In the next, classical, period of Hellenic history, the regions of Balkan Greece become the main leading centers of the Greek world. -Sparta And Athens. Sparta and Athens represent two peculiar types of Greek states, in many respects opposite to each other and at the same time different from colonial-island Greece. The history of classical Greece mainly focuses on the history of Sparta and Athens, especially since this history is most fully represented in the tradition that has come down to us. For this reason, in general courses on the history of these societies, more attention is paid than to other countries of the Hellenic world. Their socio-political and cultural characteristics will become clear from the further presentation. Let's start with Sparta.

The originality of its social system and life of Sparta is largely due to natural conditions. Sparta was located in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, in the Peloponnese. The south of the Peloponnese, where ancient Sparta was located, is occupied by two plains, Laconian and Messenian, separated by a high mountain range. Tayget. Eastern, Laconian, valley irrigated by the river Eurotome, actually was the main territory of Sparta. From the north, the Laconian valley was closed by high mountains, and in the south it was lost in the expanse of malarial swamps that stretched to the sea. In the center was a valley 30 kilometers long and 10 kilometers wide - this is the territory of ancient Sparta - the area is fertile, rich in pastures and convenient for crops. The Taygetos slopes are covered with forests, wild fruit trees and vineyards. However, the Laconian Valley is small in size and does not have convenient harbors. Being cut off from the sea predisposed the Spartans to isolation, on the one hand, and aggressive impulses towards their neighbors, especially the fertile western valley of the Messenpi, on the other.

The earliest history of Sparta, or Lacedaemon, is little known. Excavations carried out at the site of Sparta by English archaeologists indicate a closer connection between Sparta and Mycenae than previously thought. Dodorian Sparta is a city of the Mycenaean era. In Sparta, according to legend, lived Basil Menelaus, brother of Agamemnon, husband of Helen. It is impossible to say how the settlement of the Doryans proceeded in Lakonika, which they conquered, and what kind of relations they initially had with the native population, in the current state of the issue, it is impossible to say. Only a vague story has survived about the campaign of the Heraclides (descendants of the hero Hercules) in the Peloponnese and their conquest of Argos, Messenia and Laconica, as the legacy of their great ancestor Hercules. So, according to legend, the Dorians established themselves in the Peloponnese.

Both in other communities of Greece and in Sparta, the growth of productive forces, frequent clashes with neighbors and internal struggle led to the disintegration of tribal relations and the formation of a slave state. The state in Sparta arose very

Eurotas valley. In the distance are the snowy peaks of Taygetus.

early, it was formed as a result of the conquest and much more tribal remnants were retained in it than in any other policy. The combination of strong statehood with tribal institutions is the main feature of the Spartan, and partly of the Dorian system in general.

Many Spartan institutions and customs are associated with the name of the semi-legendary Spartan legislator-sage. Lycurgus, in the image of which the features of a man and the god of light Lycurgus merged, whose cult was celebrated in Sparta and in historical times. Only in the 5th century Lycurgus, whose activity dates back approximately to the 8th century, began to be considered the creator of the Spartan political system and therefore was placed in one of the Spartan royal families. From the thick fog that shrouds the activities of Lycurgus, however, some real features of the legislator shine through. With the weakening of tribal unions and the liberation of the individual from blood, local, tribal and other constraints, the appearance on the historical arena of such personalities as Lycurgus is quite plausible. This is proved by all Greek history. The legend presents Lycurgus as the uncle and tutor of the young Spartan king, who actually ruled the entire state. On the advice of the Delphic oracle, Lycurgus, as the executor of the divine will, promulgated retro. Retras were called short sayings in the form of formulas, containing any important decrees and laws.

Expressed in archaic lapidary language Lycurgus retro laid the foundation for the Spartan state.

In addition, Lycurgus was credited with a major land reform, which put an end to hitherto existing land inequality and the predominance of the aristocracy. According to legend, Lycurgus divided the entire territory occupied by Sparta into nine or ten thousand equal sections (cleres) according to the number of male Spartans who made up the militia.

After that, the legend tells, Lycurgus, considering his reform completed and the goal of his life fulfilled, left Sparta, having previously obligated the citizens with an oath not to violate the constitution they had adopted.

After the death of Lycurgus, a temple was built for him in Sparta, and he himself was declared a hero and a god. Subsequently, the name of Lycurgus for the Spartans became a symbol of justice and an ideal leader who loves his people and his homeland.

Throughout its history, Sparta has remained an agricultural, agrarian country. The capture of neighboring lands was the driving force behind Spartan politics. In the middle of the 8th century this led to a long war with neighboring Messenia ( first messenian war) ended with the conquest of Messenia and the enslavement of its population. In the 7th century followed by a new second messenian war, caused by the plight of the conquered population of the helots, which also ended in the victory of Sparta. The Spartans owed their victory to the new state system that had developed during the Messenian wars.

