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Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education
Sevastopol State University
Department of Social and Philosophical Sciences
Essay
On the discipline "Philosophy"
On the subject: Philosophical views of Lao Tzu and Confucius
Completed: Art. groups EP-12d
Kolobanova O.V.
Sevastopol 2015
Introduction
1. The life path of Confucius and Lao Tzu
2. The essence of Taoism and Confucianism. Philosophical views of Lao Tzu and Confucius
3. Taoism and Confucianism today
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The German philosopher Karl Jaspers singled out a special period in the history of mankind, the so-called "axial time". According to Jaspers, the "axial time" is approximately the 7th - 2nd centuries. BC, when, according to Jaspers, the foundations of modern civilization and, continuing his thought, philosophy were laid. Simultaneously and independently of each other in various cultural regions, a qualitative shift is taking place in the spiritual and intellectual development of mankind, a fundamentally new worldview is being born. The forerunners of the new worldview and attitude to reality were the Jewish prophets in Palestine, Zarathustra and his followers in Persia, Siddhartha Gautama in India, Lao Tzu and Confucius (although, more correctly, of course, Kung Fu Tzu) in China.
In the galaxy of great teachers and mentors of mankind, who own the minds of people to this day, the names of Confucius and Lao Tzu are one of the key ones. And indeed, if you look into the depths of the structure of human thinking, you can understand that Lao Tzu and Confucius are not verbiage and Pharisees, passing off their false insights as the ultimate truth, but people who managed to penetrate into the essence of things, raise this very thinking to a whole new level.
Eastern philosophy is inseparable from religion, and therefore, from my point of view, Eastern thinkers are an order of magnitude higher than Western ones, because they do not try to split the world into as many parts as possible and study each separately, but perceive it as a whole (this, in particular, is done by Zen Buddhism). So, we will talk about Confucius with his socio-political coloring of the philosophical concept and about Lao Tzu and the concept of Tao.
1. Life path of Confucius and Lao Tzu
The Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu lived in the 6th - 5th centuries. BC. Nothing is known for certain about his life, although the Chinese historian and philosopher Sima Qian in his work Shi Ji (Historical Notes) placed a short biography of Lao Tzu. He wrote that Lao Tzu’s real name was Li Er (“Lao Tzu” is a nickname, it means “old sage”), that he served as the historian-custodian of the state archives of the Zhou kingdom and it was there that he met Confucius, already by that time who was a famous philosopher. However, Lao Tzu soon left Zhou and went on a wandering trip. Sima Qian mentions a very interesting detail: when the border guard of the Zhou kingdom saw Lao Tzu leaving on his black bull, he stopped him and said that he would not let him through until Lao Tzu left a written statement of his teaching. Lao Tzu complied, leaving a statement of 5,000 characters, and moved on.
Where the Old Sage went and what was his fate, no one knows.
But this, of course, is a beautiful legend and the degree of reliability of the events described by Sima Qian is unknown. And the “work of 5 thousand characters” is the famous book “Tao Te Ching”, the authorship of which is now attributed not only to Lao Tzu, but to a number of philosophers and historians of that time.
Little more is known about Confucius (551 - 479 BC) than about Lao Tzu. As the same Sima Qian writes, “Confucius was born in the village of Zou, Changling volost, Lu principality. His ancestor, a native of the Sunn, was called Kong Fangshu. From Fangshu was born Boxia, from Box - Shuliang He. Wu He from a girl from the city of Yan, with whom he met in the field, Confucius was born.
Confucius's father was from the class of fe - aristocrats, but of the lowest level. Little information has been preserved about the childhood of the great writer, Confucius admitted: “As a child, I was poor, so I had to do many despised things.”
His further fate is not of particular interest: Confucius's father dies, then his mother, at the age of 19 Confucius marries, etc., but at the age of 28 a significant episode occurs. Confucius takes part in a sacrificial ceremony at the main temple of the Kingdom of Lu. Confucius, by that time already known as an educated person, kept asking about the meaning of each ritual, each even the most insignificant procedure. By this, he evoked bewildered questions: “Who said that the son of a man from Zou understands rituals? He asks for every detail! To this, Confucius replied something like this: “In such a place, asking about every detail is a ritual!” Questioning about the essence of each act or saying will become one of the methods of teaching the Kun teacher to his students, and will even form the basis of the philosophical concept: “If you know, then say what you know, and if you don’t know, then say what you don’t know.”
Confucius was very fond of music and learned from Shi Xiang how to play the qin.
Confucius achieved mastery of the instrument due to the fact that he attached great importance to music in his life:
"Teacher:
I am inspired by songs
Seeking support in rituals
And I end with music.
In the time of Confucius, being educated meant mastering the six arts: performing rituals, understanding music, archery, driving a chariot, being able to read, and knowing mathematics. Needless to say, he achieved perfection in all.
For his wisdom, he was very loved throughout the Celestial Empire and grateful students called him "Teacher of ten thousand generations."
In his declining years, the “Teacher of Ten Thousand Generations” spoke of his life like this: “At the age of fifteen I felt the desire to learn, at the age of thirty I established myself, having reached forty, I was freed from doubts, at fifty I knew the command of Heaven, at sixty my hearing gained penetration, since I was seventy, I have followed the dictates of my heart without violating the measure. At the age of thirty, having “established himself”, Kung Fu Tzu begins work on five books of Ching (I-Ching - “book of changes”, Shu-Ching - historical documents, Shi-Ching - a book of poems, Ling-Ching - a book of rituals, Chun-qiu - a book of events 721-480 BC). And by that time, the concept of the philosophical views of the great Teacher Kun was being formed.
In 429 BC, at the age of 73, surrounded by devoted disciples, the "Teacher of ten thousand generations" left our world.
Of course, a biography can to some extent affect the system of philosophical views, but the main role in this is played by the evolution of the spiritual, intellectual and moral world of the philosopher. I distinguished these three concepts as a classical European, but this should not be done, because they are one and the same.
2. Essence of Taoism and Confucianism. Philosophical views of Lao Tzu and Confucius
So, the key concept of Taoism is Tao.
