reprimand that he would report on him to the sovereign to determine his appointment, and for the time being asked him to be at his headquarters. Anatole Kuragin, whom Prince Andrei hoped to find in the army, was not here: he was in St. Petersburg, and Bolkonsky was pleased with this news. The interest of the center of the huge war that was being carried out occupied Prince Andrei, and he was glad for a while to be freed from the irritation that the thought of Kuragin produced in him. During the first four days, during which he did not demand anywhere, Prince Andrei traveled around the entire fortified camp and, with the help of his knowledge and conversations with knowledgeable people, tried to form a definite idea about him. But the question of whether this camp is profitable or disadvantageous remained unresolved for Prince Andrei. He had already managed to deduce from his military experience the conviction that in military affairs the most thoughtfully considered plans mean nothing (as he saw it in the Austerlitz campaign), that everything depends on how one responds to unexpected and unforeseen actions of the enemy, that everything depends on how and by whom the whole thing is conducted. In order to clarify this last question for himself, Prince Andrei, using his position and acquaintances, tried to delve into the nature of the management of the army, the persons and parties participating in it, and deduced for himself the following concept of the state of affairs.
When the sovereign was still in Vilna, the army was divided into three: 1st army was under the command of Barclay de Tolly, 2nd under the command of Bagration, 3rd under the command of Tormasov. The sovereign was with the first army, but not as commander in chief. The order did not say that the sovereign would command, it only said that the sovereign would be with the army. In addition, under the sovereign personally there was no headquarters of the commander-in-chief, but there was the headquarters of the imperial main apartment. Under him was the chief of the imperial headquarters, the quartermaster general Prince Volkonsky, generals, adjutant wing, diplomatic officials and a large number of foreigners, but there was no army headquarters. In addition, without a position with the sovereign were: Arakcheev - a former Minister of War, Count Benigsen - the eldest of the generals, Grand Duke Tsarevich Konstantin Pavlovich, Count Rumyantsev - Chancellor, Stein - a former Prussian minister, Armfeld - a Swedish general, Pfuel - the main compiler campaign plan, Adjutant General Pauluchi, a native of Sardinia, Wolzogen, and many others. Although these persons were without military positions in the army, they had influence by their position, and often the corps commander and even the commander-in-chief did not know what Benigsen, or the Grand Duke, or Arakcheev, or Prince Volkonsky was asking or advising for. and did not know whether such an order in the form of advice was issued from him or from the sovereign and whether it was necessary or not to execute it. But this was an external situation, but the essential meaning of the presence of the sovereign and all these persons, from the court point (and in the presence of the sovereign, everyone becomes courtiers), was clear to everyone. He was as follows: the sovereign did not assume the title of commander in chief, but disposed of all the armies; the people around him were his assistants. Arakcheev was a faithful executor, guardian of order and bodyguard of the sovereign; Benigsen was a landowner of the Vilna province, who seemed to be doing les honneurs [was busy with the business of receiving the sovereign] of the region, but in essence he was a good general, useful for advice and in order to have him always ready to replace Barclay. The Grand Duke was here because it pleased him. The former minister, Stein, was there because he was useful for advice, and because Emperor Alexander highly valued his personal qualities. Armfeld was a bitter hater of Napoleon and a self-confident general, which always had an influence on Alexander. Pauluchi was here because he was bold and resolute in his speeches, the adjutant general was here because they were everywhere where the sovereign was, and, finally, - most importantly - Pfuel was here because he, having drawn up a plan of war against Napoleon and forcing Alexander believe in the expediency of this plan, led the whole cause of the war. Under Pfule there was Wolzogen, who conveyed Pfuel's thoughts in a more accessible form than Pfuel himself, a sharp, self-confident to the point of contempt for everything, an armchair theorist.
In addition to these named persons, Russians and foreigners (especially foreigners, who, with the courage characteristic of people in activities among a foreign environment, every day offered new unexpected ideas), there were many more persons of secondary importance who were with the army because their principals were here.
Among all the thoughts and voices in this vast, restless, brilliant and proud world, Prince Andrei saw the following, sharper divisions of directions and parties.
The first party was: Pfuel and his followers, war theorists who believe that there is a science of war and that this science has its own immutable laws, the laws of oblique movement, detour, etc. Pfuel and his followers demanded a retreat into the interior of the country, deviations from the exact laws prescribed by the imaginary theory of war, and in any deviation from this theory they saw only barbarism, ignorance or malice. German princes, Wolzogen, Wintzingerode and others, mostly Germans, belonged to this party.
The second batch was the opposite of the first. As always happens, at one extreme there were representatives of the other extreme. The people of this party were those who, ever since Vilna, had demanded an offensive against Poland and freedom from all plans drawn up in advance. In addition to the fact that the representatives of this party were representatives of bold actions, they were at the same time representatives of nationality, as a result of which they became even more one-sided in the dispute. These were Russians: Bagration, Yermolov, who was beginning to rise, and others. At this time, the well-known joke of Yermolov was widespread, as if asking the sovereign for one favor - his promotion to the Germans. The people of this party said, recalling Suvorov, that one should not think, not prick a card with needles, but fight, beat the enemy, not let him into Russia and not let the army lose heart.
The third party, in which the sovereign had the most confidence, belonged to the court makers of transactions between both directions. The people of this party, for the most part non-military and to which Arakcheev belonged, thought and said what people usually say who have no convictions, but who wish to appear as such. They said that, without a doubt, a war, especially with such a genius as Bonaparte (he was again called Bonaparte), requires the most profound considerations, a deep knowledge of science, and in this matter Pful is a genius; but at the same time it is impossible not to admit that theoreticians are often one-sided, and therefore one should not completely trust them, one must listen both to what Pfuel's opponents say, and to what practical people, experienced in military affairs, and from everything say take the average. The people of this party insisted that, by holding the Drissa camp according to the Pfuel plan, they would change the movements of other armies. Although neither one nor the other goal was achieved by this course of action, it seemed better to the people of this party.
The fourth direction was the direction of which the most prominent representative was the Grand Duke, the heir to the Tsarevich, who could not forget his disappointment at Austerlitz, where, as if at a review, he rode in front of the guards in a helmet and tunic, hoping to valiantly crush the French, and, unexpectedly falling into the first line , forcibly left in general confusion. The people of this party had in their judgments both the quality and the lack of sincerity. They were afraid of Napoleon, they saw strength in him, weakness in themselves and directly expressed it. They said: “Nothing but grief, shame and death will come out of all this! So we left Vilna, we left Vitebsk, we will leave Drissa too. The only thing left for us to do wisely is to make peace, and as soon as possible, before we are driven out of Petersburg!”
This view, which was widely spread in the highest spheres of the army, found support both in St. Petersburg and in Chancellor Rumyantsev, who, for other state reasons, also stood for peace.
The fifth were adherents of Barclay de Tolly, not so much as a person, but as a minister of war and commander in chief. They said: “Whatever he is (they always started like that), but he is an honest, efficient person, and there is no one better than him. Give him real power, for war cannot go on successfully without unity of command, and he will show what he can do, as he showed himself in Finland. If our army is organized and strong and retreated to Drissa without suffering any defeats, then we owe this only to Barclay. If now they replace Barclay with Bennigsen, then everything will perish, because Bennigsen had already shown his incapacity in 1807,” said the people of this party.
The sixth, the Bennigsenists, said, on the contrary, that after all there was no one more efficient and more experienced than Bennigsen, and no matter how you turn around, you will still come to him. And the people of this party argued that our entire retreat to Drissa was a shameful defeat and an uninterrupted series of mistakes. “The more mistakes they make,” they said, “the better: at least they will soon realize that this cannot go on. And what is needed is not some kind of Barclay, but a person like Benigsen, who already showed himself in 1807, to whom Napoleon himself gave justice, and such a person who would be willingly recognized as the authority - and such is only one Benigsen.
Seventh - there were faces that always exist, especially under young sovereigns, and who were especially numerous under Emperor Alexander - the faces of the generals and the adjutant wing, passionately devoted to the sovereign, not as an emperor, but as a person who adores him sincerely and disinterestedly, as he adored Rostov in 1805, and seeing in it not only all virtues, but also all human qualities. Although these persons admired the modesty of the sovereign, who refused to command the troops, they condemned this excessive modesty and wished only one thing and insisted that the adored sovereign, leaving excessive distrust of himself, openly announce that he was becoming the head of the army, would amount to the headquarters of the commander-in-chief and, consulting, where necessary, with experienced theoreticians and practitioners, he himself would lead his troops, whom this alone would bring to the highest state of inspiration.
The eighth, largest group of people, which, by its huge number, related to others as 99 to 1, consisted of people who did not want peace, or war, or offensive movements, or a defensive camp, either under Drissa or anywhere else. there was no Barclay, no sovereign, no Pfuel, no Benigsen, but they wanted only one thing, and the most essential: the greatest benefits and pleasures for themselves. In that muddy water of intersecting and entangled intrigues that swarmed at the sovereign's main apartment, it was possible to succeed in a great deal in such a way that would have been unthinkable at another time. One, not wanting only to lose his advantageous position, today agreed with Pfuel, tomorrow with his opponent, the day after tomorrow he claimed that he had no opinion on a well-known subject, only in order to avoid responsibility and please the sovereign. Another, wishing to acquire benefits, attracted the attention of the sovereign, loudly shouting the very thing that the sovereign had hinted at the day before, arguing and shouting in council, hitting his chest and challenging those who disagreed to a duel and thereby showing that he was ready to be a victim of the common good. The third simply begged for himself, between two councils and in the absence of enemies, a lump sum for his faithful service, knowing that now there would be no time to refuse him. The fourth inadvertently caught the eye of the sovereign, burdened with work. The fifth, in order to achieve the long-desired goal - dinner with the sovereign, fiercely proved the rightness or wrongness of the newly expressed opinion and for this he cited more or less strong and fair evidence.
