The Middle Ages is the period that is between the decline of ancient culture and the revival of its elements in the Early Modern Age. The culture of this period is based on the dialogue of the heritage of antiquity and the "barbarian" cultures of the Franks, Britons, Saxons, Goths and other tribes of Europe.
The main features of culture:
Feudalism is conditional ownership of land. The king endowed the titles of feudal lords lower in the hierarchy with the inherited right to use and dispose of the "feud" (land with peasants), in return for receiving their help in the war or other participation in court life
Theocentrism is the dominance of the religious picture of the world in all areas of life. Time, space, physicality, attitude to death are formed through the prism of Christian dogma.
16th century for Europe it was a time of struggle between feudalism and growing capitalism, economic shifts. The manufacturing industry, trade developed, economic needs increased - all this contributed to the activation of the exact and natural sciences. This time is characterized by great discoveries. Galileo Galilei (Italian scientist) laid the foundations of modern mechanics, made a telescope with a 32x magnification. The German astronomer Johannes Kepler compiled planetary tables, established the laws of planetary motion, and laid the foundations for the theory of eclipses.
Gottfried Leibniz created differential calculus, anticipated the principles of modern mathematical logic. The English mathematician Isaac Newton discovered the dispersion of light, the law of universal gravitation, chromatic aberration, created the foundations of celestial mechanics, the theory of light. Christian Huygens created the wave theory of light, a pendulum clock with a trigger mechanism, established the laws of oscillation of a physical pendulum, discovered the ring around Saturn. During this period there was a powerful growth of philosophical thought. The worldviews of Francis Bacon, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes in England, Benedict Spinoza in Holland, Rene Descartes in France made a huge contribution to the formation of leading social ideas, the establishment of materialism. In the 17th century fiction was distinguished by a huge variety of genres, for example, a short story, everyday comedy, high tragedy, epic drama, ode, novel, satire, etc. The work of Cervantes and Shakespeare is associated with the beginning of the century, and John Milton ("Paradise Lost") in England, Pedro Caldera de la Barca ("Life is a dream") in Spain and Pierre Corneille ("Sid"), Jean Racine ("Phaedra"), Molière ("Don Juan") in France. In accordance with the formation of nation-states in Western Europe, national art schools are being formed. The highest achievements of Western European art of this time belong to the art of Flanders, Holland, Italy, France, Spain, and Italy.
In the 17th century various types of portraits appeared, genres developed that reflected the environment of a person, a distinct social coloring of images was given. There was a direct connection with nature. Images and phenomena were transmitted in motion. The variety of forms of artistic reflection of reality led to the fact that in the 17th century. the problem of style arose. There were two stylistic systems: classicism and baroque, regardless of this, a realistic trend in art developed. The baroque style is characterized by the pathetic nature of the images and emotional elation. To achieve this, wall curves, pediments, pilasters, various forms of architectural decoration, statues, murals, stucco, bronze and marble decoration are used.
During this period, methods of urban planning, an integral urban ensemble, palace and park complexes were created. In architecture, the most prominent representative of this style was Lorenzo Bernini, in painting this style was followed by the brothers Caracci, Guido, Guercino, Reni, Pietro da Norton, and others. In the era of Louis IV, classicism occupied a dominant place in France. This style is characterized by logic, harmony of composition, simplicity and rigor. In the visual arts, one of the main themes was duty, heroism, and valor. This style does not allow exaggerated emotional expressiveness. The most famous painters of this style were Poussin and Claude Rollin (landscape), Charles Lebrun (murals), Rigaud (ceremonial portrait). In parallel with classicism and baroque in the XVII century. "realism" is emerging in painting. In this style, images are associated with reality. Of the artists, Velasquez, Rembrandt, Frans Hals can be distinguished. New genres of fine art emerged: various forms of landscape, everyday genre, still life.
Traditionalism - focus on established forms of behavior in all areas of life
Symbolism is the desire for a metaphorical interpretation of everything that a person encounters.
As well as dogmatism and ideological intolerance.
The world is presented as arranged according to the same hierarchical pattern: the heavenly hierarchy was reproduced both in the church (Pope, cardinals, bishops, etc.) and in the secular (king, dukes, counts, barons, etc.) , in the guild structure (Great Master, masters, apprentices, students) and even in ideas about the structure of hell. A person is considered as a representative of his estate, from birth to death, occupying one place within the hierarchical system to which he belongs.
In accordance with Christian ideas, the body is perceived as sinful and soul-tempting flesh, which, for the sake of a spiritual afterlife, must be curbed and put to death. This view affects all aspects of everyday life: from medicine to church rituals, from science to court medicine, religion, worldview.
The culture is elitist (aristocratic) and folk. The idea of religious and social unity of the world as the basis of the Eurocentric worldview.
