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Decorative applied 17th-18th century. Russian arts and crafts of the XVIII-XXI centuries

Decorative applied 17th-18th century. Russian arts and crafts of the XVIII-XXI centuries

23.06.2020

The exposition is located on the second floor of the Southern building of the historical and architectural complex of the 18th-19th centuries. "Horse Yard". It introduces museum visitors to a wide range of exhibits representing traditional art crafts and productions in Russia. These are the works of world-famous centers for processing wood and bone, lacquer painting on papier-mâché and metal, leading crafts of clay toys, as well as printed and gold-embroidered scarves made by Russian masters, glassware, porcelain, faience.

These centers are concentrated in the Moscow, Vladimir, Vologda, Ivanovo, Nizhny Novgorod and other regions. The beginning of the collection was laid in the 1920s, when the few works of folk craftsmen, which were among the nationalized treasures of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, were supplemented by exhibits from the Museum of the Local Territory and the Optina Pustyn Museum. In 1941, an extensive collection of the Museum of Folk Art Crafts (MNHR) was transferred to the Sergiev Posad (at that time Zagorsk) Museum. It numbered about forty thousand exhibits, included a number of unique works of folk crafts and works of an experimental nature, made by masters of various art centers in workshops created under the MNHR. Starting from the 1950s, the museum began to purposefully, systematically acquire a collection of Russian traditional arts and crafts, and this work became one of the priority areas of its activity.

A significant place in the exhibition halls is given to the works of folk craftsmen and artists of the Sergiev Posad region. Toys have brought special fame to the city. They were made of wood - carved, turning, carpentry; from papier-mache and mastic - with movement and sound. The museum exhibits carved from trihedral chocks and painted dolls - ladies, hussars, nurses, famous nesting dolls, popular in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. type-setting architectural toys, including the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

The production of toys in the village of Sergiev Posad is inextricably linked with the toy industry. Bogorodskoye. The museum collection of Bogorodsk carved plastics includes toys, sculptures, sculptural compositions and has about four thousand exhibits. Of great interest are the works of the 19th century: “General Skobelev on horseback” - P.F. Bardenkova, "A guide with a bear" - D.I. Puchkov; entertaining multi-figure compositions on the themes of Russian folk tales and the new Soviet reality, made in the 30s of the twentieth century. (works by A.F. Balaev, N.E. Eroshkin, V.T. Polinov, A.G. Shishkin).

The museum has a wide collection of works from the late 19th - early 19th century. 20th century educational toy and art-carpentry workshops in Sergiev Posad and Abramtsev. These are caskets, caskets, pieces of furniture made according to samples developed by famous artists S.V. Malyutin, E.D. Polenova, Ap. M. Vasnetsov, N.D. Bartram, Vl.I. Sokolov and others. The work of the Abramtsevo workshop, which was led by E.D. Polenov, had a direct influence on the formation and development of the craft of Abramtsevo-Kudrin wood carving with its characteristic flat-relief plant pattern. One of the founders of the craft was V.P. Vornoskov. The museum houses several works by the master, including decorative dishes from the early 20th century, the Border Guard portal of 1937.

Along with woodworking, pottery was widespread in Russia, usually toys were sculpted next to the dishes. This art has its roots in paganism, when small figures made of clay, participating in magical rites, played the role of a kind of cult objects. The museum presents collections of toys from Kargopol (Arkhangelsk region), Filimonovo (Tula region), Abashevskaya (Penza region), Skopinskaya (Ryazan region) toys. Of great interest is the Dymkovo toy (Kirov region) of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. These are the works of unknown authors and A.A. Mezrina: nurses, gentlemen, dancing couples, etc. A valuable part of the Dymkovo collection is the work of the 1930s. Among the works of the second half of the twentieth century. The multi-figure composition “Wedding”, made by a group of Dymkovo craftswomen headed by E.I. Koss-Denshina.

Wood was one of the most popular materials in Russia, and crafts for its artistic processing existed in different regions. Along with Sergiev Posad, the museum most fully presents the crafts of the Nizhny Novgorod region - Khokhloma and Gorodets. Light wooden Khokhloma bowls, bratinas, solonitsa, painted with a bright floral pattern and reminiscent of precious golden vessels, were widely known already in the 19th century. Their production was traditionally carried out by the peasants of a number of villages and villages located on the territory of the modern Koverninsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod region. Among the exhibits of the museum collection are samples of peasant dishes of the 19th century. and furniture of the 1930s with painting on white and silver backgrounds, unusual for Khokhloma.

The Gorodetsky craft began to take shape at the end of the 18th century, when the peasants of a number of small villages located not far from the large trading village of Gorodets began to make a bottom for spinning wheels for sale. Women sat on them during work, having fastened a high comb with a linen or woolen tow in a special hole. Nevertheless, they tried to make the bottom beautiful: it was the pride of the hostess, it was valued and cherished, and after work it was placed on the wall as a decoration of the house. In the decoration of the Donets, they used a very rare in Russian folk art technique of inlaying with pieces of dark bog oak. By the 1870s, they switched from carving with inlay to painting, with quick painterly strokes depicting lush "rosans", horsemen, scenes of tea drinking and festivities. By the 1920s, the need for donets had disappeared, and Gorodets masters began to widely use their painting skills in decorating other items: boxes, caskets, decorative panels, toys.

The Gorodets collection of the museum not only allows us to trace the main stages in the development of this center from the end of the 18th to the end of the 20th centuries, but also gives an idea of the work of almost all the masters who left a noticeable mark on its history. The collection includes works recognized as "classical" examples of Gorodets art: Donets A.V. and L.V. Melnikovs, G.L. Polyakov, V.K. Smirnov, panel I.K. Mazin, the screen of I.K. Lebedev and D.I. Kryukov and others.
Russian artistic varnishes are world famous. The museum collection allows you to reflect their history and introduces you to all the major centers of lacquer painting. The museum exhibits painted metal trays from Nizhny Tagil and Zhostovo (Moscow region), "lacquer" products made from papier-mâché of the 19th - 20th centuries. near Moscow with. Fedoskino, as well as the centers of the Ivanovo and Vladimir regions: Palekh, Kholuy and Mstera, where the art of lacquer miniature was developed only in Soviet times and was based on the established traditions of icon painting. Since the 1830s, in the workshop of O.F. Vishnyakova, located in the village of Zhostovo, along with papier-mâché products, began to manufacture metal trays. Gradually, the fishery acquired an independent significance. In the decoration of trays, preference began to be given to flower arrangements painted with juicy pictorial strokes.

Of particular value is the collection of Palekh lacquer miniatures from 1920-1930, which includes works of a very high artistic level. Among them are the works of artists who were part of the “Palekh artel of ancient painting” formed in 1924: A.V. Kotukhina, I.V. Markicheva, I.M. Bakanova, I.P. Vakurova, I.I. Zubkov and others, including virtuosic in execution of the work of the founder of lacquer painting in Palekh I.I. Golikov.