All the people of this party were catching rubles, crosses, ranks, and in this catching they only followed the direction of the weather vane of the royal mercy, and as soon as they noticed that the weather vane turned in one direction, how all this drone population of the army began to blow in the same direction, so that the sovereign the harder it was to turn it into another. In the midst of the uncertainty of the situation, in the midst of a threatening, serious danger, which gave everything a particularly disturbing character, amid this whirlwind of intrigues, vanities, clashes of different views and feelings, with the diversity of all these people, this eighth, largest party of people hired by personal interests, gave great confusion and confusion to the common cause. No matter what question was raised, and even a swarm of these drones, without having yet blown off the previous topic, flew over to a new one and, with its buzz, drowned out and obscured the sincere, arguing voices.
Of all these parties, at the very time that Prince Andrei arrived at the army, another ninth party gathered, and began to raise its voice. It was a party of old, sensible, state-experienced people who knew how, without sharing any of the contradictory opinions, to abstractly look at everything that was being done at the headquarters of the main apartment, and to think over the means to get out of this uncertainty, indecision, confusion and weakness.
The people of this party said and thought that everything bad comes mainly from the presence of the sovereign with the military court at the army; that the army has carried over that indefinite, conditional, and vacillating precariousness of relations which is convenient at court but harmful in the army; that the sovereign needs to reign, and not to rule the army; that the only way out of this situation is the departure of the sovereign with his court from the army; that the mere presence of the sovereign paralyzes fifty thousand troops needed to ensure his personal safety; that the worst but independent commander-in-chief would be better than the best, but bound by the presence and power of the sovereign.
At the same time that Prince Andrei was living idle under Drissa, Shishkov, the secretary of state, who was one of the main representatives of this party, wrote a letter to the sovereign, which Balashev and Arakcheev agreed to sign. In this letter, using the permission given to him by the sovereign to discuss the general course of affairs, he respectfully and under the pretext of the need for the sovereign to inspire the people in the capital to war, suggested that the sovereign leave the army.
The sovereign's inspiration of the people and the appeal to him to defend the fatherland - that same (as far as it was produced by the personal presence of the sovereign in Moscow) inspiration of the people, which was the main reason for the triumph of Russia, was presented to the sovereign and accepted by him as a pretext for leaving the army.
X
This letter had not yet been submitted to the sovereign, when Barclay conveyed to Bolkonsky at dinner that the sovereign personally wanted to see Prince Andrei in order to ask him about Turkey, and that Prince Andrei had to appear at Benigsen's apartment at six o'clock in the evening.
On the same day, news was received in the sovereign's apartment about Napoleon's new movement, which could be dangerous for the army - news that later turned out to be unfair. And on the same morning, Colonel Michaud, driving around the Dris fortifications with the sovereign, proved to the sovereign that this fortified camp, arranged by Pfuel and considered until now the chef d "?uvr" of tactics, supposed to destroy Napoleon - that this camp is nonsense and death Russian army.
Prince Andrei arrived at the apartment of General Benigsen, who occupied a small landowner's house on the very bank of the river. Neither Benigsen nor the sovereign was there, but Chernyshev, the sovereign's adjutant wing, received Bolkonsky and announced to him that the sovereign had gone with General Benigsen and with the Marquis Pauluchi another time that day to bypass the fortifications of the Drissa camp, the convenience of which was beginning to be strongly doubted.
Chernyshev was sitting with a book of a French novel by the window of the first room. This room was probably formerly a hall; there was still an organ in it, on which some kind of carpets were piled, and in one corner stood the folding bed of adjutant Benigsen. This adjutant was here. He, apparently worn out by a feast or business, sat on a folded bed and dozed off. Two doors led from the hall: one directly into the former living room, the other to the right into the office. From the first door came voices speaking German and occasionally French. There, in the former living room, at the request of the sovereign, not a military council was gathered (the sovereign loved uncertainty), but some persons whose opinion about the upcoming difficulties he wanted to know. It was not a military council, but, as it were, a council of the elect to clarify certain issues personally for the sovereign. The following were invited to this half-council: the Swedish general Armfeld, adjutant general Wolzogen, Winzingerode, whom Napoleon called a fugitive French subject, Michaud, Tol, not a military man at all - Count Stein and, finally, Pfuel himself, who, as Prince Andrei heard, was la cheville ouvriere [the basis] of the whole business. Prince Andrei had the opportunity to examine him well, since Pfuel arrived shortly after him and went into the drawing room, stopping for a minute to talk with Chernyshev.
Pfuel at first glance, in his Russian general's badly tailored uniform, which sat awkwardly, as if dressed up, seemed familiar to Prince Andrei, although he had never seen him. It included Weyrother, and Mack, and Schmidt, and many other German theorists of generals, whom Prince Andrei managed to see in 1805; but he was more typical than all of them. Prince Andrey had never seen such a German theoretician, who united in himself everything that was in those Germans.
Pful was short, very thin, but broad-boned, coarse, healthy build, with a wide pelvis and bony shoulder blades. His face was very wrinkled, with deep-set eyes. His hair in front at the temples, obviously, was hastily smoothed with a brush, behind it naively stuck out tassels. He, looking around uneasily and angrily, entered the room, as if he were afraid of everything in the large room into which he had entered. Holding his sword with an awkward movement, he turned to Chernyshev, asking in German where the sovereign was. He evidently wanted to go through the rooms as soon as possible, complete the bows and salutations, and sit down to work in front of the map, where he felt himself in the right place. He hurriedly nodded his head at Chernyshev's words and smiled ironically, listening to his words that the sovereign was inspecting the fortifications that he, Pfuel himself, had laid according to his theory. He was bassist and cool, as self-confident Germans say, muttered to himself: Dummkopf ... or: zu Grunde die ganze Geschichte ... or: s "wird was gescheites d" raus werden ... [nonsense ... to hell with the whole thing ... (German) ] Prince Andrei did not hear and wanted to pass, but Chernyshev introduced Prince Andrei to Pful, noting that Prince Andrei had come from Turkey, where the war had ended so happily. Pfuel almost glanced not so much at Prince Andrei as through him, and said with a laugh: "Da muss ein schoner taktischcr Krieg gewesen sein." ["That must have been the correct tactical war." (German)] - And, laughing contemptuously, he went into the room from which voices were heard.
Evidently, Pfuel, who was always ready for ironic irritation, was especially agitated today by the fact that they dared to inspect his camp without him and judge him. Prince Andrei, from this one short meeting with Pfuel, thanks to his memories of Austerlitz, made up a clear characterization of this man. Pfuel was one of those hopelessly, invariably, to the point of martyrdom, self-confident people that only Germans are, and precisely because only Germans are self-confident on the basis of an abstract idea - science, that is, an imaginary knowledge of perfect truth. The Frenchman is self-confident because he considers himself personally, both in mind and in body, irresistibly charming to both men and women. An Englishman is self-confident on the grounds that he is a citizen of the most comfortable state in the world, and therefore, as an Englishman, he always knows what he needs to do, and knows that everything he does as an Englishman is undoubtedly good. The Italian is self-confident because he is agitated and easily forgets himself and others. The Russian is self-confident precisely because he knows nothing and does not want to know, because he does not believe that it is possible to fully know anything. The German is self-confident worse than anyone, and harder than everyone, and more repulsive than everyone, because he imagines that he knows the truth, a science that he himself invented, but which for him is absolute truth. Such, obviously, was Pfuel. He had a science - the theory of oblique movement, which he derived from the history of the wars of Frederick the Great, and everything that he encountered in the recent history of the wars of Frederick the Great, and everything that he encountered in the latest military history, seemed to him nonsense, barbarism, an ugly clash, in which so many mistakes were made on both sides that these wars could not be called wars: they did not fit the theory and could not serve as the subject of science.
In 1806, Pfuel was one of the drafters of the plan for the war that ended in Jena and Auerstet; but in the outcome of this war, he did not see the slightest evidence of the incorrectness of his theory. On the contrary, the deviations made from his theory, according to his concepts, were the only reason for all the failure, and he said with his characteristic joyful irony: "Ich sagte ja, daji die ganze Geschichte zum Teufel gehen wird." [After all, I said that the whole thing would go to hell (German)] Pfuel was one of those theoreticians who love their theory so much that they forget the purpose of theory - its application to practice; in love with theory, he hated all practice and did not want to know it. He even rejoiced in his failure, because failure, which came from the deviation in practice from theory, proved to him only the validity of his theory.
He said a few words to Prince Andrei and Chernyshev about a real war with the expression of a man who knows in advance that everything will be bad and that he is not even dissatisfied with it. The uncombed tassels of hair sticking out at the back of the head and the hastily slicked temples confirmed this with particular eloquence.
He went into another room, and the bassy and grumbling sounds of his voice were immediately heard from there.
Before Prince Andrei had time to follow Pfuel with his eyes, Count Benigsen hurriedly entered the room and, nodding his head to Bolkonsky, without stopping, went into the office, giving some orders to his adjutant. The sovereign followed him, and Bennigsen hurried forward to prepare something and meet the sovereign in time. Chernyshev and Prince Andrei went out onto the porch. The sovereign with a tired look dismounted from his horse. Marquis Pauluchi said something to the sovereign. The sovereign, bowing his head to the left, listened with an unhappy look to Paulucci, who spoke with particular fervor. The emperor moved forward, apparently wanting to end the conversation, but the flushed, agitated Italian, forgetting decency, followed him, continuing to say:
- Quant a celui qui a conseille ce camp, le camp de Drissa, [As for the one who advised the Drissa camp,] - said Pauluchi, while the sovereign, entering the steps and noticing Prince Andrei, peered into an unfamiliar face .