Features of medieval science: scholastic philosophy, alchemy, medicine.
Basic concepts: theocentrism, feudalism, feud, estates, catechism, Catholicism.
36. Culture of the New Time XVIII century - the Age of Enlightenment.
Enlightenment XVIII V. characterized by the assertion of rational knowledge and belief in the abilities of the human mind. Philosophy begins to play the most important worldview role, summarizing more and more new data obtained by various sciences and building a new idea about the world order and the place of man in it. French Encyclopedia as the first attempt to make the knowledge collected by mankind publicly available.
The study of ethics, economics, psychology begins, pedagogy is born. Experimental and descriptive disciplines are developing: physics, biology, geography, medicine. The concepts of the rights and duties of a person as a citizen, the rule of law, the first social utopias are born.
The Great French Revolution and the First Empire at the turn of the century finally change the history of Europe, creating conditions for migration, interpenetration of European cultures through the resettlement of their bearers.
18th century - the last historical stage of the transition from feudalism to capitalism. The development of culture during this period in all European countries took place under the sign of the ideas of the Enlightenment.
In this century, a school of classical German idealist philosophy developed in Germany. In France, the largest detachment of enlighteners was formed, from there the ideas of the Enlightenment spread throughout Europe. In his works ("Persian Letters" and "On the Spirit of Laws") Charles Louis Montesquieu spoke out against unlimited monarchy and feudalism. Voltaire was an outstanding leader of the French Enlightenment. He wrote beautiful literary, philosophical and historical works that expressed hatred of religious fanaticism and the feudal state. The activities of Jean Jacques Rousseau became a new stage in the development of the French Enlightenment. His works contained hatred for the oppressors, criticism of the state system, social inequality. The founder of the materialistic school was Julien Offret La Mettrie, the author of medical and philosophical works. His activities aroused the fury of secular and ecclesiastical reactionaries. The further fate of French materialism is connected with the names of Denis Diderot, Etienne Bonnot Condillac, Paul Holbach. 50-60s 18th century - flourishing activity of the French materialists. This period is characterized by the simultaneous development of science and technology. Thanks to Adam Smith and the French physiocrats, political economy becomes a scientific discipline. Science developed rapidly, it was directly related to technology and production. In the XVIII century. literature and music become more significant, gradually they come to the fore among all kinds of arts. Prose is developing as a genre that shows the fate of an individual in the social environment of that time (“The Lame Devil” by Le Sage, “Wilhelm Meister” by Goethe, etc.). The genre of the novel, which describes the universal picture of the world, is developing especially fruitfully. At the end of the XVII-XVIII centuries. that musical language begins to take shape, in which all of Europe will then speak. The first were J. S. Bach and G. F. Handel. I. Haydn, W. Mozart, L. van Beethoven had a huge influence on the art of music. Great results were achieved by theatrical art, dramaturgy, which was of a realistic and pre-romantic nature.
A distinctive feature of this time is the study of the main issues of the aesthetics of the theater, the nature of acting. The 18th century is often referred to as the "golden age of the theatre". The greatest playwright P. O. Beaumarchais considered him "a giant who mortally wounds everyone he directs his blows at." The largest playwrights were: R. Sheridan (England), K. Goldoni (Venice), P. Beaumarchais (France), G. Lessing, I. Goethe (Germany). -
The leading genre of painting of the XVIII century. was a portrait.
Among the artists of this time, Gainsborough, Latour, Houdon, Chardin, Watteau, Guardi can be distinguished. Painting does not reflect the universal fullness of the spiritual life of man, How that was earlier. In different countries, the formation of new art is uneven. Painting and sculpture in the Rococo style were decorative in nature.
Art of the 18th century ends with the magnificent work of the Spanish artist Francisco Goya. Cultural heritage of the XVIII century. still amazes with its extraordinary diversity, the richness of genres and styles, the depth of understanding of human passions, the greatest optimism and faith in man and his mind. The Age of Enlightenment is the age of great discoveries and great delusions. It is no coincidence that the end of this era falls on the beginning of the French Revolution. She destroyed the faith of the enlighteners in the "golden age" of non-violent progress. It strengthened the position of critics of his goals and ideals.
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QUESTIONS
1. What are the prerequisites for the emergence of the Renaissance culture. What ideas underlay the work of the great writers and artists of the Renaissance?
The prerequisites for the emergence of a culture of revival were:
Rise of the Italian city-republics,
The emergence of new classes that did not participate in feudal relations: artisans and artisans, merchants, bankers. All of them were alien to the hierarchical system of values created by medieval, in many respects church culture, and its ascetic, humble spirit,
The emergence of a culture of humanism that glorified the human creator, who considered a person, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as the highest value,
The development of printing
The activities of universities and the development of secular education.