What is it? The answer lies in the very first chapter of the Tao Te Ching: “The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the permanent Tao. The name that can be named is not a permanent name. The nameless is the beginning of heaven and earth (...) He who is free from passions sees the wonderful mystery of the Tao, and who has passions sees it only in its final form.” Thus, to the question of what Tao is, there is no answer that could be denounced in a verbal form. The only concept that is at least somehow close to Tao, accessible to the unenlightened, is “The Harmony of the World,” but, I repeat, it cannot even serve as part of the definition of Tao.
If Tao cannot be named, how can one know it? The tool for knowing Tao is self-knowledge, the tool for perceiving Tao is self-transformation, and the tool for self-transformation is Te, a kind of higher energy that fills a person, serving as a kind of “guide to Tao”. And the main principle of Taoism is non-action. This is "written in black and white" in many chapters: "It's better to do nothing than strive to fill something..." (#9), "A person with a higher de does not strive to do good deeds..." (#38) , “Without leaving the yard, you can know the world (...) Without acting, he succeeds” (No. 47) and so on.
Now let's look from the point of view of teacher Kuhn. Ritual is central to the philosophy of Confucius. It is understood as a form of symbolic thinking, as the principle of a hierarchical understanding of being, as a method of structuring the cosmos and society. The performance of the ritual is the path to enlightenment. In the book "Lunyu" it is written:
"Master Yu said:
Of the purposes of the ritual, harmony is the most valuable ... "
Still, according to Confucius, it is during the ritual that humanity manifests itself in a person. Confucius became the father of the Chinese tradition and was nicknamed the “teacher of ten thousand generations” precisely because by his behavior, his thoughts and his whole life in general, Confucius made it clear that there is a universal universal order in the world, a certain path that must be followed:
"The teacher said:
Whoever hears about the Way in the morning can die peacefully in the evening.”
Ritual, according to Confucius, is the way to follow this path. The essence of the ritual for teacher Kun is the musical attunement of the soul to the depth of Life.
Ritual for Confucius is also a way to subjugate and control people. But submission here is not conformism and blind obedience to the state system, but a way of following that very universal universal path, maintaining balance and order about the Universe:
"The teacher said:
If you govern with the help of the law, settle by punishing, then the people will beware, but will not know shame. If you rule on the basis of virtue, settle according to ritual, the people will not only be ashamed, but will also express humility.
And what about Lao Tzu? The Old Sage had this to say about the ritual:
“The ritual appears after the loss of justice. Ritual is a sign of lack of trust and devotion. In the ritual - the beginning of turmoil.
But is there antagonism in this?
The philosophy of Confucius is based on virtue. Virtue is the engine of humanity in Confucianism. Virtue, compassion and love for people is the "core" moment:
"The teacher said:
A noble man strives for virtue ... ".
Thus, virtue, following ritual, honoring parents, and philanthropy are tools for self-transformation. These qualities should have a noble husband:
“The teacher spoke about the four virtues of Zichan that a noble husband possesses:
He behaved reverently
Served with reverence the highest,
Was kind to the common people
And treated them fairly."
According to Confucius, this is what leads to enlightenment.
Enlightenment is the foundation of the foundations, the most important category of the philosophy of the East. Enlightenment can be understood and interpreted by different teachings in different ways, but the essence, the deep meaning is always the same - the transition to a qualitatively new level of world perception, pushing the boundaries of personality, consciousness. Philosophical Lao Tzu Confucius
And if Confucius puts virtue at the forefront, then Lao Tzu is inaction. However, there is a paradox here: “A person with the highest de does not strive to do good deeds, therefore he is virtuous (...) he who has the highest philanthropy acts, carrying out non-action.” That is, in principle, the goal is one, but the means to achieve it are different.
According to Confucius, a person enters the Path with the help of virtue and following the ritual. A person transforms himself and, having transformed and gained wisdom, becomes enlightened.
In Taoism, a person does good deeds without doing them, the principle of Taoism is: “Create and educate things; creating, not to possess what is created; setting in motion, not making any effort...” and the like. Allegorically, the main idea of Taoism is set forth in chapter 11 of the Tao Te Ching: “Thirty spokes are connected in one hub to form a wheel, but the use of the wheel depends on the void between the hubs. Vessels are made of clay, but the use of the vessels depends on the emptiness in them. They break through doors and windows to make a house, but the use of the house depends on the emptiness in it. That is why the usefulness of anything that exists depends on emptiness.”
Achievement of the Void, the universal Origin, the eternal All-Being and Non-Being is enlightenment. “In order to master existing things, you need to know the ancient beginning. This is called the Tao principle.” It is written in the Tao Te Ching. By the way, Tao is sometimes interpreted as Emptiness, the Right Order of Things, the Universal Law and the Way to achieve it. All these interpretations are correct, each one reflects some side, a facet of Tao. But it is impossible to fully formulate Tao, because Tao has an infinite number of these sides, Tao is infinity. But how to achieve it? Without violating the natural order of things, without violating entropy, Chaos (which is also the Logos). That is, non-action. Doing nothing, striving for nothing, having no passions and vices, joys and sorrows. Having nothing, a person has everything, because Everything, if you think about it, is Nothing. One can endlessly draw parallels with other Eastern teachings.
So, according to Lao Tzu, a person should not interfere with the natural order of things, the path that will lead him to enlightenment, and should not affect the world in any way. Taoism is outward looking.
Confucius, on the other hand, believed that virtue, following customs, philanthropy, that is, nobility, will lead a person who has transformed himself to enlightenment, to reunion with the Universal order of things. Confucianism is turned inward.
Of course, this distinction is very arbitrary. So conditional that it is impossible to rely on it when studying Taoism and Confucianism. And, of course, there is no antagonism here. Simply, the Taoists and the followers of Confucius considered the same thing, but from several different angles. They converged in many ways, but of course there were differences.
The political views of Confucius and Lao Tzu reflect their philosophical concepts. So, Confucius in the book "Lunyu" wrote:
"The teacher said:
A ruler who relies on virtue is like the northern star, which has stood still in its place among the host of constellations revolving around it.
And, of course, a wise ruler honors the ritual, which, together with virtue, allows him to maintain an optimal political system in the country.