The orders that developed in Sparta during the Messenian wars persisted for three hundred years (VII-IV centuries). The Spartan constitution, as noted above, represented a combination of tribal remnants with a strong statehood. All the Spartans, members of the fighting phalanx, capable of carrying weapons and arming themselves at their own expense, made up " equal community. In relation to the Spartan citizens, the Spartan constitution was a democracy, and in relation to the mass of the dependent population, it was an oligarchy. e. domination by a few. The number of equal Spartans was estimated at nine or ten thousand people. The community of equals represented a military community with collective property and a collective labor force. All members of the community were considered equal. The material basis of the community of equals was the land cultivated by the conquered helot population.

The structure of ancient Sparta is basically presented in this form. Since ancient times, the Spartans were divided into three Dorian (tribal) phyla. Each Spartiate belonged to a phylum. But the further, the more the tribal system was supplanted by the state and tribal divisions were replaced by territorial ones. Sparta was divided into five about. Each both was a village, and the whole of Sparta, according to ancient authors, was not a city in the proper sense, but was a combination of five villages.

Many archaic features were also retained by royal power in Sparta. The Spartan kings came from two influential families, the Agiads and the Eurypontids. The kings (archagetes) commanded the militia (moreover, one of the kings went on a campaign), sorted out cases that concerned mainly family law and performed some priestly functions. The highest political body in Sparta was Council of Elders, or gerusia. Gerusia consisted of 30 people - 2 kings and 28 geronts, elected by the popular assembly from influential Spartan families. The National Assembly itself apella) met once a month, ruled on all matters relating to war and peace, and elected the members of the gerousia and ephors. The institute of ephors (observers) is very ancient, dating back to the “Dolpkurgov Sparta”. Initially ephorate was a democratic institution. Ephors in the amount of five people were elected by the people's assembly and were representatives of the entire Spar "tiat people. Subsequently (V-IV centuries), they degenerated into an oligarchic body that protected the interests of the upper layer of Spartan citizenship.

The functions of the Spartan ephors were extremely extensive and varied. A set of militia depended on them. They accompanied the kings on a campaign and controlled their actions. In their hands was the entire supreme policy of Sparta. In addition, the ephors had judicial power and could bring to justice even kings who sought to expand their powers and get out of the control of the community. Every step of the kings was under the control of the ephors, who performed a peculiar role of royal guardians.

The Spartan organization has many similarities with men's houses modern backward peoples. The whole system and all life in Sparta had a peculiar military character. The peacetime life of the Spartans was not much different from the wartime life. The Spartan warriors spent most of their time together in a fortified camp on the mountain.

The marching organization was preserved in peacetime. As i hike, and during the world, the Spartans were divided into enomotii- camps, engaged in military exercises, gymnastics, fencing, wrestling, running exercises, etc. and only at night) returned home to their families.

Each Spartan brought from his house a certain amount of food for common friendly dinners, which were called sissy, or fidity. At home, only wives and children dined. The rest of the life of the Spartans was also entirely subordinated to the interests of the entire community. In order to hinder the possibility of enriching some and ruining other free citizens, exchange was difficult in Sparta. In the course were only bulky and uncomfortable iron money. From birth to the end

Gymnastic exercises. Image on a vase from Noli. In the center are two fist fighters. They are instructed, holding a long rod, supervisor. On the left, a young man is holding a rope, serving to measure

jump.

the life of a Spartan did not belong to himself. The father of a newborn child could not raise him without the prior permission of the elders. The father brought his child to the elders, who, after examining the child, either left him "alive" or sent him to the "apophets", to the cemetery in the Taygetus crevice. Only strong and strong were left alive, from which good soldiers could come out.

The military imprint lay on the entire upbringing of the Spartan. The basis of this education was the principle: to win the battle and obey. Young Spartans went barefoot all year round and wore coarse clothing. Most of the time they spent in schools (gymnasiums), where they were engaged in physical exercises, sports and learned to read and write. The Spartan had to speak simply, briefly, in laconian (succinctly).

The Spartan gymnasts drank, ate and slept together. They slept on hard bedding made of reed, prepared with their own hands without a knife. To test the physical endurance of teenagers, real scourgings were held in the temple of Artemis under a religious pretext. *3a the execution was observed by a priestess holding a figurine of a god in her hands, now tilting it, now raising it, indicating by this the need to strengthen or weaken the blows.

Special attention was paid to the education of youth in Sparta. They were looked at as the main force of the Spartan system, both in the present and in the future. In order to accustom youth to endurance, adolescents and young men were assigned difficult jobs that they had to / perform without any objection and grumbling. The behavior of young men was imputed to be monitored not only by the authorities, but also by private individuals under the threat of a fine and dishonor for negligence.

“As for the youth, the legislator paid special attention to it, believing that it is very important for the state welfare if the youth is brought up properly” .

Such attention to military training was undoubtedly facilitated by the fact that Sparta was, as it were, a military camp among the enslaved and always ready to rise in revolt population of the surrounding regions, mainly Messenia.

At the same time, physically strong and well-disciplined Spartans were well armed. The military equipment of Sparta was considered exemplary throughout Hellas. The large reserves of iron in Taygetos made it possible to widely expand the production of iron weapons. The Spartan army was divided into detachments (suckers, later pestilence) of five hundred people. The small combat unit was the enomotia, which consisted of about forty people. Heavily armed foot soldiers (hoplites) were the main military force of Sparta.