The history of the centers near Moscow (the village of Fedoskino and the village of Zhostovo) goes back to the end of the 18th century, when the merchant P.I. Korobov organized an enterprise for the manufacture of papier-mâché lacquerware in the village. Danilkove, located near the village. Fedoskino. The industry soon spread throughout the region. The museum collection presents the work of the Lukutin factory (successors of P.I. Korobov) and small peasant enterprises in the villages of Ostashkovo, Zhostovo, Sorokino and others located in the Troitskaya volost of the Moscow district. The earliest pieces in the collection date back to the middle of the 19th century. The products of these workshops are stylistically homogeneous: boxes, caskets, cigarette cases, wallets, papier-mâché snuff boxes are decorated with picturesque, realistically interpreted miniatures with a pronounced national theme. Traditional depictions of “troikas”, “tea parties”, scenes from peasant life, as a rule, are free copies of easel paintings and graphic works by Russian artists.
A prominent place in the exposition is given to the collection of Russian scarves and shawls. These are shawls and other products of Tver and Nizhny Novgorod craftswomen embroidered with “gold” threads, and elegant stuffed shawls of the leading Moscow and Moscow Region enterprises of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The largest, and currently the only one in Russia, manufacturer of woolen printed scarves and shawls is Pavlovsky Posad near Moscow, where their production was mastered in the early 1860s at a factory owned by merchants Ya.I. Labzin and V.I. Gryaznov. The production of shawls was almost entirely by hand. Patterns were applied to the fabric using carved wooden boards, “flower” and “manners”. The favorite motif of the drawings of Pavlovian shawls, as well as Zhostovo trays, were images of flowers. Among the exhibits of the museum are Pavlovsky Posad shawls of different times. These are scarves of the legendary draftsman of the 19th century. S.V. Postigov "Horseshoe" and "Adjustable" and the works of our contemporaries E.P. Regunova, K.S. Zinovieva, I.P. Dadonova and others.

Artistic crafts are a significant part of the national culture of Russia. The works presented in the museum testify to the great talent of Russian masters, the fine artistic taste and originality of their talent.

A very attractive and diverse material for Russian craftsmen in terms of its decorative qualities and technical capabilities is bone. Already in the XVII century. traditions of bone-carving art began to develop in the area of the settlement of Kholmogory, Arkhangelsk province. Kholmogory craftsmen, along with the tarsus (common animal bone), used the bone of a walrus, less often a mammoth, products from which were especially valued. The most popular goods were combs, boxes, caskets and caskets, decorated with the finest floral patterns, images of animals and birds, made with openwork carving and engraving. In the second half of the XIX - early XX century. bone carving was carried out in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and Sergiyev Posad, as evidenced by the signature icon “Trinity” of 1869, presented in the exhibition, made by Ivan Ilyin (monk Jonah), and a small ivory icon depicting Sergius of Radonezh, the work of local master I .WITH. Khrustachev.

The traditions of miniature bone and wood carving that developed here influenced the formation of bone carving in the second half of the 40s of the last century in the city of Khotkovo, located not far from Sergiev Posad. The originality of this center was manifested in the use of various bone processing techniques, the combination of bone with wood, and the widespread use of the tarsus. These features were especially vividly embodied in the works of the 1950s, in particular, in the box by V.E. Loginov "Michurin", the bone inserts of which are masterfully executed in the original technique of multifaceted relief. The museum exposition also provides an opportunity to get acquainted with the works of traditional crafts of artistic bone processing that have developed in the east of Russia: Tyumen (Tobolsk), Yakutia, Chukotka. The identity of each of them is based on the ethnic and artistic traditions of the local population.

Over the years of the museum's existence, the richest collection of Russian glass and porcelain has been collected. These types of applied arts developed rapidly in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. In the halls of the museum, you can see the products of the factories of that time, diverse in purpose, form, execution technique and style: the imperial porcelain and glass factories in St. examples of Russian glass and ceramics, such as engraved glass goblets of the 18th century. or majolica products made at one of the first ceramic factories in Russia, opened in 1724 in Moscow by the merchant A.K. Grebenshchikov. The museum has a wonderful collection of porcelain sculptures, including a variety of genre sculptures and a whole series - "Peoples of Russia", which in the XIX century. repeatedly renewed at the factories near Moscow Gardner and Kuznetsov.
The collection of glass and porcelain of the Soviet and post-Soviet period is represented mainly by works of 1960-1980, made by leading masters and artists of the largest factories in Russia. In the history of domestic porcelain, the Leningrad Porcelain Factory named after M.V. Lomonosov (former Imperial) and two factories near Moscow: Dmitrov Porcelain Factory (former Gardner) and Dulevo Porcelain Factory named after the Pravda newspaper (former Kuznetsovsky). These enterprises are two distinctive and vibrant schools with their own style, high culture of working with materials and rich traditions. The difference between the two schools of porcelain is that they inherited different historical layers of Russian culture: the Moscow one was guided by the folk tradition, the Leningrad one was guided by the highly professional art of the 18th-19th centuries, which was in line with the all-European development.

In the museum collection there are refined and solemn works of artists of St. Petersburg (Leningrad), distinguished by a delicate artistic taste and a classic sense of proportion: A.V. Vorobyevsky, A.A. Yatskevich, V.M. Gorodetsky, N.P. Slavina, I.S. Olevsky; consonant in form and painting with the people's understanding of beauty, bright, life-affirming works of artists of the Moscow region: P.V. Leonova. VC. Yasnetsova, N.N. Ropova and others. In the exhibition you can also get acquainted with the collection of glass and crystal of the second half of the 20th century. Tableware forms, decorative vases and sets, three-dimensional compositions, glass plastics are made using a variety of techniques and technologies by leading artists of the oldest glass factories in Russia. This is a plant in the city of Gus-Khrustalny, Vladimir Region (E.I. Rogov, S.P. Verin, V.V. Korneev, V.A. Filatov, V.S. Muratov); the Krasny May glass factory in the Vyshnevolotsky district of the Tver region (A.M. Silko, S.M. Beskinskaya); Dyatkovo Crystal Factory (M.V. Grabar, V.V. Soiver, V.Ya. Shevchenko).

The pride of the museum collection is a fairly significant collection of the Leningrad Art Glass Factory, whose activities are associated with the work of such masters of applied art as L.O. Jurgen, A.A. Astvatsaturyan, A.M. Ostroumov, E.V. Yanovskaya, Kh.M. Pyld, B.A. Eremin, Yu.M. Byakov. Most of the works made of glass and porcelain are unique samples created for the largest international or all-Russian exhibitions. Thus, in terms of its diversity, the completeness of the representation of individual centers, the high artistic level of the works included in it, the museum collection of Russian traditional arts and crafts can be classified as one of the best in the country. The works that make it up testify to the great talent of Russian masters, the subtle artistic taste and originality of their talent.