And here is what Lao Tzu said about the perfect ruler: “The best ruler is the one about whom the people know only that he exists. Somewhat worse are those rulers who require the people to love and uplift them. Even worse are those rulers whom the people fear, and worse than all those rulers whom the people despise. Therefore, whoever is not trustworthy is not trusted by people. He who is thoughtful and restrained in words, successfully accomplishes his deeds, and the people say that he follows naturalness.
The views of philosophers are originally refracted in a political context.
Confucius was a politician for some time and successfully conveyed his teaching about a virtuous ruler not only to his students, but also to civil servants. Maybe it had an effect and that's why China was such a great power.
The main idea that united the philosophy of Lao Tzu and Confucius was the idea of balance. That a person should not go to extremes in his life, experience excessive pleasure or grief. The means to achieve this are, respectively, non-action and observance of rituals.
3. Taoism and Confucianism today
The work of Lao Tzu after his death was continued by two famous philosophers - Le Tzu and Chuang Tzu. They systematized the Taoist concept of world outlook in their fundamental works. In Chuang Tzu we find the saying: “He who has known the Tao will certainly comprehend the law of nature; he who has comprehended the law of nature will certainly master the ability to correspond to the state of things; one who has mastered the ability to correspond to the state of things will not harm himself because of things, fire cannot burn a person of perfect moral qualities, water cannot drown; neither cold nor heat can harm him; neither birds nor beasts can destroy it.” This is a kind of summary, a generalization of the Taoist worldview. Later, the concept of Taoist yoga took place, the meaning of which was the achievement of immortality through the improvement and accumulation of internal energy.
Today, Taoism, of course, is not forgotten, but, nevertheless, fewer and fewer people, both in China and around the world, are becoming adherents of it. In general, it is understandable, since materialistic moods dominate in the world, nobody, in principle, cares about self-knowledge and expansion of one's consciousness.
The last but very unfortunate experience took place in the 1960s in the USA and Europe during the hippie era. The then craze for psychedelic drugs, especially LSD, had a spiritual background. In essence, these were people who were tired of seeing the world in an everyday light. The vast majority turned out to be unprepared for this to expand their consciousness and ended up in psychiatric hospitals. And at the turn of the century it is not at all clear whether something spiritual remains in people.
Confucius, on the other hand, was and is much more in demand than Lao Tzu, since his teaching did not imply a complete detachment from reality, which many people were simply afraid of. Many of Confucius's teachings sound surprisingly modern even now, for example: “When paths are followed under heaven, be in sight, and if there is no path, hide. Be ashamed to become poor and humble when there is a way in the country; be ashamed to become noble and rich when there is no way in it.
In the 18th century, the philosophers of the era of enlightenment predicted the coming of the Kingdom of Reason and Good on Earth in the near future.
In the 19th century positivist thinkers sincerely believed in the messianic mission of science in achieving a just and highly humane society, the progress of science was bound to remove all acute social problems.
Well, in the XX - early XXI centuries. we were destined to experience the collapse of these beautiful-hearted illusions and delusions with bitterness. Our time has proved that the human mind and goodness, contrary to the opinion of Socrates, are not identical things.
Moreover, now they are even incompatible and mutually exclusive.
The development of science was not a solution to the social problems that had matured in society; on the contrary, it exacerbated them, sharply revealing the contradictions underlying modern civilization.
The main contradiction is the growing gap between the technical capabilities of a person and his moral and spiritual level. That is, the primacy of matter over consciousness is what teacher Kun was most afraid of.
Arnold Toynbee believed that, considering the history of cultures, it is legitimate to speak only about the progress of moral tasks, but not about the moral progress of human nature. One may agree with this statement, one may disagree, but the history of mankind makes it clearer and clearer that this is exactly the case, with the rarest exception. Master Kun was just such an exception.
Speaking about European culture, it can be noted that all moral values were set by Christianity. But isn't, according to Christianity, "God is love"? And isn't love a virtue, the highest of goods, according to Confucius?
However, European culture pursued technical perfection, neglecting morality. And what is the result? We have at our disposal weapons of enormous destructive power, but are we ready for this morally and spiritually? Numerous wars and the growing aggression of mankind give a negative answer.
Means proclaimed themselves ends, and we became hostages of our highly developed scientific thought.
When well-known Western philosophers analyze the crisis phenomena of culture, it is either a situation of mass revolt or the morphological correspondences of our time to the decline of the Alexandrian era with its debauchery and neglect of morality. All this testifies to a profound shift in human psychology. How far modern society is from the moral ideals of Confucius!
The famous psychologist Carl Gustav Jung recalled being astounded by the Pueblo Indians' assertion that all Americans were mad. When asked by Jung why they think so, they replied that Americans think with their heads, while all normal people think with their hearts.
By the way, in the era of Confucius in China there was an expression "xin shu" - "heart technique". The possession of xin shu ensured trust, sincerity and cordiality between people. Where is all this now? It was ground by the millstones of civilization.
Conclusion
Lao Tzu's teaching was directed at the "inner man", because, according to him, "the sage takes care of the inner, not the outer", hence the recognition of the insignificance and vanity of everything that is outside the Tao: the corporeal world is only a source of torment, illness and death. . The spiritual world is liberated from suffering and disease, it is the world of immortality. A person who has realized the superiority of the spiritual world realizes that: “Entering life means entering death. Whoever, using true enlightenment, returns to his light, loses nothing when his body is destroyed. This means to put on eternity.” At the same time, Lao Tzu, in essence, did not ascribe complete physical withdrawal from life: not to run away from the world, but only to free oneself from it inwardly, overcoming passions in oneself and doing good everywhere. He preached the path of slow ascent from the foot to the top, from carnal temptations, temptation, wealth, effeminacy to moral purity and beauty. Lao Tzu taught: “To indulge in luxury is the same as showing off stolen goods”, “There is no sin heavier than passions. There is no greater crime than to recognize lust as all-permissive.”
The sage attributed pride, the desire for honors and glory to the worst human vices. He preached virtue, love for all things, simplicity and humility. “I have three treasures that I treasure,” said Lao Tzu, “the first is philanthropy, the second is thrift, and the third is that I do not dare to be ahead of others.”