The Spartan army set out on a campaign in a harmonious march with the sounds of flutes and choral songs. Spartan choral singing enjoyed great fame throughout Hellas. “There was something in these songs that ignited courage, aroused enthusiasm and called for feats. Their words were simple, artless, but their content was serious and instructive.

The songs glorified the Spartans who fell in battle and censured the "pathetic and dishonest cowards." Spartan songs in poetic processing were very famous throughout Greece. The elegies and marching marches (embateries) of the poet can serve as an example of Spartan military songs. Tirtea(VII century), who arrived in Sparta from Attica and enthusiastically sang the Spartan system.

“Do not be afraid of huge enemy hordes, do not know fear!

Let each one keep his shield right between the first fighters.

Considering life hateful and gloomy harbingers of death As sweet as the rays of the sun are sweet to us ... "

“It’s glorious, after all, to lose one’s life, among the valiant fallen warriors, - To a brave husband in battle for the sake of his fatherland ...”

“Young men, fight, standing in rows, do not be an example of shameful flight or miserable cowardice to others!

Do not leave the elders, # whose knees are already weak,

And do not run, betraying the elders to enemies.

A terrible shame on you when among the warriors the first fallen Elder lies ahead of the fighters young in years ... "

“Let, stepping wide and resting your feet on the ground,

Everyone stands still, pressing his lips with his teeth,

Thighs and lower legs from below and his chest, together with his shoulders, Covering with a convex circle of a shield, strong with copper;

With his right hand, let him shake the mighty lance,

Putting his foot with his foot and leaning his shield against the shield,

Terrible sultan-oh sultan, helmet-oh comrade helmet,

Tightly closing chest to chest, let everyone fight with enemies, Grasping a spear or sword handle with a hand " 1 .

Until the very end of the Greco-Persian wars, the Spartan phalanx of hoplites was considered an exemplary and invincible army.

The armament of all Spartans was the same, which further emphasized the equality of all Spartans before the community. Crimson cloaks served as the attire of the Spartans, the weapons consisted of a spear, a shield and a helmet.

Considerable attention in Sparta was also paid to the education of women, who occupied a very peculiar position in the Spartan system. Before marriage, young Spartan women were engaged in the same physical exercises as men - they ran, wrestled, threw a disc, fought in a fistfight, etc. The education of women was considered as the most important state function, because their duty was to give birth to healthy children, future defenders of the homeland. “Spartan girls had to run, wrestle, throw a discus, throw spears to strengthen the body, so that their future children would be strong in body in the very womb of their healthy mother, so that their development would be correct and so that the mothers themselves could be relieved from the burden successfully and easily, .due to the strength of his body.

Upon marriage, the Spartan woman devoted herself entirely to family responsibilities - the birth and upbringing of children. The form of marriage in Sparta was the monogamous family. But at the same time, as Engels notes, in Sparta there were many remnants of the old group marriage. “In Sparta there is a pair marriage, modified by the state in accordance with local views, and in many respects still reminiscent of a group marriage. Childless marriages are terminated: Tsar Anaxandrides (650 years BC), who had a childless wife, took a second and kept two households; about the same time the king

Ariston, who had two barren wives, took a third, but let go of one of the first. On the other hand, several brothers could have a common wife; a man who liked his friend's wife could share her with him... Actual adultery, the infidelity of wives behind her husband's back, was therefore unheard of. On the other hand, Sparta, at least

Young woman, running race. Rome. Vatican.

at least in its best era, did not know domestic slaves, serf helots lived separately on estates, so the Spartans were less tempted to use their women. It is natural, therefore, that due to all these conditions, women in Sparta occupied a much more honorable position than among the rest of the Greeks.

The Spartan community was created not only as a result of a long and stubborn struggle with its neighbors, but also as a result of the peculiar position of Sparta among the large enslaved and allied population. The mass of the enslaved population was helots, farmers, painted according to the cleres of the Spartans in groups of ten to fifteen people. The helots paid dues in kind (apophora) and carried out various duties in relation to their masters. The quitrent included barley, spelt, pork, wine and butter. Each Spartan received 70 medimns (mers), barley, Spartan 12 medimns with the corresponding amount of fruits and wine. Helots were not exempted from military service either. Battles usually began with the performance of the helots, who were supposed to upset the ranks and rear of the enemy.

The origin of the term "helot" is unclear. According to some scholars, “helot” means conquered, captured, and according to others, “helot” comes from the city of Gelos, whose inhabitants were with Sparta in unequal, but allied relations, obliging them to pay tribute. But whatever the origin of the helots, and no matter what formal category - slaves or serfs - they are classified, the sources leave no doubt that the actual position of the helots was no different from the position of slaves.

Both the land and the helots were considered communal property; individual property was not developed in Sparta. Each full-fledged Spartiate, a member of the community of equals and a member of the combat phalanx of hoplites received from the community by lot a certain allotment (clair) with helots sitting on it. Neither clairs nor rafts could be alienated. The Spartiate, of his own free will, could neither sell nor release the helot, nor change his contributions. The helots were in the use of the Spartan and his family as long as he remained in the community. The total number of Claires in terms of the number of full-fledged Spartans was ten thousand.