At the heart of the work of writers and artists of the Renaissance was the idea of man - as the highest creation of nature, as the center of the universe. The philosophy of humanism affirmed the idea that the measure of all things is man with his earthly joys and sorrows.
2. How did the art of the Italian Renaissance influence the culture of other European countries?
The art of the Italian Renaissance greatly influenced the culture of other European countries. The ideas of humanism, the artistic principles of the Renaissance culture crossed the borders of Italy and spread to many countries of Western Europe. Thanks to the embodiment in the work of the great masters of the Renaissance, the humanistic vision of the world penetrated into the palaces of rulers, into the walls of universities, among educated citizens.
3. Name the characteristic features of baroque, rococo and classicism. Give examples of works of art in these styles.
For the Baroque style (the name comes from the Italian word meaning “bizarre”, “strange”) was characterized by grandiosity, pomp and pretentiousness of forms, the creation of a spatial illusion, optical effects. Examples of baroque style:
in painting: the Sistine Madonna of the artist Raphael, the work of the Flemish artist P.P. Rubens, the work of the Dutch artist Rembrandt (“The Return of the Prodigal Son”, “Holy Family”, “Night Watch”, etc.);
in architecture and sculpture - a colonnade on the square in front of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome by architect J.L. Bernini, sculpture "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa";
literature and theater - the work of W. Shakespeare.
The new direction, established in Catholic countries, was a kind of aesthetic response to the Reformation. Baroque architecture and painting were supposed to glorify the greatness of God and assert the power of the Roman church. However, Baroque art was not limited solely to religious motifs.
The Rococo style (translated from French means “shell-shaped decoration”) is characterized by pretentiousness, decorativeness, splendor and luxury. But unlike baroque, rococo is more lightweight, chamber, aristocratic. Particularly characteristic in this regard is the decoration of the interiors of the palaces of the French nobility. Graceful, light furniture with curved legs, sofas, armchairs, tables, wardrobes, canopy beds were decorated with asymmetrical stucco details and inlays. Sofas and armchairs were upholstered with elegant tapestries. Rococo art reflected the tastes of the Versailles aristocracy.
The "gallant age" was also reflected in French painting of the 18th century. It is characterized by an escape from reality, an appeal to the feelings of a person, erotica. These themes are present in the work of the artists Antoine Watteau and Francois Boucher.
For the style of classicism, the main thing was the depiction of majestic and noble deeds, the glorification of a sense of duty to society and the state. In imitation of the ancient Greeks and Romans, cultural figures had to portray the beautiful and sublime.
art - the work of Nicolas Poussin. He lived for a long time in
literature - Pierre Corneille, the great poet and creator of the French theater.
architecture - country royal palace and park in Versailles
4. What testified that in the XVII-XVIII centuries. France has become the center of artistic life in Europe?
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. France became the center of the artistic life of Europe, which is indicated by the fact that it is here that two styles arise - classicism and rococo. France had a significant impact on painting, architecture, fashion throughout Europe. Versailles became an example of a classical palace ensemble. The French industry specialized in the production of luxury goods: tapestries, furniture, lace, gloves, jewelry were exported to all European countries from France. Every month, two dolls dressed in the latest Parisian fashion were sent to England, Italy, Holland, and Russia. It is in France that the first fashion magazine appears.
TASKS
1. How do you see the difference between the art of the Italian Renaissance and the art of France in the 18th century?
Both the Italian Renaissance and the art of France in the 18th century. was drawn to the ancient heritage. However, the main idea of the Italian Renaissance was humanism and the depiction of Christian and mythological subjects. The art of France in the 18th century was more secular. The main thing for the artist was the depiction of majestic and noble deeds, the glorification of a sense of duty to society and the state.
University: VZFEI
Year and city: Vladimir 2009
Option 15
Introduction
1. The development of science and philosophy in Europe in the 17th century. The beginning of the 1st stage of the scientific and technological revolution.
2. The development of painting in the Netherlands. Decoration of art schools
Baroque style.
3.Culture of France in the 17th century. Decoration in classic style.
4. English culture of the 17th century.
Conclusion
Bibliography.
Introduction
The 17th century is a turning point in the development of human society: the Middle Ages ends and the New Age begins. The central events of this century are the final stage of the Great geographical discoveries, the first scientific revolution, as well as the social, bourgeois revolution in England. The result of these accomplishments was the formation of a world market, when regular economic ties are established between all continents, and capitalist relations are established in Europe.
Naturally, these processes influenced the development in the 17th century. European culture.
The development of science and philosophy in Europe in the 17th century. The beginning of the 1st stage of the scientific and technological revolution.
Among the various types of spiritual culture, a special place in the XVII century. occupied fat, which not only received development, but made a breakthrough, called the first fat revolution in the history of mankind. Its result was the formation of modern science.