Compliance with the Tao was a necessary requirement in governing the state, while Laozi recognized the monarchy as a natural system from the point of view of world law. He believed that a wise ruler should be an example of virtue for his people. Hence the sermon: “If princes and kings observed the Tao in all its purity, then all beings themselves would observe it, heaven and earth would merge, wasting refreshing dew, no one would order the people, but he himself would do justice.” Like all great Teachers, Lao Tzu considered war a criminal and unnatural phenomenon, while recognizing the sacred right of the state to protect: "When kings and princes take care of defense, then nature itself will become their helper."
Lao Tzu did not seek to actively influence his contemporaries, he did not found any school. His Tao de jin is one of the least understood books in the world and therefore has not received as wide recognition as the teachings of Confucius. But we must remember that in the chain of the Teachings of Life there are no more or less important ones, each is given "depending on the time, place and consciousness of the people", illuminating the various facets of the Eternal, Boundless and Beautiful Truth.
Bibliography
1. Confucius. Wisdom Lessons. - M: EKSMO, 2002 (series "Anthology of Thought")
2. Tao. Peace Harmony. - M: EKSMO, 2002 (series "Anthology of Thought")
3. E. Wong. Taoism. M: Grand World, 2001
4. Manly Hall. Adepts of the East. M.: Spiritual Literature Publishing House, 2001.-528s.
5. Lukyanov, A. E. Lao Tzu and Confucius: Philosophy of Tao. M., 2001.-384 p.
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The central idea of Lao Tzu's philosophy was the idea of two principles - Tao and Te.
The word "Tao" in Chinese literally means "the way"; one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy. However, in the Taoist philosophical system, it received a much broader metaphysical content. Lao Tzu uses the word "Tao" with particular caution, for "Tao" is wordless, nameless, formless and immovable. No one, not even Lao Tzu, can define "Tao". He cannot define Tao, because to know that you do not know (everything) is greatness. Not to know that you do not know (everything) is a disease. The word "Tao" is just the sound that came out of Lao Tzu's lips. He didn't make it up, he just said it at random. But when understanding arises, words will disappear -- they will no longer be needed. "Tao" means not only the path, but also the essence of things and the total being of the universe. "Tao" is the universal Law and Absolute. The very concept of "Tao" can also be interpreted materialistically: "Tao" is nature, the objective world.
One of the most complex in the Chinese tradition is the concept of "Te". On the one hand, "De" is what nourishes "Tao", makes it possible (opposite: "Tao" nourishes "De", "Tao" is unlimited, "De" is certain). This is a kind of universal force, a principle by which the "Tao" - as the way of things, can take place. It is also the method by which one can practice and conform to the Tao. "De" is a principle, a way of being. This is also the possibility of the correct accumulation of "vital energy" - Qi. "De" is the art of properly disposing of "vital energy", correct behavior. But "De" is not morality in the narrow sense. "De" goes beyond common sense, prompting a person to release the life force from the fetters of everyday life. The concept of "De" is close to the Taoist doctrine of Wu-wei, non-action.
Main ideas. The development of the universe occurs in accordance with certain patterns and principles that cannot be clearly defined. You can, however, call them - although this is not entirely accurate - "Tao". As for "De", one should not strive for it, it arises spontaneously, naturally. "De" manifests itself as a universal pattern of the revealed, manifested world, as the law of Universal Harmony.
The best way to implement "Tao" in the outside world is the principle of wu-wei - unintentional activity.
One should not strive for excessive education, increased erudition or sophistication - on the contrary, one should return to the state of "raw wood", or to the state of "baby". All opposites are inseparable, complementary, interact with each other. This also applies to such opposites as life and death. Death is the end of life, which is at the same time the beginning of another life. And the end of "death" is the beginning of another "life". The point is not in words, concepts, but in what meaning each one attaches to them. Just like the entrance on one side is what is the exit on the opposite side. In ancient Roman mythology, the analogy for this is Janus, the two-faced god of doors, entrances, exits, various passages, as well as beginning and end.
Life is "soft" and "flexible". Death is "hard" and "hard". The best principle for solving problems according to the Tao is renunciation of aggression, concession. This should not be understood as a call for surrender and submission - one should strive to master the situation with as little effort as possible.
The presence in society of rigid normative ethical systems - for example, Confucianism - indicates that there are problems in it, which such a system only exacerbates, being unable to solve them.
The main virtue is temperance.
Ideas are close to the teachings of Advaita - non-duality
Lao Tzu on Truth.
- The truth spoken out loud ceases to be such, because it has already lost its primary connection with the moment of truth.
- "He who knows does not speak; he who speaks does not know."
It is clear from the available written sources that Lao Tzu was a mystic and quietist in the modern sense, teaching a completely unofficial doctrine that relied solely on inner contemplation. Man acquires the truth by liberation from everything false in himself. The mystical experience completes the search for reality. Lao Tzu wrote: “There is an Infinite Being who was before Heaven and Earth. How calm, how calm! It lives alone and does not change. It moves everything, but does not worry. We can consider it the universal Mother. his name. I call him Tao."
Dialectics. The philosophy of Lao Tzu is also permeated with a peculiar dialectic:
· "From existence and non-existence everything has come; from the impossible and possible - execution; from long and short - form.
However, Lao Tzu understood it not as a struggle of opposites, but as their reconciliation. And from here practical conclusions were drawn:
- · "When a person comes to not-doing, then there is nothing that would not be done."
- · "Whoever loves the people and governs them must be inactive."
From these thoughts one can see the main idea of Lao Tzu's philosophy or ethics: it is the principle of non-doing, inaction. Anything violent the desire to do something, to change something in nature or in people's lives is condemned.
- "Many mountain rivers flow into the deep sea. The reason is that the seas are located below the mountains. Therefore, they are able to rule over all streams. So the sage, wanting to be above people, he becomes lower than them, wanting to be in front, he becomes behind Therefore, although his place is above the people, they do not feel his weight, although his place is in front of them, they do not consider this an injustice.
- · "The 'Holy Man', who rules the country, tries to prevent the wise from daring to do anything. When everyone becomes inactive, then (on earth) there will be complete calm."
- · "He who is free from any kind of knowledge will never get sick."
- "There is no knowledge; that's why I don't know anything."