The second group of the dependent population consisted of perieki,(or peryoiki) - "living around" - residents of areas allied with Sparta. Among the perieks were farmers, artisans and merchants. Compared with absolutely disenfranchised helots, the perieks were in a better position, but they did not have political rights and were not part of a community of equals, but served in the militia and could have landed property.

The "Community of Equals" lived on a real volcano, the crater of which threatened to constantly open up and swallow all those living on it. In no other Greek state did the antagonism between the dependent and the ruling population manifest itself in such a sharp form as in Sparta. “Everyone,” Plutarch notes, “who believes that in Sparta the free enjoys the highest freedom, and slaves are slaves in the full sense of the word, correctly define the situation.”

This is the reason for the proverbial conservativeness of the Spartan order and the exceptionally cruel attitude of the ruling class towards the disenfranchised population. The treatment of the helots by the Spartans was always severe and cruel. By the way, the Helots were forced to get drunk, and after that the Spartans showed the youth to what disgust drunkenness can bring. In no Greek polis did the antagonism between the dependent population and the masters manifest itself so sharply as in Sparta. The very nature of their settlements contributed in no small measure to the unity of the helots and their organization. The helots lived in continuous settlements on the plain, along the banks of the Eurotas, heavily overgrown with reeds, where they could take refuge if necessary.

In order to prevent carnal uprisings, the Spartans from time to time arranged cryptia, i.e., punitive expeditions to the helots, destroying the strongest and strongest of them. The essence of cryptia was as follows. The ephors declared a "holy war" against the helots, during which detachments of Spartan youth, armed with short swords, went out of town. During the day, these detachments hid in remote places, but at night they left the ambush and suddenly attacked the settlements of the helots, created a panic, killed the strongest and most dangerous of them, and again hid. Other methods of reprisal against helots are also known. Thucydides tells that during the Peloponnesian War the Spartans gathered helots who wanted to receive liberation for their merits, put wreaths on their heads as a sign of imminent liberation, brought them to the temple, and after that these helots disappeared to no one knows where. Thus, two thousand helots immediately disappeared.

The cruelty of the Spartans, however, did not protect them from helot uprisings. The history of Sparta is full of large and small uprisings of helots. Most often, the uprisings occurred during the war, when the Spartans were distracted by military operations and could not follow the helots with their usual vigilance. The uprising of the helots was especially strong during the second Messenian war, as mentioned above. The uprising threatened to sweep away the very "community of equals." Since the time of the Messenian wars, cryptia have arisen.

“It seems to me that the Spartans have become so inhuman since then. since a terrible earthquake occurred in Sparta, during which the helots revolted.

The Spartans invented all sorts of measures and means to keep the historically established social order in balance. From this came their fear of everything new, unknown and beyond the framework of the usual, the way of life, a suspicious attitude towards foreigners, etc. And yet life still took its toll. The Spartan order, for all its invincibility, was being destroyed both from the outside and from the inside.

After the Messenian wars, Sparta tried to subdue other areas of the Peloponnese, especially Arcadia, but the resistance of the mountainous Arcadian tribes forced Sparta to abandon this plan. After that, Sparta seeks to ensure its power through alliances. In the VI century. through wars and peace treaties, the Spartans managed to achieve organization Peloponnesian Union, which covered all areas of the Peloponnese, except for Argos, Achaia and the northern districts of Arcadia. Subsequently, the trading city of Corinth, a rival of Athens, also entered this alliance.

Prior to the Greco-Persian Wars, the Peloponnesian League was the largest and strongest of all Greek alliances. “Lacedaemon himself, after being settled by the Dorians now living in this region, suffered for a very long time, as far as we know, from internal unrest. However, for a long time it has been governed by good laws and has never been under the rule of tyrants. IN for a little over four hundred years that elapsed until the end of this [Peloponnesian] war, the Lacedaemonians have the same state system. Thanks to this, "they became powerful and organized affairs in other states."

Spartan hegemony continued until the Battle of Salamis, that is, until the first major naval battle that brought Athens to the fore and moved the economic center of Greece from the mainland to the sea. Since that time, the internal crisis of Sparta begins, which eventually led to the decomposition of all the institutions of the ancient Spartan system described above.

Orders similar to those observed in Sparta existed in some other Greek states. This concerned primarily the areas conquered by the Dorians, especially the cities of Fr. Crete. According to ancient authors, Lycurgus borrowed a lot from the Cretans. And indeed, in the Cretan system, which developed after the Dorian conquest, known to us from the inscription from Gortyn, there are many similarities with Sparta. Three Dorian phyla are preserved, there are public dinners, which, unlike Sparta, are arranged at the expense of the state. Free citizens use the labor of unfree farmers ( Clarotes), which in many ways resemble the Spartan helots, but have more rights than the latter. They have their own property; the estate, for example, was considered their property. They even had the right to the property of the master, if he did not have a relative. Along with the Clarotes, there were also “purchased slaves” in Crete who served in city houses and did not differ from the slaves in the developed Greek policies.