Changes in everyday life and their impact on arts and crafts. Features of the ornament and decor of the artistic styles of baroque, rococo, classicism.

Silver and gold business: Petersburg school, Moscow craftsmen and manufactories, black silver of Veliky Ustyug. New types of tableware made of precious and non-ferrous metals: teapots, coffee pots, bouillottes, samovars. Household and church utensils. State regalia. Orders and medals. Enamels. Enamel artists A.G. Ovsov, G.S. Musikisky.

The emergence of Russian porcelain. D.I. Vinogradov. Imperial and private porcelain factories. Majolica, faience. Art glass. Decorative fabrics and tapestries. New in clothes. Cabinet and type-setting furniture. Marquetry. Wood carving in civil and church interiors. Crews. Decorative rock. Cameos.

Artistic folk crafts. Carved and inlaid donets of Gorodets. Bone carving Kholmogor. Gold embroidery of the Tver province. Lace of Galich and Vologda. Gzhel ceramics.

Music and theater in the 18th century

Multi-voiced choral singing. Kants. Instrumental music and orchestras. Opera art. Ballet. Music in court, urban and peasant life. The emergence of the national school of composers. E.I. Fomin. I.E.Khandoshkin. D.S. Bortnyansky. M.S. Berezovsky. A.O. Kozlovsky.

Attempts to create a public public theater under Peter the Great. Amateur performances at the court. School theaters in spiritual and secular educational institutions. Professional troupes of foreign actors.

Dramaturgy of Russian classicism: tragedies and comedies. The influence of sentimentalism on the theater repertoire. The appearance of drama and comic opera on the Russian stage. A.P. Sumarokov - playwright and theatrical figure. Founder of the Russian professional theatre, actor and director F. G. Volkov. His friend and follower I.A. Dmitrevsky. Mass theatrical performances.

Fortress theatre. Troupe of Count P.B. Sheremetev. P.I. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova, T.V. Shlykova-Granatova and other artists. Palace-theater in Ostankino. People's Theatre.

ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF THE MAIN MUSEUM COLLECTIONS MENTIONED IN THE LIST OF CULTURAL MONUMENTS

BAN - Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg)

VMDPNI - All-Russian Museum of Decorative, Applied and Folk Art (Moscow)

GIM - State Historical Museum (Moscow)

GMGS - State Museum of Urban Sculpture (St. Petersburg)

GMMK - State Museums of the Moscow Kremlin (Moscow)

GNIMA - State Research Museum of Architecture (Moscow)

GOP - State Armory Chamber (Moscow)

State Russian Museum - State Russian Museum (St. Petersburg)

State Tretyakov Gallery - State Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow)

State Hermitage Museum (St. Petersburg)

ZIKhMZ - former Zagorsk (now Sergiev-Posad) historical and art museum-reserve (Sergiev Posad, Moscow region)

MIDU - Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine (Kyiv)

MPIB - Museum of Applied Arts and Life of the 17th century "The Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles and the Patriarchal Chambers in the Moscow Kremlin" (Moscow)

NGM - Novgorod United State Museum-Reserve (Novgorod)

NGP - Novgorod Chamber of Facets (Novgorod)

SHM - Samara Art Museum (Samara)

MONUMENTS OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

SECTION I. HISTORY OF RUSSIAN CULTURE OF ANCIENT AND MIDDLE AGES

(BEFORE THE END OF THE XVII CENTURY)

FOLK WOODEN ARCHITECTURE

RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS

1. Klet churches: Church of Lazarus from the Murom Monastery (14th-16th centuries) - Kizhi Nature Reserve; Church of the Deposition of the Robe from the village of Borodava (15th century) - Kirillo-Belozersky Museum-Reserve; Church of the Transfiguration from the village of Spas-Vezhi (17th century) - Kostroma Museum-Reserve; St. Nicholas Church from the village of Tukholya (17th century) - Novgorod Museum-Reserve "Vitoslavlitsy"; the chapel of Michael the Archangel from the village of Lelikozero (18th century) - the Kizhi Museum-Reserve; Church of St. Nicholas from the village of Glotova (18th century) - Suzdal Museum-Reserve.

2. Tent churches: St. Nicholas Church in the village of Lyavlya (16th century); the Church of St. George from the village of Vershina (17th century) - the Arkhangelsk Museum-Reserve "Small Korely"; Resurrection Church from the village of Patakino (18th century) - Suzdal Museum-Reserve; Church of the Assumption (18th century) in the city of Kondopoga.

The style of the middle of the century also affects the arts and crafts. Porcelain items, such as Elizaveta Petrovna's "Own" service, and other materials are characterized by curvilinear shapes, as well as juicy stucco ornamentation, ascending in pattern to a shell and flexible plant shoots. The whimsical silhouette of objects is organically combined with bright colors, an abundance of gilding, and the brilliance of mirror surfaces that complement the festive picture of the interior.

Painting of the first half of the 18th century

Since the Petrine era, painting has undergone tremendous changes. The art of easel painting with its semantic and compositional features is taking shape. The reverse perspective is being replaced by the direct and related transmission of the depth of space. The most important feature is the image of the figure in accordance with the principles of anatomical correctness. New means of conveying volume are emerging. The most important quality is chiaroscuro, displacing the conditionally symbolic contour line. The very technique of oil painting, with its specific techniques and the system of color relationships, is firmly, although not immediately, included in artistic use. Enhances the sense of texture. The artist acquires the ability to convey the specific properties of soft velvet, harsh ermine fur, heavy gold brocade and fine lace. In the plot picture, one can trace the new principles of the interconnection of figures. The depiction of a naked body is a new and most difficult task. The very structure of painting becomes more ramified. Since the beginning of the 18th century, secular art has been cultivating various types of easel works, monumental painting in the form of panels and plafonds, and miniature writing. The portrait includes all known varieties - ceremonial, chamber, in the usual and costume version, double and double. Artists master allegorical and mythological subjects. The presence of these features, although they appear at first in a compromise form, allows us to speak about the emergence of a new type of painting.

The first steps towards the formation of a portrait are associated with the activities of the painting workshop of the Armory. Works made by Russian and foreign masters, by their nature, gravitate towards the parsuna. Of all the typological variants, the parsuna prefers the ceremonial portrait and is found in this capacity in several varieties. Among them, the “portrait-thesis” is the most archaic. It combines portrait images and numerous explanatory inscriptions within the conventional icon space. You can also talk about the "portrait-apotheosis". These are portraits-paintings symbolizing the feats of arms of Peter I. Ordinary portraits of Peter, Menshikov, Sheremetev in full growth and on horseback are also common.