The power of the king among the people Lao Tzu put very high, but he understood it as a purely patriarchal power. In the understanding of Lao Tzu, the king is a sacred and inactive leader. Lao Tzu had a negative attitude towards contemporary state power.
- · "The people are starving because the state taxes are too high and heavy. This is precisely the cause of the disasters of the people."
- · Sima Qian brings together the biographies of Laozi and Han Fei, a Legalist philosopher of the late Warring States era who opposed Confucianism. The treatise "Han Fei-tzu", containing the teachings of the latter, devotes two full chapters to the interpretation of Lao-tzu.
Before speaking, Lao Tzu, one of the greatest sages of China, the founder of Taoism - one of the three religions that peacefully coexist in the life of the Chinese people - it is necessary to devote a few lines to the phenomenon of this amazing country.
The civilization of China, as ancient as the Egyptian and Babylonian, differs from them in its extraordinary duration, already calculated for several millennia. This is the only large state of antiquity, the laws of which, despite the numerous invasions of foreigners, have not undergone influence from outside. The reason for this, according to scientists, lies in the views of the Chinese on their rulers, as the sons of heaven, God's deputies on earth. The only requirement for the ruler is the strict observance of the commands of the gods, which are contained in the old laws. A people that respects a wise government, unquestioningly obeying its ruler, is obliged to openly resist it as soon as the sky indicates its dissatisfaction with the government, sending various natural disasters, famine, etc. to the country. As long as the sovereign is virtuous, the country can never be visited by such disasters. The heavy responsibility felt by every Chinese ruler has always moderated the arbitrariness and despotism of the Chinese monarchy. Naturally, the history of China has not always been a witness to exemplary and wise rule, there was also a golden age and periods of fierce struggle for power. In one of these periods, two sages were granted to China, who laid the foundations of the teachings that to this day form an important part of the life of this country.
The era of the Zhou dynasty is a period of weakening of the central government and the desire for the isolation of individual vassal possessions. In a period of such political ferment, a thinker could treat life and the external world in two ways: either withdraw from public life and delve into his inner world, or actively rush into the whirlpool of events, trying to direct it with his influence. Lao Tzu and Confucius personified these two possible paths.
Lao Tzu was born in 604 BC. in the town of Keku-Zin, near modern Beijing. His real name was Li Er, but his contemporaries called him Lao Tzu, which means "the aged philosopher." Very little is known about his life; it is only known for certain that he served in the imperial archive - a fact that speaks of his high education. It was here in 517 that the famous meeting between Lao Tzu and Confucius, described by the historiographer Si-ma-jian, took place: “The people you are talking about have long since decayed, and only their words have been preserved” and more: “I heard that a good merchant knows how to bury his treasures so deeply, as if he did not have them. The valiant and virtuous must appear unsophisticated in outward appearance. Leave, O friend, your arrogance, various aspirations and mythical plans: all this has no price for your own self. I have nothing more to say to you!” Confucius walked away and said to his disciples: “I know how birds can fly, fish can swim, game can run... But how a dragon rushes through the wind and clouds and rises into the sky, I do not comprehend. Now I have seen Lao Tzu and I think that he is like a dragon.”
“Lao Tzu adhered to the path of Tao and virtue; his teaching aims to remain nameless in the unknown.” Perhaps that is why we know almost nothing about the life of the sage himself. “After living for a long time in Zhou and seeing the decline of the dynasty, Lao Tzu retired. When he reached the border pass, the caretaker of this mountain pass said to him: “I see, sir, that you are going into loneliness, I ask you to write down your thoughts for me in a book.” And Lao Tzu wrote a book on the path (dao) and virtue. Then he left and no one knows where he ended his life.” So says the legend about the origin of the book "Tao-te-jin", consisting of 81 chapters and forming the basis of Taoism. Another legend says that one day, when Lao Tzu reached a ripe old age, a saddled buffalo came to his hut. As soon as the sage got into the saddle, the buffalo carried him to the snowy Himalayas. Nobody saw him again.
Lao Tzu called his teaching the Way (tao), meaning by Tao the world order, manifesting everywhere and indicating the “paths” of human activity. All nature is an external manifestation of Tao, and only before a person, freed from all aspirations and desires, the essence of Tao is revealed. Such immersion in Tao is immortality. Tao is an independent principle, the father and mother of all things, it rules over the laws of heaven and gives life to all creatures. “Tao is the thread of emptiness and non-existence, the root of creation, the basis of the spiritual, the beginning of heaven and earth: there is nothing outside of it, there is nothing so hidden that would not be contained in it.”
From here comes the recognition of the insignificance and vanity of everything that is outside the Tao: the corporeal world is only a source of torment, illness and death. The spiritual world is liberated from suffering and disease, it is the world of immortality. A person who has realized the superiority of the spiritual world realizes that: “Entering life means entering death. Whoever, using true enlightenment, returns to his light, loses nothing when his body is destroyed. This means to put on eternity.” At the same time, Lao Tzu, in essence, did not ascribe complete physical withdrawal from life: do not run away from the world, but only inwardly free yourself from it, overcoming passions in yourself and doing good everywhere. He preached the path of slow ascent from the foot to the top, from carnal temptations, temptation, wealth, effeminacy to moral purity and beauty. Lao Tzu taught: “To indulge in luxury is the same as showing off stolen goods”, “There is no sin heavier than passions. There is no greater crime than to recognize lust as permissive.”
The sage attributed pride, the desire for honors and glory to the worst human vices. He preached virtue, love for all things, simplicity and humility. “I have three treasures that I treasure,” said Lao Tzu, “the first is philanthropy, the second is thrift, and the third is that I do not dare to be ahead of others.”
Compliance with the Tao was a necessary requirement in governing the state, while Lao Tzu recognized the monarchy as a natural system from the point of view of world law. He believed that a wise ruler should be an example of virtue for his people. Hence the sermon: “If the princes and kings observed the Tao in all its purity, then all beings themselves would observe it, heaven and earth would merge, wasting refreshing dew, no one would order the people, but he himself would do what is just.” Like all great Teachers, Lao Tzu considered war to be a criminal and unnatural phenomenon, while recognizing the sacred right of the state to protect: "When kings and princes take care of defense, then nature itself will become their helper."