– Quant a celui. Sire, - Paulucci continued with desperation, as if unable to resist, - qui a conseille le camp de Drissa, je ne vois pas d "autre alternative que la maison jaune ou le gibet. [As for, sir, before that person , who advised the camp under Driesey, then, in my opinion, there are only two places for him: the yellow house or the gallows.] - Without listening to the end and as if not having heard the words of the Italian, the sovereign, recognizing Bolkonsky, graciously turned to him:
“I am very glad to see you, go to where they have gathered and wait for me. - The emperor went into the office. Behind him walked Prince Pyotr Mikhailovich Volkonsky, Baron Stein, and the doors closed behind them. Prince Andrei, using the permission of the sovereign, went with Pauluchi, whom he had known back in Turkey, to the drawing room where the council had gathered.
Prince Pyotr Mikhailovich Volkonsky served as the chief of staff of the sovereign. Volkonsky left the office and, bringing the cards into the drawing room and laying them out on the table, he passed on questions on which he wished to hear the opinion of the assembled gentlemen. The fact was that at night the news was received (later turned out to be false) about the movement of the French around the Drissa camp.
| Queen's House (Queen's House - Queen's House, 1616-1636) in Greenwich. Architect Inigo Jones (Inigo Jones) |
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The time has come, and the high mysticism of Gothic, having gone through the trials of the Renaissance, gives way to new ideas based on the traditions of ancient democracies. The desire for imperial greatness and democratic ideals was transformed into a retrospection of imitation of the ancients - this is how classicism appeared in Europe.
At the beginning of the 17th century, many European countries become trading empires, a middle class appears, democratic transformations take place. Religion is increasingly subordinate to secular power. There were many gods again, and the ancient hierarchy of divine and worldly power came in handy. Undoubtedly, this could not but affect the trends in architecture.
In the 17th century, in France and England, a new style, classicism, was born almost independently. Just like the baroque contemporary to it, it became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation in different cultural, historical and geographical conditions.
classicism(French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the late 17th - early 19th centuries.
Classicism is based on ideas rationalism coming from philosophy Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Plato, Horace…).
Baroque was closely associated with the Catholic Church. Classicism, or restrained forms of the Baroque, proved to be more acceptable in Protestant countries such as England, the Netherlands, Northern Germany, and also in Catholic France, where the king meant much more than the Pope. The realm of an ideal king should have ideal architecture, emphasizing the true greatness of the monarch and his real power. “France is me,” proclaimed Louis XIV.
In architecture, classicism is understood as an architectural style common in Europe in the 18th - early 19th centuries, the main feature of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity, monumentality and validity of filling space. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.
Usually shared two periods in the development of classicism. Classicism took shape in the 17th century in France, reflecting the rise of absolutism. The 18th century is considered a new stage in its development, since at that time it reflected other civic ideals based on the ideas of the philosophical rationalism of the Enlightenment. Both periods are united by the idea of the rational laws of the world, of the beautiful, ennobled nature, the desire to express great social content, lofty heroic and moral ideals.
The architecture of classicism is characterized by strictness of form, clarity of spatial solutions, geometrism of interiors, softness of colors and laconicism of external and internal decoration of buildings. Unlike Baroque buildings, the masters of classicism never created spatial illusions that distorted the proportions of the building. And in the park architecture, the so-called regular style where all lawns and flower beds have the correct shape, and green spaces are placed strictly in a straight line and carefully trimmed. ( Garden and park ensemble of Versailles)
Classicism is typical in the 17th century. for countries in which there was an active process of the formation of national states, and the strength of capitalist development was growing (Holland, England, France). Classicism in these countries carried new features of the ideology of the rising bourgeoisie, leading the struggle for a stable market and the expansion of productive forces, interested in centralization and national unification of states. Being an opponent of class inequalities that infringed upon the interests of the bourgeoisie, its ideologists put forward the theory of a rationally organized state based on subordinating the interests of the estates to it. The recognition of reason as the basis for the organization of state and social life is supported by the arguments of scientific progress, which is promoted by all means by the bourgeoisie. This rationalistic approach to the assessment of reality was also transferred to the field of art, where the ideal of citizenship and the triumph of reason over elemental forces become an important topic. Religious ideology is increasingly subordinate to secular power, and in a number of countries it is being reformed. Adherents of classicism saw an example of a harmonious social structure in the ancient world, and therefore, in order to express their social, ethical and aesthetic ideals, they turned to examples of ancient classics (hence the term - classicism). Developing Traditions Renaissance, classicism took a lot from the heritage baroque.
The architectural classicism of the 17th century developed in two main directions:
- the first was based on the development of the traditions of the late Renaissance classical school (England, Holland);
- the second - reviving the classical traditions, to a greater extent developed the Roman traditions of the Baroque (France).
English classicism
The creative and theoretical heritage of Palladio, who revived the ancient heritage in all its breadth and tectonic integrity, especially appealed to the classicists. It had a great impact on the architecture of those countries that took the path earlier than others. architectural rationalism. Since the first half of the 17th century. in the architecture of England and Holland, which were relatively weakly influenced by the Baroque, new features were determined under the influence Palladian classicism. The English architect played a particularly important role in the development of the new style. Inigo Jones (Inigo Jones) (1573-1652) - the first bright creative personality and the first truly new phenomenon in the English architecture of the 17th century. He owns the most outstanding works of English classicism of the 17th century.
In 1613 Jones traveled to Italy. Along the way, he traveled to France, where he managed to see many of the most important buildings. This trip, apparently, was the decisive impetus in the movement of the architect Jones in the direction indicated by Palladio. It was to this time that his notes on the margins of Palladio's treatise and in the album date back.
It is characteristic that the only general judgment among them about architecture is devoted to a reasoned criticism of certain trends in the late Renaissance architecture of Italy: Jones reproaches Michelangelo and his followers in that they laid the foundation for the excessive use of complex decor, and claims that monumental architecture, c. unlike scenography and short-lived light buildings, should be serious, free from affectation and based on rules.
In 1615, Jones returned to his homeland. He is appointed Inspector General of the Ministry of King's Works. The following year, he begins to build one of his finest works. Queen's House (Queen's House - The Queen's House, 1616-1636) in Greenwich.
In Queens House, the architect consistently develops the Palladian principles of clarity and classical clarity of order articulations, the visible constructiveness of forms, and the balance of the proportional system. General combinations and individual forms of the building are classically geometric and rational. The composition is dominated by a calm, metrically dissected wall, built in accordance with an order commensurate with the scale of a person. Everything is dominated by balance and harmony. In the plan, the same clarity of division of the interior into simple balanced spaces of the premises is observed.
This first structure of Jones, which has come down to us, had no precedents for its rigor and naked simplicity, and also contrasted sharply with the previous buildings. However, the building should not (as is often done) be judged by its current state. At the whim of the customer (Queen Anne, wife of James I Stuart), the house was built right on the old Dover road (its position is now marked by long colonnades adjacent to the building on both sides) and originally consisted of two buildings separated by a road, connected above it by a covered bridge. The complexity of the composition once gave the building a more picturesque, "English" character, emphasized by vertical stacks of chimneys assembled in traditional bundles. Already after the death of the master, in 1662, the gap between the buildings was built up. So it turned out to be square in plan, compact and dryish in architecture, with a loggia decorated with columns from the side of Greenwich Hill, with a terrace and a staircase leading to a double-height hall - from the side of the Thames.
All this hardly justifies the far-reaching comparison of the Queenshouse with the square, centric villa at Poggio a Caiano near Florence, built by Giuliano da Sangallo the Elder, although the similarity in the design of the final plan is undeniable. Jones himself mentions only the Villa Molini, built by Scamozzi near Padua, as the prototype of the facade from the side of the river. Proportions - the equality of the width of the risalits and the loggia, the high height of the second floor compared to the first, the rustication without breaking into separate stones, the balustrade over the cornice and the curved double staircase at the entrance - are not in the nature of Palladio, and slightly resemble Italian mannerism, and at the same time rationally ordered compositions of classicism.
Famous Banqueting House in London (Banqueting House - Banquet Hall, 1619-1622) in appearance much closer to the Palladian prototypes. In terms of noble solemnity and the order structure consistently carried out throughout the composition, he had no predecessors in England. At the same time, in terms of its social content, this is a primordial type of structure that has been passing through English architecture since the 11th century. Behind the two-tier order facade (below - ionic, above - composite) there is a single two-height hall, along the perimeter of which there is a balcony, which provides a logical connection between the exterior and the interior. Despite the proximity to the Palladian facades, there are significant differences here: both tiers are the same in height, which is never found in the Vicentine master, and the large glazing area with a small depth of windows (an echo of the local half-timbered construction) deprives the wall of the plasticity inherent in Italian prototypes, giving it clearly national English traits. Luxurious ceiling of the hall, with deep caissons ( later painted by Rubens), differs significantly from the flat ceilings of the English palaces of that time, decorated with light reliefs of decorative panels.
With name Inigo Jones, who has been a member of the Royal Building Commission since 1618, the most important urban planning event for the 17th century is connected - groundbreaking for the first London square created according to a regular plan. Already its common name - Piazza Covent Garden- talks about the Italian origins of the idea. Placed along the axis of the western side of the square, the church of St. Paul (1631), with its high pediment and two-column Tuscan portico in antah, is an obvious, naive in its literalness, imitation of the Etruscan temple in the image of Serlio. Open arcades in the first floors of three-story buildings that framed the square from the north and south, presumably - echoes of the square in Livorno. But at the same time, the uniform, classicistic layout of the urban space could also be inspired by the Place des Vosges in Paris, built just thirty years earlier.