Space is treated everywhere in a very stereotypical way, and the general arrangement of objects rather serves as a symbolic designation of real spatial relationships. The problem of internal and external space is solved in the same conditional way in terms of meaning and scale. Parsuna somewhat deviates from the richness of color typical of the icon painting of the 17th century. However, the scrupulous transfer of the ornamentation of the robes and various details gives the canvases an increased decorative sound.

The master still does not fully master the new principles of volume transfer, combining emphatically convex painted faces and planar patterned robes. The large size of the canvases, their imposing spirit, the richness of the furnishings and the jewels on display are intended to illustrate the social significance of the depicted. The image is autonomous, it is focused on itself and indifferent to others. Painting, which has not yet matured to convey the individual, in its own way tries to notice the features inherent in this character. However, the general and the individual have not yet been merged into an organic unity, and specific properties barely show through under the consolidated typifying mask.

The parsuna line, which existed for a relatively short time, mainly in the 80s and especially in the 90s of the 17th century, subsequently collides with a very strong flow of works by foreigners and retired artists that practically supplanted it. At the same time, one should not think that it turned out to be an accidental episode in the general process of the development of the Russian portrait. Being pushed back from the main positions, the parsuna continued to exist. In addition, its features appeared in the work of a number of advanced artists as evidence of an unfinished transition from medieval writing to a new style. As such, it can be found in the works of I. Nikitin, I. Vishnyakov and A. Antropov.

Traces of parsonism are also found in the second half of the 18th century, especially in the works of serf or provincial artists who independently came to the new art, as a rule, starting from icon painting. Let us note that parsing as an artistic phenomenon exists not only in the Russian school, but also in Ukraine and Poland. It is also found in Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and even in the countries of the Middle East, i.e., where painting in a similar historical situation is experiencing a fundamentally similar familiarization with the art of the new time and secular art.

The history of Russia at the end of the 17th - the first quarter of the 18th century is inseparable from the name of one of the largest political figures in Russia - Peter I. Significant innovations at this time invade not only the field of culture and art, but also industry - metallurgy, shipbuilding, etc. At the beginning of the 18th century, the first mechanisms and machine tools for metal processing appeared. Much in this area was done by Russian mechanics Nartov, Surnin, Sobakin and others.

At the same time, the foundations of the state system of general and special education are being laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was established, under which a department of artistic crafts was opened.

A. Nartov. Lathe. Peter's era. 18th century

In the 18th century, new principles of architecture and urban planning were formed. This period was marked by an increase in the shaping of products of the characteristic features of the Western European Baroque (Holland, England).

As a result of the undertakings of Peter I, items of traditional Russian forms quickly disappear from the royal and aristocratic life of the palace, still remaining in the dwellings of the masses of the rural and urban population, as well as in church use. It was in the first quarter of the 18th century that a significant difference in stylistic development was outlined, which remained for a long time characteristic of professional creativity and folk art crafts. In the latter, centuries-old traditions of Russian, Ukrainian, Estonian, etc. applied art are developed directly and organically.

The norms of noble life require a demonstration of wealth, sophistication and brilliance in the life of a sovereign person. The forms of the old way of life, including Peter's (still business-like, strict), were finally forced out by the middle of the 18th century. The dominant position in Russian art is occupied by the so-called Rococo style, which logically completed the trends of the late Baroque. The ceremonial interiors of this time, for example, some rooms of the Peterhof and Tsarskoye Selo palaces, are almost entirely decorated with elaborate carvings.

The general features of rocaille ornamentation (curvature of lines, abundant and asymmetrical arrangement of stylized or lifelike flowers, leaves, shells, eyes, etc.) are fully reproduced in Russian architecture and furniture of that time, ceramics, clothing, carriages, ceremonial weapons, etc. However, the development of Russian applied art nevertheless took a completely independent path. Despite the undeniable similarity of the forms of our own products with Western European ones, it is not difficult to notice the differences between them. So, but in comparison with the French, Russian furniture products have much freer forms and are softer in outline and drawing. Masters still retained the skills of folk carving, larger and more generalized than in the West. No less characteristic is the polychromy of Russian products and the combination of gilding and painting, which is rare in France, but accepted everywhere in Russia.

From the 60s of the 18th century, the transition to classicism began in Russian architecture with its laconic and strict forms, turned to antiquity and marked by great restraint and elegance. The same process occurs in applied art.

In the planning, equipment and decoration of city mansions and palaces (architects Kokorinov, Bazhenov, Quarenghi, Starov, etc.) there is a clear symmetry, proportional clarity. The walls of the premises (between windows or opposite them) are hidden by mirrors and panels made of silk damask, decorative cotton fabrics, and cloth.

Sofa - Rococo style. Russia (detail). Mid 18th century

Classic style armchair. Russia. Second half of the 18th century

The floors are made of wood of various species, and sometimes covered with canvas or cloth; ceilings are painted (for example, the grisaille technique imitating relief molding). Instead of stacked parquet, spruce plank "under wax" floors are used. Walls and ceilings are often upholstered with fabric or wallpapered. If marble fireplaces of impressive size are arranged in the front rooms, then more traditional stoves on pedestals or legs, lined with tiles, are erected in the intimate chambers. The difference between the lamps is just as noticeable: in the halls - these are jewelry-made and expensive chandeliers, candelabra, sconces, in the chambers - much more modest candlesticks and lamps. There is even more contrast in the forms of front and household furniture. All this speaks not so much about the desire of the owners of palaces and mansions to save money, but about their consideration of the objective environment as an important factor in the psychologically appropriate atmosphere.

Most furniture and a number of other products at the end of the 18th-first half of the 19th century were not constantly needed; if there was no need, they were either removed or transferred to inactively used parts of the premises. Seating furniture must be covered. In the same connection, transformable furniture with a working plane - tea and card tables, a folding dining table, a table for needlework, a system of tables of different heights that fit under each other, etc. a variety of appearance of premises in various everyday situations. At the same time, a number of domestic processes that took place outside the building during the warm season - on the terrace and in the park - were highlighted. As a result, new types of products are spreading - landscape gardening furniture, umbrella awnings, park lamps, etc. In the 18th century, serf workshops were organized at individual estates, producing rather large batches of furniture, porcelain, rugs and other products.

At the end of the 18th century, in the equipment of large palaces, the separation of the actual design of products (furniture, lamps, clocks, tapestries and other utensils and decorations) as a special area of \u200b\u200bcreative activity from their handicraft production already significantly affects. The designers are mainly architects and professional artists. In the production of products for the mass market, machines and mechanical methods of processing materials are used, turning the engineer into a leading figure in production. This leads to a distortion and loss of the high aesthetic qualities inherent in consumer goods, to the separation of industry from art. This trend was natural in the conditions of the capitalist development of society and one of the main ones for the entire 19th century.