Lao Tzu's teaching was directed at the "inner man", because, according to him, "the sage cares about the inner, not the outer", he did not seek to actively influence his contemporaries, did not found any school. His Tao-te-jing is one of the least understood books in the world and therefore has not received as wide recognition as the teachings of Confucius. But we must remember that in the chain of the Teachings of Life there are no more or less important ones, each is given "depending on the time, place and consciousness of the people", illuminating the various facets of the Eternal, Boundless and Beautiful Truth.
Laozi (Old Child, Wise Old Man; Chinese exercise 老子, pinyin: Lǎo Zǐ, VI century BC), ancient Chinese philosopher of the VI-V centuries BC. BC, to whom the authorship of the classic Taoist philosophical treatise "Tao Te Ching" is attributed. Within the framework of modern historical science, the historicity of Laozi is questioned, however, in the scientific literature he is often still identified as the founder of Taoism. In the religious and philosophical teachings of most Taoist schools, Laozi is traditionally revered as a deity - one of the Three Pure Ones.
Treatise Tao Te Ching written in ancient Chinese, which is difficult to understand today's Chinese. At the same time, its author deliberately used ambiguous words. In addition, some key concepts do not have exact matches either in English or in Russian. James Leger, in his preface to the translation of the treatise, writes: "The written signs of the Chinese language represent not words, but ideas, and the sequence of these signs represents not what the author wants to say, but what he thinks." . According to tradition, the author of the book is Lao Tzu, so sometimes the book is called by his name. However, some historians question his authorship; it is assumed that the author of the book could be another contemporary of Confucius - Lao Lai-tzu. One argument for this view is the words in the Tao Te Ching written in the first person.
...All people hold on to their "I", only I chose to give it up. My heart is like the heart of a foolish man - so dark, so obscure! The everyday world of people is clear and obvious, only I live in a vague world, like evening twilight. The everyday world of people is painted to the smallest detail, only I live in an incomprehensible and mysterious world. Like a lake, I am calm and quiet. Unstoppable like the breath of the wind! People always have something to do, only I live like an ignorant savage. I alone differ from others in that above all I value the root of life, the mother of all living things.
THE TEACHING OF LAO TZI
Around the 6th century BC e. there was a doctrine of semi-legendary
philosopher Lao Tzu, whose name literally means "old
philosopher." The teachings of Lao Tzu were expounded from his words and
edited after as a small but interesting
philosophical work - "Tao-te-ching" ("The Book of Tao"), before
which is a collection of aphorisms, wise, but sometimes
strange and mysterious sayings. The central idea of philosophy
Lao Tzu was the idea of the Tao. The word "dao" in Chinese
literally means the way; but in this philosophical system it
received a much broader metaphysical, religious
method, principle. The very concept of "dao" can be interpreted and
materialistically: Tao is nature, the objective world.
The philosophy of Lao Tzu is also permeated with a peculiar dialectic.
"From being and non-being everything came; from the impossible and
possible - execution; from long and short - form.
produce harmony with the lower, the former subjugates
the next." "Out of the imperfect comes the whole. From
curved - straight. From deep - smooth. From the old
new.” “What shrinks expands; what
weakens, - increases; that which is destroyed
recovering." However, Lao Tzu understood it not as a struggle
opposites, but as their reconciliation. And from here they made
practical conclusions: "when a person comes to non-doing, then
there is nothing that has not been done"; "Who loves the people and
governs him, he must be inactive." From these thoughts
the main idea of philosophy, or ethics, Lao Tzu is visible: this
the principle of non-doing, inaction, quietism. Every aspiration
do something, change something in nature or in life
people are condemned. Evil considers Lao Tzu and all knowledge:
The "holy man" who rules the country tries to prevent the wise from
dare to do something. When everything is done
inactive, then (on earth) there will be complete calm.
"He who is free from all kinds of knowledge will never be
sick." "Who knows the depth of his enlightenment and remains in
ignorance, he will become an example to the whole world.” “There is no knowledge;
that's why I don't know anything." "When I do nothing,
the people are getting better; when I am calm, then the people are done
fair; when I'm not doing anything new, then
people get rich...
The power of the king among the people Lao Tzu put very high, but
understood it as a purely patriarchal power: "Tao is great,
the sky is great, the earth is great, and finally the king is great. So in
there are four greatnesses in the world, one of which is
king". In the understanding of Lao Tzu, the king is sacred and
inactive leader. To the modern state
authorities Lao Tzu was negative: "That's why the people
starves that the state is too big and heavy
taxes. This is the cause of the misery of the people."
The main virtue is temperance. "In order to
to serve heaven and govern the people, it is best to observe
bngdepf`mhe. Temperance is the first step of virtue,
which is the beginning of moral perfection."
The teachings of Lao Tzu served as the basis on which the
the so-called Taoist religion, one of the three dominant
now in China.
Main ideas:
One should not strive for excessive education, increased erudition or sophistication - on the contrary, one should return to the state of "raw wood", or to the state of "baby". All opposites are inseparable, complementary, interact with each other. This also applies to such opposites as life and death. Life is "soft" and "flexible". Death is "hard" and "solid". The best principle of solving problems according to the Tao is renunciation of aggression, concession. This should not be understood as a call for surrender and submission - one should strive to master the situation without making too much effort. The presence in society of rigid normative ethical systems - for example, Confucianism - indicates that there are problems in it, which such a system only exacerbates, being unable to solve them.
The central idea of Lao Tzu's philosophy was the idea of two principles - Dao And De.
The word "Dao" in Chinese literally means "the way"; one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy. However, in the Taoist philosophical system, it received a much broader metaphysical content. Lao Tzu uses the word "Tao" with particular care, for "Tao" is wordless, nameless, formless and immovable. No one, not even Lao Tzu, can define Tao. He cannot define "Tao" because to know that you do not know (everything) is greatness. Not knowing that you don't know (everything) is a disease. The word "Tao" is just a sound from Lao Tzu's lips. He didn't make it up - he just said it at random. But when understanding arises, words will disappear - they will no longer be needed. . "Tao" means not only the way, but also the essence of things and the total being of the universe. "Tao" is the universal Law and Absolute. The very concept of "Tao" can also be interpreted materialistically: "Tao" is nature, the objective world.