St. Paul's Cathedral on the square covent garden (Covent Garden), the first line-by-line church in London after the Reformation, reflects in its simplicity not only the desire of the customer, the Duke of Bedford, to fulfill cheap obligations to members of his parish, but also the essential requirements of the Protestant religion. Jones promised the customer to build "the most beautiful barn in England." Nevertheless, the façade of the church, rebuilt after the fire of 1795, is large-scale, majestic despite its small size, and its simplicity undoubtedly has a special charm. It is curious that the high doorway under the portico is false, as the altar is located on this side of the church.
The Jones Ensemble, unfortunately, is completely lost, the space of the square is built up, the buildings are destroyed, only erected later, in 1878, in the northwestern corner of the building, one can judge the scale and nature of the original plan.
If the first works of Jones sin with a rather dry rigorism, then his later, manor buildings are less constrained by the bonds of classical formalism. With their freedom and plasticity, they partly anticipate the English Palladianism of the 18th century. Such is, for example, wilton house (Wilton House, Wiltshire), burned down in 1647 and rebuilt John Webb, a longtime assistant to Jones.
The ideas of I. Jones were continued in subsequent projects, of which the architect's London reconstruction project should be highlighted. Christopher Wren (Christopher Wren) (1632-1723) being after Rome the first grandiose project for the reconstruction of a medieval city (1666), which was almost two centuries ahead of the grandiose reconstruction of Paris. The plan was not implemented, but the architect contributed to the overall process of the emergence and construction of individual nodes of the city, completing, in particular, the ensemble conceived by Inigo Jones hospital in Greenwich(1698-1729). Wren's other major building is cathedral of st. Paul in London- London Cathedral of the Anglican Church. Cathedral of St. Pavel is the main town-planning accent in the area of the reconstructed City. Since the consecration of the first bishop of London, St. Augustine (604) on this site, according to sources, several Christian churches were erected. The immediate predecessor of the current cathedral, the old St. Paul, consecrated in 1240, was 175 m long, 7 m longer than Winchester Cathedral. In 1633–1642, Inigo Jones made extensive repairs to the old cathedral and added a classical Palladian western façade to it. However, this old cathedral was completely destroyed during the Great Fire of London in 1666. The present building was built by Christopher Wren in 1675–1710; The first service was held in the unfinished church in December 1697.
From an architectural point of view, St. Paul - one of the largest domed buildings of the Christian world, standing on a par with the Florentine Cathedral, the cathedrals of St. Sophia in Constantinople and St. Peter in Rome. The cathedral has the shape of a Latin cross, its length is 157 m, width is 31 m; transept length 75 m; total area 155,000 sq. m. In the crossroads at a height of 30 m, the foundation of a dome with a diameter of 34 m was laid, which rises to 111 m. When designing the dome, Ren applied a unique solution. Directly above the crossroads, he erected the first dome in brick with a round 6-meter opening at the top (oculus), fully commensurate with the proportions of the interior. Above the first dome, the architect built a brick cone, which serves as a support for a massive stone lantern, the weight of which reaches 700 tons, and above the cone, a second dome covered with lead sheets on a wooden frame, proportionally correlated with the outer volumes of the building. An iron chain is laid at the base of the cone, which takes on the lateral thrust. A slightly pointed dome resting on a massive circular colonnade dominates the appearance of the cathedral.
The interior is mostly clad in marble, and since there is little color in it, it looks austere. Numerous tombs of famous generals and naval commanders are located along the walls. The glass mosaics of the vaults and walls of the choir were completed in 1897.
A huge scope for construction activity opened up after the London fire of 1666. The architect presented his city redevelopment plan and received an order for the restoration of 52 parish churches. Wren proposed various spatial solutions; some buildings are built with true baroque pomp (for example, the church of St. Stephen in Walbrook). Their spiers, along with the towers of St. Paul form a spectacular panorama of the city. Mention should be made, among them, of the Churches of Christ on Newgate Street, St Bride on Fleet Street, St James on Garlick Hill and St Vedast on Foster Lane. If special circumstances required it, as in the construction of St Mary Aldermary or Christ Church College, Oxford (Tom's Tower), Wren could use late Gothic elements, although, in his own words, he did not like to "deviate from the best style" at all.
In addition to building churches, Wren carried out private commissions, one of which was the creation of a new library. Trinity College(1676–1684) in Cambridge. In 1669 he was appointed chief caretaker of the royal buildings. In this position, he received a number of important government orders, such as the construction of hospitals in the Chelsea and Greenwich areas ( Greenwich Hospital) and several buildings included in Kensington Palace complexes And Hampton Court Palace.
During his long life, Wren was in the service of five successive kings on the English throne and left his position only in 1718. Wren died at Hampton Court on February 26, 1723 and was buried in the Cathedral of St. Paul. His ideas were taken up and developed by the next generation of architects, in particular N. Hawksmore and J. Gibbs. He had a significant impact on the development of church architecture in Europe and the United States.
Among the English nobility, a real fashion for Palladian mansions arose, which coincided with the philosophy of the early Enlightenment in England, which preached the ideals of rationality and orderliness, most fully expressed in ancient art.
Palladian English Villa It was a compact volume, most often three-story. The first one was treated with rustication, the main one was the front one, it was the second floor, it was combined on the facade with a large order with the third one - the residential floor. The simplicity and clarity of Palladian buildings, the ease of reproducing their forms, made similar buildings very common both in countryside private architecture and in the architecture of urban public and residential buildings.
The English Palladians made a great contribution to the development of park art. To replace the fashionable, geometrically correct " regular» gardens came « landscape" parks later called "English". Picturesque groves with foliage of different shades alternate with lawns, natural reservoirs, and islands. The paths of the parks do not offer an open perspective, and behind every bend they prepare an unexpected view. Statues, pavilions, and ruins hide in the shade of trees. Their main creator in the first half of the 18th century was William Kent
Landscape or landscape parks were perceived as the beauty of natural nature intelligently corrected, but the corrections were not supposed to be noticeable.
French classicism
Classicism in France was formed in more complex and contradictory conditions, local traditions and baroque influence were stronger. The origin of French classicism in the first half of the 17th century. went against the backdrop of a kind of refraction in the architecture of the Renaissance forms, late Gothic traditions and techniques borrowed from the emerging Italian Baroque. This process was accompanied by typological changes: a shift in emphasis from the extra-urban castle construction of the feudal nobility to urban and suburban housing construction for the bureaucratic nobility.
In France, the basic principles and ideals of classicism were laid. We can say that everything went from the words of two famous people, the Sun King (i.e. Louis XIV), who said “ The state is me!” and the famous philosopher Rene Descartes, who said: I think, therefore I am"(in addition to and counterbalance to Plato's saying -" I exist, therefore I think"). It is in these phrases that the main ideas of classicism are hidden: loyalty to the king, i.e. fatherland, and the triumph of reason over feeling.
The new philosophy demanded its expression not only in the lips of the monarch and philosophical works, but also in art accessible to society. We needed heroic images aimed at instilling patriotism and a rational principle in the thinking of citizens. Thus began the reformation of all facets of culture. Architecture created strictly symmetrical forms, subordinating not only space, but also nature itself, trying to get at least a little closer to what was created. Claude Ledoux utopian ideal city of the future. Which, by the way, remained exclusively in the architect's drawings (it is worth noting that the project was so significant that its motives are still used in various architectural trends).
The most striking figure in the architecture of early French classicism was Nicolas Francois Mansart(Nicolas François Mansart) (1598-1666) - one of the founders of French classicism. His merit, in addition to the direct construction of buildings, is the development of a new type of urban dwelling of the nobility - a "hotel" - with a cozy and comfortable layout, including a vestibule, a grand staircase, a number of enfiladed rooms, often closed around a patio. Gothic-style vertical sections of the facades have large rectangular windows, a clear division into floors and rich order plasticity. A feature of the Mansart hotels are high roofs, under which an additional living space was arranged - an attic, named after its creator. A fine example of such a roof is a palace. Maisons-Laffitte(Maisons-Laffitte, 1642-1651). Mansart's other works include - Hotel de Toulouse, Hotel Mazarin and Paris Cathedral Val de Grace(Val-de-Grace) completed to his design Lemerce And Le Muet.
The heyday of the first period of classicism belongs to the second half of the 17th century. The concepts of philosophical rationalism and classicism put forward by bourgeois ideology, absolutism in the face of Louis XIV takes as the official state doctrine. These concepts are completely subordinate to the will of the king, serve as a means of glorifying him as the highest personification of the nation, united on the basis of reasonable autocracy. In architecture, this has a twofold expression: on the one hand, the desire for rational order compositions, tectonically clear and monumental, freed from the fractional “multi-darkness” of the previous period; on the other hand, an ever-increasing tendency towards a single volitional principle in the composition, towards the dominance of the axis that subjugates the building and adjacent spaces, to the subordination of the human will not only to the principles of organizing urban spaces, but also to nature itself, transformed according to the laws of reason, geometry, “ideal” beauty . Both trends are illustrated by two major events in the architectural life of France in the second half of the 17th century: the first - the design and construction of the eastern facade of the royal palace in Paris - Louvre (Louvre); the second - the creation of a new residence of Louis XIV - the most grandiose architectural and landscape gardening ensemble in Versailles.