In the course of the intensive development of capitalist relations in Russia in the 19th century, the capacities of industrial production increased. By the middle of the 19th century, the need for artistically professional staff of product developers and craftsmen was already acutely felt. For their training, specialized educational institutions are opened in Moscow (Count Stroganov) and St. Petersburg (Baron Stieglitz). Their very name - "technical drawing schools" - speaks of the emergence of a new type of artist. Since 1860, a special craft education of master performers has been developed. Many books are published on the technology of processing various materials: wood, bronze, iron, gold, etc. Trade catalogs are published, replacing the previously published magazine "Economic Store". Since the middle of the 19th century, sciences related to issues of occupational health and the use of household items have been formed. However, throughout the 19th century, all mass factory production in artistic terms remained completely subordinate to the undividedly dominant idea of beauty as a decorative and ornamental design of products. The consequence of this was the introduction into the form of most of the products of the style elements of classicism: complex profile completions, fluted columns, rosettes, garlands, ornaments based on antique motifs, etc. In a number of cases, these elements were introduced into the forms of even industrial equipment - machine tools.

In the stylistic development of applied art and household products in the 19th century, three main periods are conventionally distinguished chronologically: the continuation of the tendencies of classicism in line with the so-called Empire style (the first quarter of the century); late classicism (about 1830-1860) and eclecticism (after the 1860s).

The first quarter of the 19th century was marked by a general upsurge in ideological and building scope in Russian architecture, which caused a significant revival in applied art as well.

Empire style armchair. First quarter of the nineteenth century.

The victory in the war of 1812 to a certain extent accelerates and completes the process of formation of the Russian national culture, which is acquiring a pan-European significance. The activity of the most famous architects - Voronikhin, Quarenghi, Kazakov, closely connected with the classicism of the previous period, falls only on the first decade of the century. They are being replaced by a galaxy of such remarkable masters as Rossi, Stasov, Grigoriev, Beauvais, who brought new ideas and a different stylistic spirit to Russian art.

Strictness and monumentality are characteristic features of the architecture and forms of various household items of the Empire style. In the latter, decorative motifs noticeably change, more precisely, their typology expands through the use of decorative symbols of Ancient Egypt and Rome - griffins, sphinxes, fascia, military attributes (“trophies”), wreaths garlanded, etc. Compared with examples of early classicism in general the amount of decor, its “visual weight” in the compositional solution of products increases. Monumentalization, sometimes, as if coarsening of forms, occurs due to the greater generalization and geometrization of classical ornamental motifs - edging, wreaths, lyres, armor, etc., which are increasingly moving away from their real prototypes. Picturesque (scenes, landscapes, bouquets) painting of objects almost completely disappears. The ornament strives for a spot, contour, applicability. Products for the most part, especially furniture, become large, massive, but diverse in general configuration and silhouette. The heaviness of the Empire style in pieces of furniture almost disappeared already in the 1830s.

From the middle of the 19th century, new searches began in the field of architecture, applied and industrial creativity.

A pan-European artistic movement was born, called "Biedermeier", named after the bourgeois of one of the characters of the German writer L. Eichrodt (the work was published in the 1870s) with his ideal of comfort, intimacy.

Factory iron. Russia. Second half of the 19th century

In the second half of the 19th century, manual labor was further ousted from the production of utilitarian household products. For centuries, the methods and techniques of their artistic solution, the principles of shaping, which have evolved over the centuries, come into conflict with the new economic trends in the mass character and profitability of producing things on the market. The response to the changing situation is twofold. Some masters - the majority of them - make compromises. Considering indestructible the traditional view of all everyday things as an object of decorative and applied art, they begin to adapt the ornamental motifs of classicism to the capabilities of the machine and serial technologies. “Effective” types of decoration and decoration of products appear. As early as the 1830s in England, Henry Cool put forward the outwardly reformist slogan of decorating factory products with elements "from the world of fine arts forms." Many industrialists eagerly take up the slogan, seeking to take advantage of the consumer mass's attachment to the outwardly decorated, ornamentally enriched forms of home furnishings.

Other theorists and practitioners of applied arts (D. Reskin, W. Morris), on the contrary, propose to organize a boycott of the industry. Their credo is the purity of the traditions of medieval crafts.

In the countries of Western Europe and in Russia, for the first time, handicraft artels and craftsmen, in whose work deep folk traditions were still preserved, attracted the attention of theorists and professional artists. In Russia, the Nizhny Novgorod fairs of the 1870s-1890s demonstrate the viability of these traditions in the new conditions. Many professional artists - V. Vasnetsov, M. Vrubel, E. Polenova, K. Korovin, N. Roerich and others - enthusiastically turn to the folk origins of decorative art. In various regions and provinces of Russia, in cities such as Pskov, Voronezh, Tambov, Moscow, Kamenetz-Podolsk, and others, handicraft enterprises are emerging, the basis of which is manual labor. The work of workshops in Abramtsovo near Moscow, in Talashkino near Smolensk, the enterprise of P. Vaulin near St. Petersburg, and the Murava ceramic artel in Moscow was of particular importance for the revival of creative crafts that were dying out.

Samovar. 19th century

Russia. Second half

Industrial pump. 19th century

However, the products of all these workshops made up such an insignificant part of the total consumption that they could not have any noticeable effect on mass production, although they proved the legitimacy of the existence of decorative art that preserves folk traditions along with mass machine production of things. Later, this was confirmed by the invasion of machine technology in such areas of decorative and applied arts as jewelry (bijouterie), carpet weaving, tailoring, which led to a sharp drop in their artistic quality.

In the forms of the bulk of manufactured products of the second half of the 19th century, nothing new is practically being developed. However, the novelty of the most general situation already at this time contributes to the addition of internal prerequisites for innovative searches - the awareness of stylistic searches as an important creative need, as a manifestation of the artistic individuality of the master. If until now stylistic trends (Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Classicism, etc.) were born and spread, as a rule, as a result of general, almost “global”, spontaneously crystallized trends in the aesthetic development of the world, then from the middle of the 19th century, stylistic originality is regarded as a direct creative achievement of an individual artist, architect. In this regard, interest in the heritage of art of all times and peoples is sharply activated. This richest heritage becomes a source of imitations, direct borrowings, or undergoes bizarre creative processing.

Table with modern armchair. End of the 19th century

As a result, the bulk of the products is an unusually variegated picture, in which either clear or subtle reminiscences of antiquity, the Romanesque era, Gothic, Italian or French Renaissance, the art of Byzantium and Ancient Russia, Baroque, etc., flicker, often eclectically mixing in design of one product, interior, building. Therefore, this period in the history of architecture and applied arts was called eclectic. Nevertheless, articles (lamps, metal buckets, troughs, dishes, stools, etc.) are relatively cheap, but made without any artistic purpose, often in ugly forms and of poor quality.