One of the most difficult in the Chinese tradition is the concept of "De". On the one hand, “De” is what feeds “Tao”, makes it possible ( option from the opposite: "Tao" feeds "De", "Tao" - unlimited, "De" - defined). This is a kind of universal force, the principle by which the "Tao" - as the way of things, can take place. It is also the method by which one can practice and conform to the Tao. “De” is a principle, a way of being. This is the possibility of the correct accumulation of "vital energy" - Qi. "De" - the art of properly disposing of "vital energy", correct behavior. But "De" is not morality in the narrow sense. "De" goes beyond common sense, prompting a person to release the life force from the fetters of everyday life. The Taoist doctrine of Wu-wei, inaction, is close to the concept of "De".
The incomprehensible Te is that what fills the form of things, but it comes from the Tao. Tao is what drives things, its path is mysterious and incomprehensible. ... He who follows the Tao in his deeds, ... purifying his spirit, enters into an alliance with the power of Te
Lao Tzu on Truth
“The truth spoken out loud ceases to be such, for it has already lost its primary connection with the moment of truth.”
"He who knows does not speak; he who speaks does not know."
It is clear from the available written sources that Lao Tzu was a mystic and quietist in the modern sense, teaching a completely unofficial doctrine that relied solely on inner contemplation. Man acquires the truth by liberation from everything false in himself. The mystical experience completes the search for reality. Lao Tzu wrote: “There is an Infinite Being who was before Heaven and Earth. How serene, how calm! It lives alone and does not change. It moves everything, but does not worry. We may consider him the universal Mother. I don't know his name. I call it Tao."
Religious Taoism
Religious Taoism at the beginning of the Middle Ages is divided into a philosophical and religious direction, which is associated with the collapse of the Qino and Han empires, wars and civil strife. Ancient deities penetrate into Taoism, and their hierarchy is formed; the practice of prayers and meditation leading to immortality (xian) is being revived. Alchemy was also greatly developed (the creation of the "golden pill of immortality"), the practice of yoga and meditation was improved. This new Taoism was called religious Taoism (dao chiao) to distinguish it from the teachings of Laozi and Zhuangzi, who only strive for longevity. The Chinese value longevity as a sign that a person follows the "Tao - the path of heaven and earth", obeys the natural order of things, taking all joys and hardships for granted. Ancient thinkers such as Lezi and the author of the eclectic work Huainanzi, as well as the Way of True Unity school and later schools, Higher Purity and the Way of Perfect Truth, also played a significant role in the formation of Taoism. In modern China, purely religious Taoism is fading away, and of the once major schools, only two have survived: "The Way of Perfect Truth" and "The Way of True One." Religious Taoism (Dao chiao) emphasized the search for immortality. They went to immortality through meditation, ritual practice, alchemy and philosophy. The direction of Taoism (Dao Jiao) was formed from the activities of numerous sects, groups and schools. So in the 12th century, the canon of Taoist texts "Tao Zang" was basically formed. In some schools, the focus is on achieving harmony in the cosmic flows of yin and yang through ritual action; others focus more on meditation practice, breathing exercises, and experiments in mind control over the body. Among the Chinese, who remain faithful to traditions, religious Taoism still plays an organizing role in many folk festivals, and clergymen still practice healing and exorcism: they perform the rite of expelling evil spirits, they seek to establish control over a dangerous excess of Yang power in order to maintain harmony in this way. at the cosmic, social and individual levels. However, the control of energy flows and the attainment of immortality are available only to a few adepts and teachers. Immortality is practiced literally - the acquisition of an incorruptible body, consisting of a certain substance, or symbolically - as an achievement of inner freedom and emancipation of the spirit.
spiritual renewal
In addition to holidays in honor of countless saints, immortals and heroes, the Taoist religion pays great attention to the celebration of the main
rituals of the life cycle (the birth of children, and first of all sons, weddings, funerals), as well as observance of fasts: tutan-zhai (post of dirt and coal), huanglu-zhai (post of the yellow talisman). An important role is given to the celebration of the New Year (according to the lunar calendar). The holiday of He qi ("fusion of the spirit") is secretly celebrated, during which Taoist believers consider themselves free from any sexual restrictions, let alone prohibitions. Taoism emphasizes the maintenance and preservation of male and female energies. Taoists, like Buddhists, attach great importance to the ritual reading of the canon. They believe that in this way moral perfection and spiritual renewal are achieved not only of the religious community, but of society as a whole. In addition, the participants of the ceremony practice meditation and contemplation of religious symbols. Car rental, new conditions. The ritual helps to focus on the main thing in Taoism - on establishing a balance between the forces of yin and yang and on achieving harmony with nature. Taoism "stands" on the fusion of man with nature. Reading the canon also plays a huge role, since it is believed that all its participants and patrons are guaranteed recognition of merit in the spiritual world. The sense of beauty and the desire to merge with the Tao continues to fuel this religion today. Taoism has had a strong influence on literature, art, and other areas of Chinese culture and science; it still pervades the whole of Chinese society. The once closed mystical teaching moved to the level of everyday consciousness. For example, all Chinese medicine - acupuncture, breathing exercises, and so on - came out of Taoist practice. Taoism gave life to many branches of traditional medicine in China. Taoism still has its adherents in China, as well as in Vietnam and Taiwan, but the exact number cannot be established, because a Chinese who participates in Taoist magical rites may be a devoted Buddhist. According to a very rough estimate, by the end of the 20th century, the most zealous Taoists numbered about 20 million people.
qi energy
Taoism views the human body as the sum of the energy flows of the organized substance qi, which is analogous to blood or "life force". The flow of qi energy in the body correlates with the flow of qi energy in the environment and is subject to change. In its concentrated form, chi energy is a kind of seed called jing. This term is sometimes used to refer to sex hormones, but can also refer to a much more subtle area of sexual energy, manifesting itself in the form of emotional and mental reactions. Qi is the inhaled air, later the spirit pneuma) and even some subtlest substance of the spirit, mind or consciousness - shen. Taoism points to a close relationship between the body, mind and environment. Many principles of Chinese medicine and various psychophysical practices follow from this postulate. The management of qi energy has received a direction in breathing exercises. Concentrating, a person had to connect his qi energy with the natural qi energy. Gymnastics made it possible to improve one's internal qi energy in order to achieve longevity and increase human capabilities. Tai Chi Chuan exercises embody the principles formulated in the Tao Te Ching, the most important text of Taoism. It is designed to provide concentrations of jing energy in order to resist the enemy, relying on the power of the earth and the energy of sky qi. Medicine, also using qi energy, restoring the body with the help of acupuncture. Manuscripts (atlases) were created in which meridians were shown - invisible lines along which blood and qi energy flow. Through these channels, the vital organs are nourished, and the balance of yin and yang forces is maintained. These atlases were considered relics and kept away from prying eyes.