In Thessaly, a position similar to the Spartan helots and Cretan Clarotes was occupied penestes, who paid tribute to the Thessalians. One source says that "the Penesti handed themselves over to the power of the Thessalians on the basis of a mutual oath, according to which they would not tolerate anything bad in their work and would not leave the country." About the position of the penests - and the same can be attributed to the helots and clarots - Engels wrote the following: “Undoubtedly, serfdom is not a specific medieval feudal form, we meet it everywhere where the conquerors force the old inhabitants to cultivate the land - this was the case, for example, in Thessaly at a very early time. This fact obscured for me and many others the view of medieval serfdom. It was very tempting to justify it with a simple conquest, so everything went extraordinarily smoothly.

Thucydides, I, 18. ! Marx and Engels, Letters, Sotsekgiz, 1931, p. 346.

Around the ancient Greek Sparta to this day there are many disputes and myths born of popular culture. Were the Spartans really unsurpassed warriors and did not like mental work, did they really get rid of their own children, and were the customs of the Spartans really so severe that they were forbidden to eat in their own homes? Let's try to figure it out.

Starting a conversation about Sparta, it would be worth noting that the self-name of this ancient Greek state was "Lacedaemon", and its inhabitants called themselves "Lacedaemonians". The emergence of the name "Sparta" humanity owes not to the Hellenes, but to the Romans.

Sparta, like many ancient states, had a complex in structure, but logical, system of social organization. In fact, society was divided into full citizens, non-full citizens and dependents. In turn, each of the categories was divided into estates. Helots, although they were considered slaves, were not them in the sense familiar to modern man. However, "ancient" and "classical" slavery deserves separate consideration. It is also worth mentioning the special class of "hypomeyons", which included physically and mentally handicapped children of the citizens of Sparta. They were considered incomplete citizens, but they were still above a number of other social categories. The existence of such a class in Sparta significantly reduces the viability of the theory of the murder of handicapped children in Sparta.

This myth took root thanks to the description of the Spartan society created by Plutarch. So, in one of his works, he described that weak children were thrown into a gorge in the mountains of Taygetus by the decision of the elders. Today, scientists on this issue have not come to a consensus, however, most of them are inclined to the version that such an unusual tradition had no place in Sparta. Do not discount the fact that the Greek chronicles sin with exaggerations and embellishments of facts. The proof of which was discovered by historians after comparing the same facts and their descriptions in the Greek and Roman chronicles.

Of course, in Sparta, throughout its described history, there was a very rigid system for raising children, in particular, boys. The education system was called agoge, which in Greek means "withdrawal". In Spartan society, the children of citizens were considered public property. Since the agoge itself was a rather cruel system of education, it is possible that the mortality rate was indeed high. Thus, killing weak children immediately after birth is unlikely.

Another popular myth is the invincibility of the Spartan army. Of course, the Spartan army was strong enough to influence its neighbors, however, and she, as you know, knew defeat. In addition, the Spartan army was largely losing on many issues to the armies of other powers, including the armies of the neighbors of the Greeks. The warriors were distinguished by excellent training and personal combat skills. They were in excellent physical condition. Moreover, the very concept of discipline in the army was adopted by neighboring peoples precisely from the Spartans. Even the Romans admired the strength of the Spartan army, although it eventually lost to them. At the same time, the Spartans did not know engineering, which did not allow them to effectively besiege enemy cities.

According to historians, discipline, courage and valor on the battlefield were highly valued in Spartan society, honesty and devotion, modesty and moderation were revered (however, one can doubt the latter, knowing about their feasts and orgies). And although sometimes the leaders of the Spartans in matters of politics were distinguished by deceit and perfidy, this people was one of the greatest representatives of the Hellenic group.

Sparta was a democracy. In any case, all the most important issues were decided by the general meeting of citizens, at which they simply shouted over each other. Of course, not only citizens lived in Sparta, and the power, although of the people, did not belong to the entire demos.

The Spartan household was not much different from that of most other Greek city-states. The same products were grown in the fields of Lacedaemon. The Spartans were engaged in cattle breeding, breeding mainly sheep. For the most part, labor on earth was the lot of helots - slaves, as well as deprived citizens.

In Sparta, mental work was really not held in high esteem, but this does not mean at all that Sparta did not give history a single poet or writer. Among the most famous of them are Alkman and Terpander. However, even they were distinguished by good physical training. And the Spartan priest-soothsayer Tisamen of Elea was even more famous for being an unsurpassed athlete. The stereotype about the cultural ignorance of the Spartans was born, probably because both Alkman and Terpander were not natives of this city.

Public relations and foundations played a very important role in the daily life of the Spartans. Among historians, there is even a theory that the Spartans were forbidden to eat at home, regardless of their status and position in society. Instead, the Spartans were supposed to eat exclusively in public places, a kind of canteens of that time.

The image of the Spartans, as well as the image of the Wiggs, whom many represent as, of course, did not escape romanticization. Nevertheless, there is much in the Lacedaemonians that it would not be superfluous to learn both for modern man and what has become part of our daily life. In particular, the word "laconic" has precisely Greek roots and means a restrained, moderate and not verbose person. It was with this word that the Spartans were identified in the Peloponnese and beyond.