The search for a new style is carried out taking into account the real need in the conditions of machine production, a fundamentally new approach to the formation of products, on the one hand, and the preservation of the decorative traditions of the past, on the other. The bourgeoisie, which by the end of the 19th century had taken a strong position in the Russian economy, strove for its own artistic ideology in architecture and design - the cult of the rational, relative freedom from the archaisms of noble culture, encouraging everything in art that could compete with the styles of the past. Such at the end of the 19th century was the Art Nouveau style - “new art” in Belgium, Great Britain and the USA, “Jugendstil” in Germany, “Secessions style” in Austria, “free style” in Italy. Its name - "modern" (from French moderne) meant "new, modern" - from lat. modo - "just now, recently." In its pure form, fading away and mixing with other stylistic trends, it did not last long, until about 1920, that is, about 20-25 years, like almost all stylistic trends of the 17th-20th centuries.

Art Nouveau is diverse in different countries and in the work of individual masters, which complicates the understanding of the tasks he solved. However, the characteristic was the almost complete eradication of all previously used decorative and ornamental motifs and techniques, their radical renewal. Traditional cornices, rosettes, capitals, flutes, “incoming wave” belts, etc. are replaced by stylized local plants (lilies, iris, carnations, etc.), female heads with long curly hair, etc. Often there is no decoration at all , and the artistic effect is achieved due to the expressiveness of the silhouette, articulation of the form, lines, as a rule, thinly traced, as if freely flowing, pulsating. In the forms of Art Nouveau products, one can almost always feel some whimsical will of the artist, the tension of a tightly stretched string, exaggerated proportions. In extreme manifestations, all this is sharply exacerbated, elevated to a principle. At times, a disregard for the constructive logic of form emerges, an almost sham passion for the spectacular side of the task, especially in solving interiors, often effectively theatrical.

With all the weaknesses - pretentiousness, sometimes loudness of forms, a new approach to solving the building, interior, furnishings with the logic of a functional, constructive and technological solution has arisen.

Modern style candlestick. Early 20th century

Set of dishes. End of the 19th century

Modern dressing table. Early 20th century

Art Nouveau in the vast majority of its samples did not abandon the decoration of products, but only replaced the old decorative motifs and techniques with new ones. Already at the beginning of the 20th century, at the time of the triumphs of the new style, again, at first timidly, then widely, the fashion for the old styles returned, which had a certain connection with the preparations for the celebration of the centennial anniversary of the Patriotic War of 1812. The exhibition "Modern Art", arranged in St. Petersburg in 1903, clearly showed the birth of "classicizing modernity".

The results of modernity are complex. This is the cleansing of applied art from eclecticism, and from the “anti-machinism” of the champions of manual crafts, and from failed attempts to restore the styles of the past. These are the first symptoms of the exit of architecture and applied arts to the path of functionalism and constructivism, to the path of modern design. At the same time, having soon discovered a trend towards the nationalization of style, Art Nouveau caused a new wave of purely decorative searches. Many painters turn to applied art and interior design (S. Malyutin, V. Vasnetsov, A. Benois, S. Golovin, etc.), gravitating toward the colorfulness of a Russian fairy tale, to “gingerbread”, etc. In the perspective of the subsequent historical process , solving urgent problems of mass industrial production, such experiments could not have serious ideological and artistic significance, although they gave impetus to the development of another branch of applied art - art crafts and, in particular, theatrical and decorative art.

Art Nouveau, as it were, cleared and prepared the way for the establishment of new aesthetic and creative principles in the art of creating everyday things, accelerated the emergence of a new artistic profession - artistic design (design).

The formation of functionalism and constructivism into special directions in architecture and artistic design of Western countries occurred in the late 1910s in connection with the stabilization of life and the success of the economy after the First World War. But the fundamental foundations of the new modern architecture were determined in the pre-war period in the work of such architects as T. Garnier and O. Perret (France), X. Berlaga (Holland), A. Loos (Austria), P. Behrens (Germany), F. Wright (USA), I. Shekhtel, I. Rerberg (Russia) and others. Each of them overcame the influence of modernity in his own way and fought.

In 1918, special departments for architecture and the art industry were formed under the Fine Arts Department of the People's Commissariat for Education. Serious attention is paid to the training of specialists. In 1920, V.I. Lenin signed a decree on the establishment of the Higher State Artistic and Technical Workshops (VKHUTEMAS). Graduates created new samples of fabrics, furniture, dishes, etc.

Education in the workshops (in 1927 they were transformed into the VKhUTEIN All-Union Artistic and Technical Institute), was conducted at the faculties: architecture, ceramics, textiles, etc. At the faculty of wood and metal processing under the direction of A. Rodchenko, D . Lissitzky, V. Tatlin and other masters were looking for new forms and designs of various objects. All activities of VKHUTEMAS were aimed at developing in students the skills of an integrated approach to designing the subject environment of everyday life and production.

In the 1920s, a trend of “production art” developed, developing the principles of functionalism and constructivism, striving to establish in the minds of artists the aesthetic ideal of a rationally organized material production. Any former forms of art were declared by the "manufacturers" to be bourgeois, unacceptable to the proletariat. Hence their denial of not only "practically useless" fine art, but also of all purely decorative art, such as jewelry. In the 1920s, the technical and economic conditions for the implementation of their ideas were not yet ripe in our country.

VKHUTEMAS and the "production workers" of the 1920s were ideologically and aesthetically closely connected with the "Bauhaus" and in a number of important moments represented with it, in essence, a single trend in the artistic design of that time. Within the framework of this new movement, the aesthetics of modern design was formed, overcoming the contradictions in the applied art of the previous period. The practical artistic activity of the founders of design was also the development of the arsenal of artistic and expressive means of the art of creating things. In their works (furniture, lamps, utensils, fabrics, etc.), the closest attention was paid to such properties of materials and forms as texture, color, plastic expressiveness, rhythmic structure, silhouette, etc., which have become crucial in the composition products without conflicting with the requirements of constructive logic and manufacturability of the form. Another area that successfully developed in our country in the 1920s is engineering design. In 1925, in Moscow, according to the project of the outstanding engineer V. Shukhov, the famous radio tower was erected, the openwork silhouette of which became a symbol of Soviet radio for a long time. A year earlier, J. Gakkel created the first Soviet diesel locomotive based on the latest technological achievements, the shape of which even today looks quite modern. In the 1920s, the need for scientific research on the laws of human activity in the objective environment artificially created by him was realized. The Central Institute of Labor is being organized, within its walls, research is being conducted on the issues of the scientific organization of labor, the culture of production. The attention of scientists and designers is attracted by questions of biomechanics, organoleptics, etc. Among the notable works of those years is the project of the workplace of a tram driver (N. Bernshtein).