The eastern facade of the Louvre was created as a result of a comparison of two projects - one that came to Paris from Italy Lorenzo Bernini(Gian Lorenzo Bernini) (1598-1680) and French Claude Perrault(Claude Perrault) (1613-1688). Preference was given to the Perrault project (implemented in 1667), where, in contrast to the baroque restlessness and tectonic duality of Bernini's project, the extended facade (length 170.5 m) has a clear order structure with a huge two-story gallery interrupted in the center and on the sides by symmetrical projections . Paired columns of the Corinthian order (height 12.32 meters) carry a large, classically designed entablature, completed with an attic and a balustrade. The base is interpreted as a smooth basement, in the development of which, as in the elements of the order, the constructive functions of the main bearing support of the building are emphasized. A clear, rhythmic and proportional structure is based on simple relationships and modularity, and the lower diameter of the columns is taken as the initial value (module), as in the classical canons. The dimensions of the building in height (27.7 meters) and the overall large scale of the composition, designed to create a front square in front of the facade, give the building majesty and representativeness necessary for the royal palace. At the same time, the whole structure of the composition is distinguished by architectural logic, geometricity, and artistic rationalism.
Ensemble of Versailles(Château de Versailles, 1661-1708) - the pinnacle of the architectural activity of the time of Louis XIV. The desire to combine the attractive aspects of city life and life in the bosom of nature led to the creation of a grandiose complex, including the royal palace with buildings for the royal family and the government, a huge park and the city adjacent to the palace. The palace is a focal point in which the axis of the park converges - on the one hand, and on the other - three beams of the city's highways, of which the central one serves as a road connecting Versailles with the Louvre. The palace, the length of which from the side of the park is more than half a kilometer (580 m), its middle part is sharply pushed forward, and in height it has a clear division into the basement, the main floor and the attic. Against the background of order pilasters, the Ionic porticos play the role of rhythmic accents that unite the facades into an integral axial composition.
The axis of the palace serves as the main disciplinary factor in the transformation of the landscape. Symbolizing the unlimited will of the reigning owner of the country, it subjugates elements of geometrized nature, alternating in strict order with architectural elements of park designation: stairs, pools, fountains, various small architectural forms.
The principle of axial space inherent in the Baroque and Ancient Rome is realized here in the grandiose axial perspective of the green parterres and alleys descending in terraces, leading the observer's gaze deep into the canal, located in the distance, cruciform in plan and further to infinity. Pyramid-shaped bushes and trees emphasized the linear depth and artificiality of the created landscape, turning into natural only beyond the main perspective.
Idea " transformed nature” corresponded to the new way of life of the monarch and the nobility. It also led to new urban planning plans - a departure from the chaotic medieval city, and ultimately to a decisive transformation of the city based on the principles of regularity and the introduction of landscape elements into it. The result was the spread of the principles and techniques developed in the planning of Versailles to work on the reconstruction of cities, primarily Paris.
André Lenotrou(André Le Nôtre) (1613-1700) - the creator of the garden and park ensemble Versailles- belongs to the idea of regulating the layout of the central district of Paris, adjacent from the west and east to the palaces of the Louvre and the Tuileries. Axis Louvre - Tuileries, coinciding with the direction of the road to Versailles, determined the meaning of the famous " Parisian diameter”, which later became the main thoroughfare of the capital. On this axis, the Tuileries Garden and part of the avenue - the alleys of the Champs Elysees were laid out. In the second half of the 18th century, Place de la Concorde was created, uniting the Tuileries with the avenue of the Champs Elysees, and in the first half of the 19th century. the monumental arch of the Star, placed at the end of the Champs Elysees in the center of the round square, completed the formation of the ensemble, the length of which is about 3 km. Author Palace of Versailles Jules Hardouin-Mansart(Jules Hardouin-Mansart) (1646-1708) also created a number of outstanding ensembles in Paris in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. These include round Victory Square(Place des Victoires), rectangular Place Vendôme(Place Vendome), complex of the hospital of the Invalides with a domed cathedral. French classicism of the second half of the 17th century. adopted the urban achievements of the Renaissance and especially the Baroque, developing and applying them on a grander scale.
In the 18th century, during the reign of Louis XV (1715-1774), in French architecture, as in other forms of art, the Rococo style developed, which was a formal continuation of the Baroque pictorial trends. The originality of this style, close to baroque and pretentious in its forms, manifested itself mainly in the interior decoration, which corresponded to the luxurious and wasteful life of the royal court. The ceremonial halls acquired a more comfortable, but also more pretentious character. In the architectural decoration of the premises, mirrors and stucco decorations made of intricately curved lines, flower garlands, shells, etc. were widely used. This style was also widely reflected in furniture. However, already in the middle of the 18th century, there was a move away from the pretentious forms of Rococo towards greater rigor, simplicity and clarity. This period in France coincides with a broad social movement directed against the monarchical socio-political system and received its resolution in the French bourgeois revolution of 1789. The second half of the 18th and the first third of the 19th century in France mark a new stage in the development of classicism and its wide distribution in European countries.
CLASSICISM OF THE SECOND HALF OF XVIII century largely developed the principles of architecture of the previous century. However, the new bourgeois-rationalist ideals - simplicity and classical clarity of forms - are now understood as a symbol of a certain democratization of art promoted within the framework of bourgeois enlightenment. The relationship between architecture and nature is changing. Symmetry and axis, which remain the fundamental principles of composition, no longer have their former importance in the organization of the natural landscape. Increasingly, the French regular park is giving way to the so-called English park with a picturesque landscape composition imitating the natural landscape.
The architecture of buildings becomes somewhat more humane and rational, although the huge urban scale still determines a broad ensemble approach to architectural tasks. The city with all its medieval buildings is considered as an object of architectural influence in general. Ideas for an architectural plan for the entire city are put forward; At the same time, the interests of transport, issues of sanitary improvement, placement of objects of trade and production activities and other economic issues begin to occupy a significant place. In the work on new types of urban buildings, much attention is paid to multi-storey residential buildings. Despite the fact that the practical implementation of these urban planning ideas was very limited, the increased interest in the problems of the city influenced the formation of ensembles. In the conditions of a large city, new ensembles try to include large spaces in their “sphere of influence”, often becoming open-ended.
The largest and most characteristic architectural ensemble of French classicism of the XVIII century - Place de la Concorde in Paris created by the project Ange-Jacques Gabriel (Ange-Jacque Gabriel(1698 - 1782) in the 50-60s of the XVIII century, and received its final completion during the second half of the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. The vast square serves as a distribution space on the banks of the Seine between the Tuileries Garden adjoining the Louvre and the wide boulevards of the Champs Elysees. Previously existing dry ditches served as the boundary of a rectangular area (dimensions 245 x 140 m). The "graphic" layout of the area with the help of dry ditches, balustrades, sculptural groups bears the stamp of the planar layout of the Versailles park. In contrast to the closed squares of Paris in the 17th century. (Place Vendôme, etc.), Place de la Concorde is a sample of an open square, limited only on one side by two symmetrical buildings built by Gabriel, which formed a transverse axis passing through the square, and the Rue Royale formed by them. The axis is fixed on the square with two fountains, and at the intersection of the main axes a monument to King Louis XV was erected, and later a high obelisk). The Champs Elysees, the Tuileries Garden, the space of the Seine and its embankments are, as it were, a continuation of this architectural ensemble, huge in its scope, in a direction perpendicular to the transverse axis.
Partial reconstruction of the centers with the arrangement of regular "royal squares" also covers other cities of France (Rennes, Reims, Rouen, etc.). Particularly prominent is the Royal Square in Nancy (Place Royalle de Nancy, 1722-1755). Urban planning theory is developing. In particular, one should note the theoretical work on urban squares by the architect Patt, who processed and published the results of a competition for Place Louis XV in Paris, held in the middle of the 18th century.
The space-planning development of buildings of the French classicism of the XVIII century is not conceived in isolation from the urban ensemble. The leading motif remains a large order, which correlates well with the adjacent urban spaces. A constructive function is returned to the order; it is more often used in the form of porticos and galleries, its scale is enlarged, covering the height of the entire main volume of the building. Theorist of French classicism M. A. Laugier (Laugier M.A) fundamentally rejects the classical column where it really does not carry a load, and criticizes the placement of one order on another, if it is really possible to get by with one support. Practical rationalism receives a broad theoretical justification.
The development of theory has become a typical phenomenon in the art of France since the 17th century, since the establishment of the French Academy (1634), the formation of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648) and the Academy of Architecture (1671). Particular attention in theory is given to orders and proportions. Developing the doctrine of proportions Jacques Francois Blondel(1705-1774) - French theorist of the second half of the 17th century, Laugier creates a whole system of logically justified proportions, based on the rationally meaningful principle of their absolute perfection. At the same time, in proportions, as in architecture as a whole, the element of rationality, based on speculatively derived mathematical rules of composition, is enhanced. There is a growing interest in the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance, and in specific samples of these eras, they seek to see the logical confirmation of the principles put forward. The Roman Pantheon is often cited as an ideal example of the unity of the utilitarian and artistic functions, and the buildings of Palladio and Bramante, in particular Tempietto, are considered the most popular examples of the Renaissance classics. These samples are not only carefully studied, but often serve as direct prototypes of buildings being erected.
In built in the 1750-1780s according to the project Jacques Germain Souflo(Jacques-Germain Soufflot) (1713 - 1780) St. Genevieve in Paris, which later became the national French Pantheon, one can see a return to the artistic ideal of antiquity and the most mature examples of the Renaissance inherent in this time. The composition, cruciform in plan, is distinguished by the logic of the general scheme, the balance of architectural parts, the clarity and clarity of construction. The portico goes back in its forms to the Roman Pantheon, a drum with a dome (span 21.5 meters) resembles a composition Tempietto. The main façade completes the perspective of a short, straight street and serves as one of the most visible architectural landmarks in Paris.
An interesting material illustrating the development of architectural thought in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries is the publication in Paris of competitive academic projects awarded the highest award (Grand prix). A red thread running through all these projects is admiration for antiquity. Endless colonnades, huge domes, repeatedly repeated porticos, etc. speak, on the one hand, of a break with the aristocratic effeminacy of Rococo, on the other hand, of the flowering of a kind of architectural romance, for the realization of which, however, there was no ground in social reality.