Introduction

The Spartan way of life was well described by Xenophon in his work: “Lacedaemonian Politics”. He wrote that in most states everyone enriches himself as much as he can, without disdaining any means. In Sparta, on the other hand, the legislator, with his usual wisdom, deprived wealth of any attraction. All Spartariats - poor and rich - lead exactly the same way of life, eat the same at a common table, wear the same modest clothes, their children without any distinctions and concessions to military drill. So acquisitiveness is devoid of any meaning in Sparta. Lycurgus (the Spartan king) turned money into a laughingstock: they are so inconvenient. From here the expression "Spartan way of life" means - simple, without any frills, restrained, strict and harsh.

All the ancient classics from Herodotus and Aristotle to Plutarch agreed that before Lycurgus came to rule Sparta, the existing orders there were ugly. And that there were no worse laws in any of the then Greek city-states. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the Spartans had to constantly keep in obedience the masses of the indigenous Greek population of the once conquered lands, turned into slaves or semi-dependent tributaries. It goes without saying that internal political conflicts posed a threat to the very existence of the state.

In ancient Sparta, there was a bizarre mixture of totalitarianism and democracy. The founder of the “Spartan way of life”, the legendary reformer of antiquity, Lycurgus, created, according to many researchers, the prototype of both social communist and fascist political systems of the 20th century. Lycurgus not only transformed the political and economic system of Sparta, but also completely regulated the private life of fellow citizens. Severe measures to "correct morals" implied, in particular, the decisive eradication of "private property" vices - greed and greed, for which money was almost completely devalued.

Lycurgus thoughts, therefore, not only aimed to restore order, but were also called upon to solve the problem of national security of the Spartan state.

History of Sparta

Sparta, the main city of the region of Laconia, was located on the western bank of the Eurotas and extended north from the modern city of Sparta. Laconia (Laconica) is the abbreviated name of the region, which was fully called Lacedaemon, therefore the inhabitants of this area were often called "Lacedaemonians", which is equivalent to the words "Spartan" or "Spartiate".

From the VIII century BC. Sparta began to expand by conquering its neighbors - other Greek city-states. During the 1st and 2nd Messenian Wars (between 725 and 600 BC), the Messenian region west of Sparta was conquered, and the Messenians were turned into helots, i.e. state slaves.

Having won another part of the territory from Argos and Arcadia, Sparta moved from a policy of conquest to building up its power through the conclusion of agreements with various Greek city-states. As the head of the Peloponnesian Union (began to emerge c. 550 BC, took shape c. 510-500 BC), Sparta actually turned into the most powerful military power in Greece. Thus, a force was created that became a counterweight to the impending invasion of the Persians, the combined efforts of the Peloponnesian League and Athens with their allies led to a decisive victory over the Persians at Salamis and Plataea in 480 and 479 BC.

The conflict between the two greatest states of Greece, Sparta and Athens, land and sea power, was inevitable, and in 431 BC. The Peloponnesian War broke out. Ultimately, in 404 BC. Sparta took over.

Dissatisfaction with Spartan dominance in Greece led to a new war. The Thebans and their allies, led by Epaminondas, inflicted a heavy defeat on the Spartans and Sparta began to lose its former power.

Sparta had a special political and social structure. The head of the Spartan state has long been two hereditary kings. They held meetings together with the gerousia - the council of elders, to which 28 people over 60 were elected for life. All Spartans who had reached the age of 30 and had sufficient funds to perform what was considered necessary for a citizen, in particular, to contribute their share to participate in joint meals (phiditia), participated in the national assembly (apella). Later, the institution of ephors arose, five officials who were elected by the assembly, one from each region of Sparta. The five ephors had power superior to that of kings.

The type of civilization now called "Spartan" is not characteristic of early Sparta. Before 600 BC Spartan culture generally coincided with the way of life of the then Athens and other Greek states. Fragments of sculptures, elegant ceramics, ivory, bronze, lead and terracotta figurines found in this area testify to the high level of Spartan culture, just like the poetry of the Spartan poets Tyrtaeus and Alkman (7th century BC) . However, shortly after 600 BC. there was a sudden change. Art and poetry disappear. Sparta suddenly became a military camp, and from then on, the militarized state produced only soldiers. The introduction of this way of life is attributed to Lycurgus, the hereditary king of Sparta.

The Spartan state consisted of three classes: the Spartans, or Spartans; perieki ("living nearby") - people from allied cities that surrounded Lacedaemon; helots - slaves of the Spartans.

Only Spartans could vote and enter the governing bodies. They were forbidden to engage in trade and, in order to discourage them from making a profit, use gold and silver coins. The land plots of the Spartans, cultivated by helots, were supposed to give their owners sufficient income to purchase military equipment and meet daily needs. Spartan hosts had no right to release or sell the helots attached to them; helots were given to the Spartans as if for temporary use and were the property of the Spartan state. Unlike an ordinary slave, who could not have any property, helots had the right to that part of the products produced on their site, which remained after paying a fixed share of the harvest to the Spartans. To prevent uprisings of the helots who had a numerical superiority and to maintain the combat readiness of their own citizens, secret sorties (cryptia) were constantly arranged to kill the helots.