Rituals and ceremonies
The religion of Taoism is characterized by colorful festivities, the cult of ancestors, belief in the world of spirits and magical rituals associated with all areas of life - from buying a house to treating ailments. In this religion, there are various kinds of rituals, holidays and meetings. Belonging to a certain clan or family here symbolizes the rituals of the life cycle and sacrifices to ancestors, and the connection of a person with society - the celebration of the New Year, renewal rituals and numerous cults that are dedicated to the most important deities. Best car rental. The meaning of numerous religious rites and rituals is the desire to achieve harmony of fundamental forces - yin and yang in nature, man and society. In houses, to protect against evil spirits, amulets depicting yin and yang symbols surrounded by eight trigrams were hung out (trigrams are eight combinations of interrupted yin and solid yang lines.) They were especially popular before the celebration of the Chinese New Year, when people tried to clean their homes from the influence of the yin force and ensure the patronage of the yang force for the entire coming year. In late January - early February, the Chinese begin preparations for the New Year. They do a general cleaning in the houses, hang red decorations everywhere (it is believed that they bring happiness), give children new clothes and toys. The celebration of the New Year lasts for several days. Shops and various enterprises do not work, people walk on the street, fireworks are arranged. The symbol of the power of heaven and the highest manifestation of yang power is a dragon flying across the sky. In general, according to popular beliefs, dragons were the lords of rain and could take on a variety of guises, for example, they turned into clouds, a beautiful woman or a source. One of the important practical elements related to the daily religious life of people is Feng Shui (or geomancy). Feng Shui is the ability to determine habitats favorable for the living and the dead, where the flows of vital qi energy move freely. Geomancers, who are very popular, give advice on choosing the most favorable places. Houses and settlements must be built according to these rules, the interaction of which gives rise to the world in all its diversity of forms and ensures the harmony of the forces of yin and yang. The most famous and popular deities in Taoism are Zao-wang and Shouxin. Zao-wang is the deity of the hearth, he and his wife constantly look after the life of family members. According to legend, they report the results of their annual observations on New Year's Eve to the heavenly sovereign Yudi. In the folk religion, Yudi is the supreme ruler, to whom the entire universe is subordinate: earth, sky, the underworld, as well as all spirits and gods. The deity Shoushin is the deity of longevity. He was depicted as an old man holding a staff in one hand, to which a gourd (a symbol of the prosperity of offspring) and a paper scroll (a symbol of longevity) are tied, and in the other hand a peach, which is also a symbol of long life, inside which sits a hatched chick.
Lao Tzu (Laozi, Old Baby, Wise Old Man) is a legendary ancient Chinese philosopher and thinker who lived in the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. He is considered the author of the "Tao Te Ching" ("The Book of the Way and Good Power") - a classic Taoist philosophical treatise, the founder of the religious and philosophical direction "Taoism", although many representatives of modern science have great doubts about the historicity of this person.
Lao Tzu was a legendary character and became the object of deification already at an early stage of the existence of Taoism. There is a legend according to which the philosopher, having spent several decades in the mother's womb, saw this world as an old man (this is the reason for the possible translation of the name as "Old Child"). The mythologized biography, combined with the lack of reliable historical information, provides rich ground for speculation about the biography of Lao Tzu. For example, there are versions according to which this legendary character is none other than the great Confucius. There is a legend that tells about the arrival of Lao Tzu to the Chinese land from India, and the Master appeared to the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire as if reborn, without a past.
The most famous and widespread biography of Lao Tzu goes back to the works of the famous historian Sima Qian, who lived around 145-186 BC. e. In his "Historical Notes" there is a chapter entitled "The Life of Lao Tzu Han Fei Tzu." The place of his birth is the kingdom of Chu (South China), the county of Ku, the village of Quren, where he was born in 604 BC. e. For a significant part of his life, Lao Tzu held the position of custodian of the imperial archives and the library of the state in Zhou. In 517 BC. e. his meeting with Confucius took place, which made a very strong impression on the second, especially since Lao Tzu was more than half a century older than him.
As an old man, disillusioned with the world around him, he moved westward to leave the country. When the philosopher approached the border outpost in the Hangu region, he was stopped by Yin Xi, the "guardian of the outpost" and turned to him with a request to tell him about the teachings. This is how a text of five thousand words appeared - the book "Tao Te Ching", which Lao Tzu wrote or dictated and which began to be considered the canonical text of Taoism. After leaving China, the philosopher went to India, preached there, and largely thanks to his teachings, Buddhism arose. Nothing is known about his death or its circumstances.
At the center of Lao Tzu's philosophy is the concept of "dao", a beginning that cannot be known and expressed in words, representing the unity of being and non-being. Using a metaphor, it is compared to water: it is soft, gives the impression of suppleness, but its strength is in fact irresistible. The way of existence dictated by the Tao, the mode of action is non-action, which implies the refusal to fight, non-resistance, the search for harmony. Lao Tzu ordered wise rulers not to wage war and not to live in luxury, but to instill in their peoples the desire to live simply, purely and naturally, according to the customs that existed before the planting of civilization with its morality and culture. Eternal Tao is likened to those who keep peace in their heart, making it impassive. This aspect of the ancient Chinese concept formed the basis for the search for ways to gain physical immortality, characteristic of the later stages of the existence of Taoism.
Laconicism, aphoristic "Tao Te Ching" create fertile ground for versatile interpretations; The book has been translated into a large number of languages, including European ones.