The eve of the French Revolution (1789-94) gave rise to a striving for harsh simplicity in architecture, a bold search for monumental geometrism, new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeux). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - Empire.
During the years of the revolution, almost no construction was carried out, but a large number of projects were born. The general tendency to overcome canonical forms and traditional classical schemes is determined.
Culturological thought, having passed the next round, ended at the same place. The painting of the revolutionary direction of French classicism is represented by the courageous drama of historical and portrait images of J. L. David. During the years of the empire of Napoleon I, magnificent representativeness grows in architecture (Ch. Percier, L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin)
Rome became the international center of classicism of the 18th century - the beginning of the 19th century, where the academic tradition dominated in art, with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, often for academicism (German painter A. R. Mengs, Austrian landscape painter J. A. Koch, sculptors - Italian A. Canova, Dane B. Thorvaldsen).
In the 17th and early 18th centuries, classicism was formed in Dutch architecture- architect Jacob van Campen(Jacob van Campen, 1595-165), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it, Cross-links with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, affected the short brilliant heyday classicism in Swedish architecture late 17th - early 18th century - architect Nicodemus Tessin the Younger(Nicodemus Tessin Younger 1654-1728).
In the middle of the 18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the development of a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape environment of the “English” park became the ideal environment for the house. The rapid development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge impact on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of I. I. Winkelmann, J. V. Goethe, and F. Militsiya made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In the French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a front public building, an open city square.
In Russia classicism went through several stages in its development and reached unprecedented proportions during the reign of Catherine II, who considered herself an "enlightened monarch", was in correspondence with Voltaire and supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.
The classical architecture of St. Petersburg was close to the ideas of significance, grandeur, powerful pathos.
Classicism Classicism
The artistic style in European art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic standard. Continuing the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancient ideals of harmony and measure, faith in the power of the human mind), classicism was also its kind of antithesis, since with the loss of Renaissance harmony, the unity of feeling and reason, the tendency of the aesthetic experience of the world as a harmonious whole was lost. Such concepts as society and personality, man and nature, elements and consciousness, in classicism become polarized, become mutually exclusive, which brings it closer (while maintaining all the cardinal worldview and stylistic differences) to the Baroque, also imbued with the consciousness of general discord generated by the crisis of Renaissance ideals. Usually, classicism of the 17th century is distinguished. and XVIII - early XIX centuries. (the latter in foreign art history is often referred to as neoclassicism), but in the plastic arts, the tendencies of classicism were already outlined in the second half of the 16th century. in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of Palladio, theoretical treatises of Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the writings of G. P. Bellori (XVII century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bologna school. However, in the XVII century. Classicism, which developed in an acutely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only in French artistic culture developed into an integral stylistic system. In the bosom of French artistic culture, classicism of the 18th century was also predominantly formed, which became a pan-European style. The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism (the same that determined the philosophical ideas of R. Descartes and Cartesianism) determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Aesthetic value in classicism has only enduring, timeless. Attaching great importance to the social and educational function of art, classicism puts forward new ethical norms that form the image of its heroes: resistance to the cruelty of fate and the vicissitudes of life, subordination of the personal to the common, passions to duty, reason, the supreme interests of society, the laws of the universe. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, a strict hierarchy of genres - from "high" (historical, mythological, religious) to "low", or "small" (landscape, portrait, still life) ; each genre had strict content boundaries and clear formal features. The activities of the Royal Schools founded in Paris contributed to the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism. Academies - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).
The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by a logical layout and geometrism of a three-dimensional form. The constant appeal of the architects of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture meant not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interior of classicism is characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real one. The urban planning of classicism of the 17th century, genetically connected with the principles of the Renaissance and Baroque, actively developed (in the plans of fortified cities) the concept of the "ideal city", created its own type of regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles). In the second half of the XVIII century. new methods of planning are emerging, providing for the organic combination of urban development with elements of nature, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or the embankment. The subtlety of laconic decor, the expediency of forms, the inextricable connection with nature are inherent in the buildings (mainly country palaces and villas) of representatives of Palladianism in the 18th - early 19th centuries.
The tectonic clarity of classicism architecture corresponds to a clear delimitation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view, it is distinguished by the smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuary. In the painting of classicism, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro (especially in late classicism, when painting sometimes gravitates towards monochrome, and graphics towards pure linearity); local color clearly reveals objects and landscape plans (brown - for the near, green - for the middle, blue - for the distant plans), which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage.
The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century. was the French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the loftiness of the philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of the rhythmic structure and color. High development in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. received an "ideal landscape" (Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguet), which embodied the dream of the classicists of the "golden age" of mankind. The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the buildings of F. Mansart, marked by clarity of composition and order divisions. High examples of mature classicism in the architecture of the 17th century. - The eastern facade of the Louvre (C. Perrault), the work of L. Levo, F. Blondel. From the second half of the XVII century. French classicism incorporates some elements of baroque architecture (the palace and park of Versailles - architects J. Hardouin-Mansart, A. Le Nôtre). In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (architects J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it, and in the "Palladian" architecture of England (architect I. Jones), where the national version was finally formed in the works of K. Ren and others English classicism. Cross-links with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early baroque, were reflected in the short, brilliant flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. (architect N. Tessin the Younger).
In the middle of the XVIII century. the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the development of a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape environment of the "English" park became the ideal environment for the house. A huge influence on the classicism of the XVIII century. had a rapid development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (the splits of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.); The works of I. I. Winkelmann, J. V. Goethe, and F. Militsiya made their contribution to the theory of classicism. French classicism of the 18th century. new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a front public building, an open city square (architects J. A. Gabriel, J. J. Souflot). Civic pathos and lyricism were combined in the plastic arts of J. B. Pigalle, E. M. Falcone, J. A. Houdon, in the mythological painting of J. M. Vienne, and in the decorative landscapes of J. Robert. The eve of the French Revolution (1789-94) gave rise to a striving for harsh simplicity in architecture, a bold search for the monumental geometrism of a new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeux). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - Empire. The painting of the revolutionary direction of French classicism is represented by the courageous drama of historical and portrait images of J. L. David. During the years of the empire of Napoleon I, magnificent representativeness was growing in architecture (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin). The painting of late classicism, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or sentimental erotic salon art.
The international center of classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. became Rome, where the academic tradition dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, which is not uncommon for academicism (German painter A. R. Mengs, Austrian landscape painter I. A. Koch, sculptors - Italian A. Canova, Dane B. Thorvaldsen) . For German classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. architecture is characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorf, the "heroic" Hellenism of C. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly. In the work of K. F. Schinkel - the pinnacle of late German classicism in architecture - the severe monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions. In the visual art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, the portraits of A. and V. Tishbein, the mythological cartoons of A. Ya. Karstens, the plastic art of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Raukh stand out; in arts and crafts - furniture by D. Roentgen. English architecture of the 18th century. dominated by the Palladian direction, closely associated with the flourishing of suburban park estates (architects W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers). The discoveries of ancient archeology were reflected in the special elegance of the order decor of R. Adam's buildings. At the beginning of the XIX century. features of the Empire style (J. Soane) appear in English architecture. The national achievement of English classicism in architecture was a high level of culture in the design of a residential estate and a city, bold urban planning initiatives in the spirit of the garden city idea (architects J. Wood, J. Wood Jr., J. Nash). In other arts, graphics and sculpture by J. Flaxman are closest to classicism, in decorative and applied art - ceramics by J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the factory in Derby. In the XVIII - early XIX centuries. classicism is also established in Italy (architect G. Piermarini), Spain (architect X. de Villanueva), Belgium, countries of Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, the USA (architects G. Jefferson, J. Hoban; painters B. West and J. S. Collie). At the end of the first third of the XIX century. the leading role of classicism is coming to naught; in the second half of the 19th century. classicism is one of the pseudo-historical styles of eclecticism. At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in neoclassicism in the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries.
The heyday of Russian classicism belongs to the last third of the 18th - the first third of the 19th centuries, although already the beginning of the 18th century. marked by a creative appeal (in the architecture of St. Petersburg) to the urban planning experience of French classicism of the 17th century. (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flourishing of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope, national pathos and ideological fullness. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plastic enrichment and dynamics forms inherent in baroque and rococo. The architects of the mature period of classicism (1770-90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classical types of the capital's palace-estate and a large comfortable residential building, which became models in the wide construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, front building of cities. The art of the ensemble in suburban park estates is a major national contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. The Russian variant of Palladianism arose in manor construction (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace developed (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism in architecture is the unprecedented scale of organized state urban planning: regular plans were developed for more than 400 cities, ensembles of the centers of Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl and other cities were formed; the practice of "regulating" urban plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. The turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. Thomas de Thomon, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planning principles, "classical Moscow" was formed, which was built up in the period of its restoration and reconstruction after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev.
In the visual arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). The sculpture of Russian classicism is represented by "heroic" monumental-decorative plasticity, which is a finely thought-out synthesis with Empire architecture, monuments filled with civil pathos, elegiac-enlightened tombstones, easel plasticity (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky , I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). Russian classicism in painting most clearly manifested itself in the works of historical and mythological genres (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the subtle psychological sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied art of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carving in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc. stand out. From the second third of the 19th century. for the fine arts of Russian classicism, soulless, far-fetched academic schematism is becoming more and more characteristic, with which the masters of the democratic direction are fighting.