Trade and production were carried out by the perieks. They did not participate in the political life of Sparta, but they had certain rights, as well as the privilege of serving in the army.

Thanks to the labor of numerous helots, the Spartans could devote all their time to physical exercises and military affairs. By 600 BC there were about 25 thousand citizens, 100 thousand perieks and 250 thousand helots. Later, the number of helots exceeded the number of citizens by 15 times.

Wars and economic hardships reduced the number of Spartans. During the Greco-Persian Wars (480 BC), Sparta fielded ca. 5000 Spartans, but a century later at the Battle of Leuctra (371 BC) only 2000 fought. It is mentioned that in the 3rd century. Sparta had only 700 citizens.

Ancient Sparta is an ancient state, a city-polis located in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, in the Peloponnese.

The name of the province of Laconica gave the second name to the Spartan state in the ancient period of history - Lacedaemon.

History of occurrence

In world history, Sparta is known as an example of a militarized state in which the activities of each member of society are subordinated to a single goal - to grow a strong and healthy warrior.

In the ancient period of history in the south of the Peloponnese there were two fertile valleys - Messenia and Laconia. They were separated from each other by a rugged mountain range.

Initially, the state-city of Sparta arose in the Lakonika valley and represented a very small territory - 30 X 10 km. The swampy terrain prevented access to the sea and nothing promised this tiny state of world glory.

Everything changed after the violent conquest and annexation of the Messenian valley and during the reign of the ancient Greek philosopher and great reformer Lycurgus.

His reforms were aimed at the formation of a state with a certain doctrine - to create an ideal state and eradicate such instincts as greed, greed, the thirst for personal enrichment. He formulated the basic laws that concerned not only the administration of the state, but also strictly regulated the private life of each member of society.

Gradually, Sparta turns into a militarized state whose main goal was its own national security. The main task is to produce soldiers. After the conquest of Messenia, Sparta won back some lands from Argos and Arcadia, her neighbors in the northern part of the Peloponnese, and switched to a policy of diplomacy reinforced by military superiority.

Such a strategy allowed Sparta to become the head of the Peloponnesian Union and play the most important political role among the Greek states.

Government of Sparta

The Spartan state consisted of three social classes - the Spartans or Spartans, the perieks inhabiting the conquered cities and the slaves of the Spartans, the helots. The complex, but logically coherent structure of the political administration of the Spartan state was a slave-owning system with remnants of tribal relations that have survived from primitive communal times.

At the head were two rulers - hereditary kings. Initially, they were completely independent and did not report to anyone else and did not report to anyone. Later, their role in government was limited to the council of elders - gerousia, which consisted of 28 elected members for life over 60 years old.

The ancient state of Sparta photo

Further - the national assembly, in which all the Spartans who have reached the age of 30 and have the means necessary for a citizen took part. A little later, another government body appeared - the ephorate. It consisted of five officials elected by the general assembly. Their powers were practically unlimited, although they did not have clearly defined boundaries. Even the ruling kings had to coordinate their actions with the ephors.

The structure of society

The ruling class in Ancient Sparta was the Spartans. Each had his own land allotment and a certain number of helot slaves. Using material goods, the Spartiate could not sell, donate or bequeath land or slaves. It was the property of the state. Only the Spartans could enter the governing bodies and vote.

The next social class is the perieki. These were the inhabitants of the occupied territories. They were allowed to trade, engage in crafts. They had the privilege of enlisting in the military. The lowest class of helots, who were in the position of slaves, were state property and came from the enslaved inhabitants of Messenia.

sparta warriors photo

The state provided helots for rent to the Spartans to cultivate their land plots. During the period of the highest prosperity of Ancient Sparta, the number of helots exceeded the ruling class by 15 times.

Spartan upbringing

The education of citizens was considered a state task in Sparta. From birth to 6 years, the child was in the family, and after that he was transferred to the care of the state. From 7 to 20 years old, young men underwent very serious physical training. Simplicity and moderation in an environment full of hardships from childhood accustomed a warrior to a strict and harsh life.

The 20-year-old boys who passed all the tests completed their training and became warriors. Upon reaching the age of 30, they became full members of society.

Economy

Sparta owned the two most fertile regions - Laconia and Messenia. Arable agriculture, olives, vineyards, and horticultural crops prevailed here. This was the advantage of Lacedaemonia over the Greek policies. The most basic food product, bread, was grown, not imported.

Among grain crops, barley prevailed, the processed product of which was used as the main one in the diet of the inhabitants of Sparta. Wealthy Lacedaemonians used wheat flour as a supplement to their main diet at public meals. Among the main population, wild wheat, spelt, was more common.

Warriors needed good nutrition, so cattle breeding was developed in Sparta at a high level. Goats and pigs were raised for food, and bulls, mules, and donkeys were used as draft animals. Horses were preferred for the formation of mounted military detachments.

Sparta is a warrior state. He needs, first of all, not decorations, but weapons. Luxurious excesses were replaced by practicality. For example, instead of painted, elegant ceramics, the main task of which is to delight, the craft of making vessels that can be used on long trips reaches perfection. Using the rich iron mines, the strongest "Laconian steel" was made in Sparta.