I. Gakkel. Locomotive. Early 1930s

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"Decorative and applied art of the 18th century."

Introduction

In the second half of the 18th century, Russian applied art reached a significant upsurge. This was facilitated by the development of the economy, trade, science and technology and, to a large extent, close ties with architecture and fine arts. The number of large and small factories, plants, workshops producing fabrics, glass, porcelain, and furniture grew. The landowners in their estates arranged various workshops based on serf labor.

One of the brightest phenomena of Russian culture is Russian folk art, the history of which has as many centuries as a person lives on earth.

Russian arts and crafts, folk crafts are original phenomena that have no analogues in world culture. From time immemorial, the Russian land has been famous for its craftsmen, people who are able to create and create real beauty with their own hands. Through the art of folk crafts, the connection between the past and the present is traced.

Folk crafts are exactly what makes our culture rich and unique. Painted objects, toys and fabric products are taken away by foreign tourists in memory of our country. Almost every corner of Russia has its own kind of needlework.

The main types of needlework

DYMKOVO TOY

Dymkovo toy (Vyatka, Kirov toy), Russian folk art craft; has long existed in the settlement of Dymkovo (now in the city of Kirov). The Dymkovo toy is molded from clay, fired and painted on the ground with tempera, including gold leaf. Depicts animals, riders, ladies in crinolines, fabulous, everyday scenes. The artistic originality of the Dymkovo toy is determined by massive laconic plasticity, emphasized by harmonious decorative painting in the form of a large geometric ornament (circles of different colors, cells, etc.).

Dymkovo toy is the most famous of the clay crafts in Russia. It is distinguished by an extremely simple and clear plastic form, a generalized silhouette, and bright ornamental painting on a white background.

Traditionally, the Dymkovo toy industry does not have mass production in-line.

Khokhloma is an old Russian folk craft that arose in the 17th century in the Trans-Volga region (the village of Semino, Nizhny Novgorod province). This is perhaps the most famous type of Russian folk painting. It is a decorative painting on wooden utensils and furniture, made in red and black (rarely green) tones and gold on a golden background. It is surprising that when painting a tree, not gold, but silver tin powder is applied. Then the product is coated with a special composition and processed three or four times in an oven. This is when this delightful honey-gold color appears, thanks to which light wooden utensils seem massive.

BOGORODSKAYA TOY

Colorful wooden chickens on a stand, figures of blacksmiths, a man and a bear - pull the bar and they will knock with hammers on a small anvil ... Funny toys, known in Rus' since time immemorial, have become the main folk craft for residents of the village of Bogorodskoye near Moscow.

"Bogorodskaya toy" owes its birth to the village of Bogorodskoye, now located in the Sergiev Posad district of the Moscow region. In the 15th century, the famous Moscow boyar M.B. Pleshcheev, after whose death, the village, together with the peasants, was inherited by his eldest son Andrei, and then by his grandson Fedor.

From 1595, the village of Bogorodskoye became the property of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and the peasants became monastic serfs. It was the peasants who laid the foundations of woodcarving in the 16th-17th centuries, which glorified Bogorodskoye, the current "capital of the toy kingdom", to the whole world.

MATRYOSHKA

Matryoshka is the most famous and beloved Russian souvenir, a world-class phenomenon. The first Russian matryoshka doll appeared at the end of the 19th century; nevertheless, it gained unprecedented recognition as one of the all-encompassing images of Russia, a symbol of Russian folk art. The predecessor and prototype of the Russian matryoshka was the figurine of a good-natured bald old man, the Buddhist sage Fukuruma, in which there were several more figurines nested one inside the other. This figurine was brought from the island of Honshu. The Japanese, by the way, claim that an unknown Russian monk was the first to carve such a toy on the island of Honshu.

The Russian wooden detachable doll was called a matryoshka. In the pre-revolutionary province, the name Matryona, Matryosh was considered one of the most common Russian names, which is based on the Latin word "mater", meaning mother. This name was associated with the mother of a large family, with good health and portly figure. Subsequently, it became a household word and began to mean a split-turning, colorfully painted wooden product. But to this day, the matryoshka remains a symbol of motherhood, fertility, since a doll with a large doll family perfectly expresses the figurative basis of this ancient symbol of human culture.

The first Russian matryoshka doll, carved by Vasily Zvezdochkin and painted by Sergey Malyutin, was for eight pieces: a boy followed a girl with a black rooster, then another girl, and so on. All the figurines differed from each other, and the last, eighth depicted a swaddled baby.

ORENBURG DOWN SHAWL

The foundations of applied art, thanks to which Orenburg became known to the whole world, were laid by Cossack wives at the end of the 17th century, when Russian pioneers, gaining a foothold in the Urals, entered into trade relations with the local population.

The harsh climate of these places required warm, but light clothing. The Cossack women easily adopted goat down needlework from the Kazakhs and Kalmyks. Only the manner of knitting among the steppe dwellers was continuous, and the Yaik wives began to use Russian lace ornaments.

PAVLOPOSADSK SHAWL

Bright and light, feminine Pavloposad shawls are always fashionable and relevant. And today, the original drawings are complemented by various elements such as fringe, created in different colors and remain a great accessory to almost any look.

Pavlovsky Posad printed, woolen and semi-woolen shawls, decorated with traditional colorful printed ornaments, originated in the city of Pavlovsky Posad near Moscow in the 1860s-80s. The Pavlovsky Posad area (the territory of the former Bogorodsky district) is one of the oldest Russian textile centers. In the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Bogorodsk shawls and sarafan fabrics were distinguished by the special beauty of the ornament woven with gold thread. Later, silk weaving was widely spread here, and from the 1860s. the production of woolen and semi-woolen shawls, decorated with colorful printed ornaments, began. Gradually, production grew and acquired a pronounced national character.

ROSTOV Enamel

Rostov enamel is a unique traditional folk art craft that arose in the second half of the 18th century. as iconography. In this series, he is related to Palekh, Mstyora, Kholuy, only the material is quite rare - painting on enamel. "Enamel" comes from the Greek noun tsEggpt (phengos), meaning "flicker". Special paints (invented in 1632 by the French jeweler Jean Tutin) based on glass with the addition of metal oxides are applied to a metal base (steel, copper, silver, gold sheet) and fixed by firing in a kiln. Rostov enamel is one of the ten best folk crafts in Russia.

Gzhel is the name of a picturesque region near Moscow, which is 60 kilometers from Moscow. The word "Gzhel" is incredibly popular today. It is associated with the beauty of harmony, fairy tale and reality. Porcelain with elegant blue painting and multicolored majolica are now known not only in Russia, but also abroad. Gzhel products attract everyone who loves beauty, rich imagination and harmony, high professionalism of their creators. Gzhel is the cradle and main center of Russian ceramics. Here its best features were formed and the highest achievements of folk art were manifested.