C. Lorrain. "Morning" ("Meeting of Jacob with Rachel"). 1666. Hermitage. Leningrad.
B. Thorvaldsen. "Jason". Marble. 1802 - 1803. Thorvaldson Museum. Copenhagen.
J. L. David. "Paris and Helena". 1788. Louvre. Paris.
Literature: N. N. Kovalenskaya, Russian classicism, M., 1964; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the XV-XVII centuries, M., 1966; E. I. Rotenberg, Western European art of the 17th century, M., 1971; Artistic culture of the XVIII century. Materials of scientific conference, 1973, M., 1974; E. V. Nikolaev, Classical Moscow, Moscow, 1975; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists, M., 1980; The dispute about the ancient and new, (translated from French), M., 1985; Zeitier R., Klassizismus und Utopia, Stockh., 1954; Kaufmann E., Architecture in the age of Reason, Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Hautecoeur L., L "histoire de l" architecture classique en France, v. 1-7, P., 1943-57; Tapiy V., Baroque et classicisme, 2nd d., P., 1972; Greenhalgh M., The classical tradition in art, L., 1979.
Source: Popular Art Encyclopedia. Ed. Field V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)
classicism(from lat. classicus - exemplary), artistic style and direction in European art 17 - early. 19th century, an important feature of which was the appeal to the heritage of antiquity (Ancient Greece and Rome) as a norm and an ideal model. The aesthetics of classicism are characterized by rationalism, the desire to establish certain rules for creating a work, a strict hierarchy (subordination) of types and genres art. Architecture reigned in the synthesis of the arts. High genres in painting were considered historical, religious and mythological paintings, giving the viewer heroic examples to follow; the lowest - portrait, landscape, still life, everyday painting. Strict boundaries and well-defined formal signs were prescribed for each genre; it was not allowed to mix the sublime with the base, the tragic with the comic, the heroic with the ordinary. Classicism is a style of contrasts. Its ideologists proclaimed the superiority of the public over the personal, reason over emotions, a sense of duty over desires. Classical works are distinguished by conciseness, clear logic of design, balance compositions.
In the development of style, two periods are distinguished: classicism of the 17th century. and neoclassicism second floor. 18 - the first third of the 19th century. In Russia, where culture remained medieval before the reforms of Peter I, style manifested itself only from the end. 18th century Therefore, in Russian art history, in contrast to the Western one, classicism means Russian art of the 1760s–1830s.
Classicism 17th century showed itself mainly in France and established itself in the confrontation with baroque. In the architecture of A. Palladio became a model for many masters. Classicist buildings are distinguished by the clarity of geometric shapes and the clarity of planning, the appeal to the motifs of ancient architecture, and above all to the order system (see Art. Architectural order). Architects are increasingly using post-and-beam structure, in buildings, the symmetry of the composition was clearly revealed, straight lines were preferred to curved ones. The walls are interpreted as smooth surfaces painted in soothing colors, laconic sculptural decor emphasizes structural elements (buildings by F. Mansard, eastern facade Louvre, created by C. Perrault; works of L. Levo, F. Blondel). From the second floor. 17th century French classicism incorporates more and more baroque elements ( Versailles, architect J. Hardouin-Mansart and others, the layout of the park - A. Lenotre).
The sculpture is dominated by balanced, closed, laconic volumes, usually designed for a fixed point of view, a carefully polished surface shines with a coldish sheen (F. Girardon, A. Coisevox).
The establishment in Paris of the Royal Academy of Architecture (1671) and the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648) contributed to the consolidation of the principles of classicism. The latter was headed by Ch. Lebrun, from 1662 the first painter of Louis XIV, who painted the Mirror Gallery of the Palace of Versailles (1678–84). In painting, the primacy of line over color was recognized, a clear drawing and statuary forms were valued; preference was given to local (pure, unmixed) colors. The classic system that developed at the Academy served to develop plots and allegories who glorified the monarch (the "sun king" was associated with the god of light and patron of the arts, Apollo). The most outstanding classical painters - N. Poussin and K. Lorrain linked their lives and work with Rome. Poussin interprets ancient history as a collection of heroic deeds; in his later period, the role of the epic majestic landscape increased in his paintings. Compatriot Lorrain created ideal landscapes in which the dream of a golden age came to life - an era of happy harmony between man and nature.
The rise of neoclassicism in the 1760s happened in opposition to the style rococo. The style was formed under the influence of ideas Enlightenment. Three main periods can be distinguished in its development: early (1760–80), mature (1780–1800) and late (1800–30), otherwise called style empire, which developed at the same time as romanticism. Neoclassicism became an international style, gaining popularity in Europe and America. Most clearly, he was embodied in the art of Great Britain, France and Russia. Archaeological finds in the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Pompeian motives frescoes and items arts and crafts became widely used by artists. The formation of the style was also influenced by the works of the German art historian I. I. Winkelmann, who considered the most important qualities of ancient art to be “noble simplicity and calm grandeur”.
In Great Britain, where in the first third of the 18th century. architects showed interest in antiquity and the heritage of A. Palladio, the transition to neoclassicism was smooth and natural (W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers). One of the founders of the style was Robert Adam, who worked with his brother James (Cadlestone Hall, 1759–85). Adam's style was clearly manifested in interior design, where he used light and refined ornamentation in the spirit of Pompeian frescoes and ancient Greek vase painting("The Etruscan Room" at Osterley Park Mansion, London, 1761–79). At the enterprises of D. Wedgwood, ceramic dishes, decorative overlays for furniture, and other decorations in the classicist style were produced, which received all-European recognition. Relief models for Wedgwood were made by sculptor and draftsman D. Flaxman.
In France, the architect J. A. Gabriel created in the spirit of early neoclassicism both chamber, lyrical in mood buildings (“The Petit Trianon” in Versailles, 1762–68), and the new ensemble of Louis XV Square (now Concorde) in Paris, which acquired an unprecedented openness. The Church of St. Genevieve (1758–90; turned into the Pantheon in the late 18th century), built by J. J. Soufflot, has a Greek cross in plan, is crowned with a huge dome and more academically and dryly reproduces ancient forms. In French sculpture of the 18th century. elements of neoclassicism appear in separate works by E. Falcone, in tombstones and busts of A. Houdon. More close to neoclassicism are the works of O. Page (“Portrait of Du Barry”, 1773; monument to J. L. L. Buffon, 1776), at the beginning. 19th century - D. A. Chode and J. Shinar, who created a type of ceremonial bust with a base in the form herms. The most significant master of French neoclassicism and Empire in painting was J. L. David. The ethical ideal in the historical canvases of David was distinguished by strictness and uncompromisingness. In The Oath of the Horatii (1784), the features of late classicism acquired the clarity of a plastic formula.
Russian classicism most fully expressed itself in architecture, sculpture and historical painting. The architectural works of the transitional period from Rococo to Classicism include buildings Petersburg Academy of Arts(1764–88) A. F. Kokorinova and J. B. Vallin-Delamot and the Marble Palace (1768–1785) A. Rinaldi. Early classicism is represented by the names of V.I. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakova. Many of Bazhenov's projects remained unfulfilled, but the master's architectural and urban planning ideas had a significant impact on the formation of the classicism style. A distinctive feature of the Bazhenov buildings was the subtle use of national traditions and the ability to organically incorporate classicist buildings into existing buildings. The Pashkov House (1784–86) is an example of a typical Moscow noble mansion that retains the features of a country estate. The purest examples of the style are the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (1776–87) and the Dolgoruky House (1784–90s). in Moscow, erected by Kazakov. The early stage of classicism in Russia was focused mainly on the architectural experience of France; later, the legacy of antiquity and A. Palladio (N. A. Lvov; D. Quarenghi) began to play a significant role. Mature classicism has developed in the work of I.E. Starova(Tauride Palace, 1783–89) and D. Quarenghi (Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, 1792–96). In Empire architecture early. 19th century architects strive for ensemble solutions.
The originality of Russian classic sculpture is that in the work of most masters (F. I. Shubin, I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov , I. I. Terebeneva) classicism was closely intertwined with the trends of baroque and rococo. The ideals of classicism were more clearly expressed in monumental and decorative than in easel sculpture. Classicism found its purest expression in the works of I.P. Martos, who created high examples of classicism in the tombstone genre (S. S. Volkonskaya, M. P. Sobakina; both - 1782). M. I. Kozlovsky in the monument to A. V. Suvorov on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg presented the Russian commander as a powerful ancient hero with a sword in his hands, in armor and a helmet.
In painting, the ideals of classicism were most consistently expressed by the masters of historical paintings (A.P. Losenko and his students I. A. Akimov and P. I. Sokolov), whose works are dominated by subjects of ancient history and mythology. At the turn of the 18-19 centuries. interest in national history is growing (G. I. Ugryumov).
The principles of classicism as a set of formal techniques continued to be used throughout the 19th century. representatives academicism.
You will learn everything about the representatives of classicism by reading this article.
Representatives of classicism
What is classicism?
Classicism- This is a style in art, which is based on imitation of the standards of Antiquity. The heyday of the direction refers to the XVII-XIX centuries. It reflects the desire for integrity, simplicity, consistency.
Representatives of Russian classicism
Classicism in Russia appeared at the beginning of the 18th century from the moment of the transformations of Peter I and the publication of the theory of the "Three Calms" by Lomonosov and the reform of Trediakovsky. The most prominent representatives of this trend are:
- Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir,
- Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov
- Ivan Ivanovich Khemnitser.
Russian baroque and Byzantine culture are mixed in Russian architecture. Main representatives of classicism in architecture - Eropkin, Kazakov, Zemtsov, Rossi, Korobov, Montferrand and Stasov.
In painting, the smoothness of forms is emphasized, and chiaroscuro and line are the main elements of form. Representatives of classicism in painting: I. Akimov, P. Sokolov, K. Lorrain and N. Poussin. Lorrain created landscapes, which depicted the connection between nature and man, their harmony and interaction. And Poussin painted masterpieces depicting heroic deeds in a historical style.