A copper shield was an obligatory element of the Spartan's military weapons. History knows many examples when politicking, power ambitions destroyed the most stable economy and destroyed statehood, despite all its military power. The ancient ancient state of Sparta is a clear example of this.

• In ancient Sparta, healthy and viable offspring were taken care of very cruelly. Newborn children were examined by the elders and the sick or weak were thrown into the abyss from the Taygetskaya rock. Healthy returned to the family.
• Girls in Sparta were involved in athletics on a par with boys. They also ran, jumped, threw the spear and discus to grow strong, hardy and produce healthy offspring. Regular exercise made Spartan girls very attractive. They stood out for their beauty and stateliness among the rest of the Hellenes.
• We owe to the ancient Spartan upbringing such a concept as “conciseness.” This expression is due to the fact that in Sparta young men were taught modest behavior, and their speech had to be short and strong, that is, “laconic”. This is what distinguished the inhabitants of Laconia among the inhabitants of Athens who love to orate.

The phrase "Spartan education" is world famous. A well-thought-out and well-established system, not so much of raising children, as of building a whole society, glorified a small ancient Greek state for centuries.

But few people know that strict principles, the purpose of which was to create a people capable of fighting and ready for any hardships, led to the impoverishment of the culture and spirituality of Sparta.

According to many scientists, it was the "Spartan education" that caused the decline and disappearance of this state.

Spartan children

The system of raising boys in ancient Sparta (VIII - IV centuries BC) was called "agogge", which meant "carrying away".

The cultivation of boys in a military-heroic spirit was considered a privilege, therefore, it extended only to the children of full-fledged citizens of Sparta - the Dorians.

For all other "non-Spartan" children, passing through this system opened up prospects for obtaining citizenship, so, whenever possible, parents gave their son "for upbringing". However, “education” is not quite the right term.

It was a state program designed to form a strong army capable of enduring the hardships and hardships of long campaigns of conquest. The life of a Spartan man from birth to old age was subordinated to these goals.

Plutarch in his work "Biography of Lycurgus" wrote that fathers brought newborn boys to the council of elders. They examined the child, and if he turned out to be healthy, they gave him back to his father to feed him. Together with the child, the father was entitled to a land plot.

Weak, sick and ugly children, according to Plutarch, were thrown into the abyss of Apothetes. Nowadays, scientists have proven that the ancient Greek thinker exaggerated.

During research at the bottom of the gorge in the Taygetus mountains, no children's remains were found. The Spartans sometimes threw captives or criminals off the cliff, but never children.

Babies in Sparta grew up in hard wooden cradles. The boys did not wear warm clothes. From an early age, they were forced to do physical exercises - running, jumping.

At the age of 7, boys were taken from home to foster homes. Here their childhood ended.

In the heat and on the coldest winter days, they exercised in the open air: they mastered military skills, learned to handle weapons, and throw a spear.

They were shaved bald, they never covered their heads, warm clothes were also not supposed to.

The young Spartans slept on hay or reeds, which they themselves had to bring. Often the pupils also had to get food on their own - robbing neighboring areas. At the same time, getting caught stealing was a disgrace.

For any offense, prank, oversight, the boys were severely punished - beaten with whips.

So the Spartans were brought up fortitude and stamina. It was believed that the stricter the upbringing, the better for young men and the state as a whole.

Education in Sparta was not valued. A warrior should not be smart, but cunning. Must be quirky, adapted to life and hardships.

The Spartans were taught to speak little and briefly - "succinctly." Education of feelings, imagination, teaching the arts - all this was considered a waste of time and a distraction of a warrior from his destiny.

At the age of 18, the young man left the orphanage. From that moment on, he did not have to cut his hair or shave his beard, but continued to engage in military exercises. At the age of 20, a Spartan was transferred to a detachment of hierens (youths).

And although he was already an adult, until the age of 30 he was still under the supervision of educators and improved his skills in military skills.

Interestingly, at this age, the Spartans could marry, create their own families, but still did not completely belong to themselves.

One of the principles of the Spartan education of young men was mentoring. It was believed that an experienced husband and warrior is able to teach a young citizen more than official science. Therefore, every Spartan of mature age kept a boy or youth with him, helping him to develop his civil and military prowess.

Spartan girls

The upbringing of Spartan girls, as Plutarch wrote, was similar to the upbringing of boys, with the only difference being that they were engaged in physical exercises without leaving their parental home.

The development of the body and fortitude of the spirit was important for girls. But at the same time, the girls were the personification of purity in Sparta, the attitude of boys and men towards them was respectful, respectful, almost chivalrous.

For the attention of beauties, young men fought at gymnastic competitions. From their youth, the girls felt like full-fledged members of society, citizens, took an active part in the affairs of society. Women were respected by men because they shared their enthusiasm for military affairs, their patriotism and political views.

But with all the social activity, the Spartan women at all times were famous throughout Greece for their homeliness, the ability to manage the household and maintain a home.

Sparta and its model of educating young people left a big mark on world military affairs. It is believed that Alexander the Great used the principles of discipline of the Spartan army when creating his army. Yes, and modern infantry originates precisely from Sparta.