How old is this Russian folk craft? Archaeological research on the territory of Gzhel confirms the existence of pottery here since the beginning of the 14th century. And no wonder, the Gzhel land has long been rich in forests, rivers, high-quality clays, .. "which I have not seen anywhere with superior whiteness." Since then, in its more than six centuries of history, Gzhel has experienced different periods.

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries became a period of deep crisis. It seemed that Gzhel art was lost forever.

The post-war period is associated with the beginning of the revival of the craft and the search for its own figurative language. It took years of painstaking and tireless work, training of new masters. As a result, it has led to success. Dymkovo toy matryoshka Gzhel applied

In 1972, the Gzhel association was created, based on six small industries located in several villages. Creative teams developed new designs. Completely new forms of products were created. The painting has become richer and fulfills the artistic demands of the present day.

TAGILI TRAY

Ural lacquer painting on metal originated in the 18th century. at the Nizhny Tagil factories. The Tagil tray is older than the Zhostovo one. It is Nizhny Tagil that is considered the birthplace of Russian metal painting. The Ural breeders Demidovs, being the main customers of painted products, supported the lacquer craft in every possible way. Tagil painting on metal cannot be confused with any other: it is characterized by a richness of colors, purity and elegance in the processing of colors, completeness of the composition, and refined ligature of ornaments.

Zhostovo painting is a folk craft of artistic painting of metal trays, existing in the village of Zhostovo, Mytishchi district, Moscow region. The craft of painted metal trays arose in the middle of the 18th century. in the Urals, where the metallurgical plants of the Demidovs were located. Only in the first half of the XIX century. trays began to be made in the villages of the Moscow province - Zhostov, Troitsky, Novoseltsevo. The Moscow Region fishery soon became the leading one.

Zhostovo trays are paintings, mainly of floral ornaments, the creators of which were ordinary Russian peasants. They brought to lacquer painting bright cheerfulness of colors, simplicity and intelligibility of images, accuracy of characteristics, clarity of drawing.

The painting is carried out by means of a free brush stroke, without preliminary drawing. The most commonly used black background. The volumes of flowers and leaves seem to grow out of the depth of the background. This is done by gradually moving from dark tones to lighter ones. Flowers seem to come to life in the painting.

The modern technology for making trays differs little from that used earlier by the masters of the village of Zhostovo. A thin sheet of iron is pressed into the desired shape, the edges of the tray are rolled to stiffen, and the surface is leveled. The front surface of the tray is primed and puttied, and then sanded and covered with black (rarely of a different color) varnish. The trays are dried in ovens at temperatures up to 90 degrees C. The coating is done three times, after which the colored surface of the tray acquires a shine.

FEDOSKINO

Fedoskino miniature, a type of traditional Russian lacquer miniature painting with oil paints on papier-mâché, which took shape at the end of the 18th century. in the village of Fedoskino near Moscow.

The production of papier-mâché products arose in 1798, when the merchant P.I. Korobov organized a trump production in the village of Danilkov, which he bought (now part of Fedoskin). A few years later, Korobov visited the factory of Johann Stobwasser in Brauschweig, adopted the technology of papier-mâché products there and started manufacturing at his factory the popular at that time snuff boxes, decorated with engravings pasted on the lid, sometimes painted and varnished. In the second quarter of the 19th century snuffboxes, beads, caskets and other items began to be decorated with pictorial miniatures made with oil paints in a classical pictorial manner.

The masters worked at the factory for hire, many of them came from the icon-painting workshops of Sergiev Posad and Moscow, some had an art education received at the Stroganov School. The names of some of them are known - S. I. Borodkin, A. A. Shavrin, A. V. Tikhomirov, D. A. Krylov and others.

The favorite motifs for painting by the Fedoskino miniaturists were subjects popular at that time: “troikas”, “tea parties”, scenes from Russian and Little Russian peasant life. The most valued chests were decorated with complex multi-figure compositions - copies of paintings by Russian and Western European artists.

The Fedoskino miniature is executed with oil paints in three or four layers - painting is successively performed (a general sketch of the composition), writing or repainting (more detailed study), glazing (modeling the image with transparent paints) and glare (completing the work with light colors that convey glare on objects).

The Palekh miniature has no analogues in the whole world. It is made on papier-mâché and only then transferred to the surface of caskets of various shapes and sizes.

The peculiar and delicate art of the Palekh lacquer miniature absorbed the principles of ancient Russian painting and folk art as a basis. Currently, the Palekh miniature is an integral part of the domestic arts and crafts in general. Along with the development of ancient traditions, it carries a poetic vision of the world, characteristic of Russian folk tales and songs.

The birth of this art in Palekh is not accidental. It was a natural result of the development of centuries-old traditions in new historical conditions, having inherited the skill of many generations of icon painters. The old Palekh experience is rich and varied. The traditions of ancient Russian art have long been studied and preserved in Palekh.

An independent Palekh style of icon painting was formed only by the middle of the 18th century. He absorbed and developed the basic principles and elements of the Novgorod and Stroganov schools and painting of the Volga region of the second half of the 17th century. In the 17th-19th centuries, Palekh masters repeatedly completed orders for icons in the Novgorod style or in the character of Moscow fryaz.

Conclusion

The ability to reveal the aesthetic qualities of the material has always distinguished Russian masters, which manifested itself in all spheres of life from everyday life to architecture, where skill was expressed in stone-cutting art.

The heyday of jewelry art in Russia begins in the middle of the 18th century and continues throughout the century.

During this period, silversmiths achieved great success. In accordance with the new tastes, the forms of silver sets are simple and clear. They are decorated with flutes, antique ornaments. On silver glasses and snuff boxes, the masters of Veliky Ustyug reproduce from engravings images of ancient scenes, victories of Russian troops.

An outstanding phenomenon in the applied art of the 18th century is the steel art products of Tula masters: furniture, caskets, candlesticks, buttons, buckles, snuff boxes.

The heyday of Russian applied art of the 18th century was associated with the work of the architects Kazakov, Starov, Quarenghi, Cameron, Voronikhin and a number of trained folk artists. But its true glory was created for the most part by the remaining unknown serf craftsmen - furniture makers, carvers, weavers, stone cutters, jewelers, glassmakers, ceramists ....

Literature

History of Russian art. Managing editors I.A. Bartenev, R.I. Vlasova - M., 1987

History of Russian art. Ed. I.E. Grabar. V. 1-12 (sections of arts and crafts). M.: 1953-1961

Russian arts and crafts. Ed. A.I. Leonova. T. 1-3. M.: 1962-1965

Rybakov B.A. Russian applied art of the X-XIII centuries. L.: 1971

Vasilenko V.M. Russian applied art. Origins and formation. 1st century BC. - XIII century. AD M.: 1977

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