Representatives of classicism in Russian literature
The brightest representatives of classicism in literature: Sumarokov, Trediakovsky, Kantemir, Lomonosov. A little more about each of them. Trediakovsky went down in history as a man who revealed the essence of classicism. But Lomonosov did a great job on the art form. Sumarokov is the founder of the dramatic system of classicism. His famous work "Dmitry the Pretender" revealed opposition to the tsarist regime.
It is worth noting that all subsequent famous representatives of classicism studied with Lomonosov. He owns the design of the rules of versification and the processing of the grammar of the Russian language. This writer introduced the principles of classicism into Russian literature. He divided all words into three main groups (“three calms”):
- The first group is distinguished by solemnity and majesty. It is dominated by Russian old vocabulary. Odes, tragedies, heroic epics were suitable for it.
- The second group included elegies, dramas, satires.
- The third group included comedies and fables.
Outstanding representatives of classicism divided their heroes into positive (who always win) and negative characters. The plot, as a rule, was based on a love triangle, the struggle of men for the possession of a woman. The action of the works is limited in time (no more than 3 days) and takes place in one place.
Representatives of classicism in world literature
The practitioners of classicism were primarily French writers: the poet Malherbe, the playwrights Corneille, Racine,
Classicism is an artistic and architectural trend in the world culture of the 17th-19th centuries, where the aesthetic ideals of antiquity became a role model and creative guide. Having originated in Europe, the trend also actively influenced the development of Russian urban planning. The classical architecture created at that time is rightfully considered a national treasure.
Historical background
- As a style of architecture, the classic originated in the 17th century in France and at the same time in England, naturally continuing the cultural values of the Renaissance.
In these countries, the rise and flourishing of the monarchical system was observed, the values of Ancient Greece and Rome were perceived as an example of an ideal state system and the harmonious interaction of man and nature. The idea of a reasonable arrangement of the world has penetrated into all spheres of society.
- The second stage in the development of the classical direction dates back to the 18th century, when the philosophy of rationalism became the motive for turning to historical traditions.
In the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of the logic of the universe and following strict canons were sung. Classical traditions in architecture: simplicity, clarity, rigor - came to the fore instead of excessive pomposity and an excess of decorative baroque and rococo.
- The theorist of style is considered the Italian architect Andrea Palladio (another name for classicism is "Palladianism").
At the end of the 16th century, he described in detail the principles of the ancient order system and the modular construction of buildings, and put them into practice in the construction of urban palazzos and country villas. A characteristic example of the mathematical precision of proportions is the Villa Rotunda, decorated with Ionic porticoes.
Classicism: style features
It is easy to recognize the signs of the classical style in the appearance of buildings:
- clear spatial solutions,
- strict forms,
- laconic exterior finish,
- soft colors.
If the Baroque masters preferred to work with three-dimensional illusions, which often distorted the proportions, then clear perspectives dominated here. Even park ensembles of this era were performed in a regular style, when lawns had the correct shape, and shrubs and ponds were located in straight lines.
- One of the main features of classicism in architecture is the appeal to the antique order system.
Translated from Latin, ordo means "order, order", the term was applied to the proportions of ancient temples between the bearing and carried parts: columns and entablature (upper ceiling).
Three orders came to the classics from Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. They differed in the ratio and size of the base, capitals, frieze. The Tuscan and composite orders were inherited from the Romans.
Elements of classical architecture
- The order has become the leading feature of classicism in architecture. But if in the Renaissance the ancient order and portico played the role of a simple stylistic decoration, now they have again become a constructive basis, as in ancient Greek construction.
- Symmetrical composition is an obligatory element of the classics in architecture, closely related to ordering. The implemented projects of private houses and public buildings were symmetrical about the central axis, the same symmetry was traced in each individual fragment.
- The golden section rule (an exemplary ratio of height and width) determined the harmonious proportions of buildings.
- Leading decor techniques: decorations in the form of bas-reliefs with medallions, stucco floral ornaments, arched openings, window cornices, Greek statues on the roofs. To emphasize the snow-white decorative elements, the color scheme for decoration was chosen in light pastel shades.
- Among the features of classical architecture is the design of the walls according to the principle of order division into three horizontal parts: the lower one is the plinth, in the middle is the main field, and at the top is the entablature. Cornices above each floor, window friezes, architraves of various shapes, as well as vertical pilasters, created a picturesque relief of the facade.
- The design of the main entrance included marble staircases, colonnades, pediments with bas-reliefs.
Types of classical architecture: national features
Ancient canons, revived in the era of classicism, were perceived as the highest ideal of beauty and rationality of all things. Therefore, the new aesthetics of rigor and symmetry, pushing aside baroque pomposity, has widely penetrated not only into the sphere of private housing construction, but also into the scale of the whole urban planning. European architects were pioneers in this respect.
English classicism
The work of Palladio strongly influenced the principles of classical architecture in Great Britain, in particular in the works of the outstanding English master Inigo Jones. In the first third of the 17th century, he created the Queen's House ("Queen's House"), where he applied order divisions and balanced proportions. The construction of the first square in the capital, carried out according to a regular plan, Covent Garden, is also associated with his name.
Another English architect Christopher Wren went down in history as the creator of St. Paul's Cathedral, where he applied a symmetrical order composition with a two-tiered portico, two side towers and a dome.
During the construction of urban and suburban private apartments, English classicism in architecture brought into fashion Palladian mansions - compact three-story buildings with simple and clear forms.
The first floor was trimmed with rusticated stone, the second floor was considered the main one - it was combined with the upper (residential) floor using a large facade order.
Features of classicism in the architecture of France
The heyday of the first period of French classics came in the second half of the 17th century during the reign of Louis XIV. The ideas of absolutism as a reasonable state organization manifested themselves in architecture with rational order compositions and the transformation of the surrounding landscape according to the principles of geometry.
The most significant events of this period were the erection of the eastern facade of the Louvre with a huge two-story gallery and the creation of an architectural and park ensemble in Versailles.
In the 18th century, the development of French architecture passed under the sign of Rococo, but already in the middle of the century its pretentious forms gave way to strict and simple classics in both urban and private architecture. Medieval buildings are replaced by a plan that takes into account the tasks of infrastructure, the placement of industrial buildings. Residential buildings are built on the principle of multi-storey buildings.
The order is perceived not as a decoration of the building, but as a structural unit: if the column does not carry a load, it is superfluous. An example of the architectural features of classicism in France of this period is the Church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon) designed by Jacques Germain Souflo. Its composition is logical, the parts and the whole are balanced, the drawing of the lines of the beads is clear. The master sought to accurately reproduce the details of ancient art.
Russian classicism in architecture
The development of the classical architectural style in Russia fell on the reign of Catherine II. In the early years, elements of antiquity are still mixed with baroque decor, but they push them into the background. In the projects of Zh.B. Wallen-Delamot, A.F. Kokorinov and Yu. M. Felten, baroque chic gives way to the dominant role of the logic of the Greek order.
A feature of the classics in Russian architecture of the late (strict) period was the final departure from the Baroque heritage. This direction was formed by 1780 and is represented by the works of C. Cameron, V. I. Bazhenov, I. E. Starov, D. Quarenghi.
The rapidly developing economy of the country contributed to the rapid change of styles. Domestic and foreign trade expanded, academies and institutes, industrial shops were opened. There was a need for the rapid construction of new buildings: guest houses, fairgrounds, stock exchanges, banks, hospitals, boarding houses, libraries.
Under these conditions, the deliberately lush and complex forms of the Baroque showed their shortcomings: the long duration of construction work, the high cost and the need to attract an impressive staff of skilled craftsmen.
Classicism in Russian architecture, with its logical and simple compositional and decorating solutions, was a successful response to the economic needs of the era.
Examples of domestic architectural classics
Tauride Palace - project by I.E. Starov, realized in the 1780s, is a vivid example of the direction of classicism in architecture. The modest facade is made with clear monumental forms, the Tuscan portico of strict design attracts attention.
A great contribution to the architecture of both capitals was made by V.I. Bazhenov, who created the Pashkov House in Moscow (1784-1786) and the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle (1797-1800) in St. Petersburg.
The Alexander Palace of D. Quarenghi (1792-1796) attracted the attention of contemporaries with a combination of walls, almost devoid of decor, and a majestic colonnade, made in two rows.
Naval Cadet Corps (1796-1798) F.I. Volkov is an example of the exemplary construction of barrack-type buildings according to the principles of classicism.
Architectural features of the classics of the late period
The stage of transition from the style of classicism in architecture to the Empire style is called the Alexandrov stage after the name of Emperor Alexander I. The projects created in the period of 1800-1812 have characteristic features:
- accentuated antique styling
- monumentality of images
- the predominance of the Doric order (without excessive decorations)
Outstanding projects of this time:
- architectural composition of the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island by Tom de Thomon with the Stock Exchange and Rostral Columns,
- Mining Institute on the Neva Embankment A. Voronikhin,
- the building of the Main Admiralty A. Zakharov.
Classics in modern architecture
The era of classicism is called the golden age of estates. The Russian nobility was actively engaged in the construction of new estates and the alteration of outdated mansions. Moreover, the changes affected not only buildings, but also the landscape, embodying the ideas of the theorists of landscape gardening art.
In this regard, modern classical architectural forms, as the embodiment of the heritage of ancestors, are strongly associated with symbolism: this is not only a stylistic appeal to antiquity, with emphasized splendor and solemnity, a set of decorative techniques, but also a sign of the high social status of the owner of the mansion.
Modern designs of classic houses - a subtle combination of tradition with current construction and design solutions.