The most important stage in the development of science was the New Age - XVI-XVII centuries. Here, the needs of emerging capitalism played a decisive role. During this period, the dominance of religious thinking was undermined, and experiment (experiment) was established as the leading research method, which, along with observation, radically expanded the scope of cognizable reality. At this time, theoretical reasoning began to be combined with the practical exploration of nature, which dramatically increased the cognitive capabilities of science. This profound transformation of science, which took place in the 16th-17th centuries, is considered the first scientific revolution that gave the world such names as I. Copernicus, G. Galileo, J. Bruno, I. Kepler, W. Garvey, R. Descartes, X. Huygens, I. Newton and others.
Economic needs, the expansion of the manufacturing industry, trade contributed to the rapid rise of the exact and natural sciences. In the 17th century completed the transition from a poetic-holistic perception of the world to proper scientific methods of cognition of reality. The motto of the era can be called the words of Giordano Bruno, said on its threshold: “The only authority should be reason and free research. This was the time of the great discoveries of Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Leibniz, Huygens in mathematics, astronomy and various fields of physics, remarkable achievements of scientific thought, laid the foundations for the subsequent development of these branches of knowledge
Galileo Galilei(1564-1642), Italian scientist, one of the founders of exact natural science, considered experience to be the basis of knowledge. He refuted the erroneous positions of Aristotle and laid the foundations of modern mechanics: he put forward the idea of the relativity of motion, established the laws of inertia, free fall and motion of bodies on an inclined plane, and the addition of motions. He was engaged in building mechanics, built a telescope with a 32-fold increase, thanks to which he made a number of astronomical discoveries, defended the heliocentric system of the world, for which he was subjected to the court of the Inquisition (1633) and spent the end of his life in exile.
Johannes Kepler(1871-1630), German astronomer, one of the founders of modern astronomy. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, compiled planetary tables, laid the foundations for the theory of eclipses, invented a new telescope with binocular lenses.
Isaac Newton(1643-1727), English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist, creator of classical mechanics. He discovered the dispersion of light, chromatic aberration, developed a theory of light that combined corpuscular and wave representations. He discovered the law of universal gravitation and created the foundations of celestial mechanics.
Gottfried Leibniz(1646-1716), German mathematician, physicist, philosopher, linguist. One of the creators of differential calculus, anticipated the principles of modern mathematical logic. In the spirit of rationalism, he developed the doctrine of the innate ability of the mind to cognize the higher categories of being and the universal necessary truths of logic and mathematics.
Christian Huygens(1629 - 1695) - Dutch scientist, invented a pendulum clock with an escapement, established the laws of oscillation of a physical pendulum. He created the wave theory of light. Together with R. Hooke, he established the constant points of the thermometer. Improved the telescope (Huygens eyepiece), discovered the ring of Saturn. The author of one of the first treatises on the theory of probability.
Scientists such as Harvey, Malpighi, Leeuwenhoek contributed to many branches of biology.
William Harvey(1576-1637), English physician, founder of modern physiology and embryology. He described the large and small circles of blood circulation, for the first time expressed the idea of the origin of "all living things from the egg."
Marcello Malpighi(1628-1694), Italian biologist and physician, one of the founders of microanatomy, discovered the capillary circulation.
Anton Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723), Dutch naturalist, one of the founders of scientific microscopy. He made lenses with 150-300-fold magnification, which made it possible to study microbes, blood cells, etc.
Thus, the works of scientists-researchers of the XVII century. created the basis for technological progress.
Philosophy
The development of the exact and natural sciences directly served as an impetus for a powerful leap in philosophical thought. Philosophy developed in close connection with the sciences. The views of Bacon, Hobbes, Locke in England, Descartes in France, Spinoza in Holland were of great importance in the establishment of materialism and the formation of advanced social ideas, in the struggle against idealistic currents and church reaction.
Francis Bacon(1561 - 1626), an English philosopher, the founder of English materialism, was Lord Chancellor under King James I. In his treatise "New Organon" (1620), he proclaimed the goal of science to increase man's power over nature and proposed a reform of the scientific method of cognition, the basis of which he considered appeal to experience and its processing through induction. Bacon wrote the utopia "New Atlantis", in which he outlined the project of the state organization of science.
The philosophy of Bacon, which took shape in the atmosphere of the scientific and cultural upsurge of Europe on the eve of the bourgeois revolutions, had an enormous influence on a whole era of philosophical and scientific development; the classification of knowledge proposed by him was accepted by the French encyclopedists. His teaching laid down the materialistic tradition in the philosophy of modern times, and his inductive methodology became the basis for the development of inductive logic.
Thomas Hobbes(1568-1679) continued the line of Bacon, considered knowledge as a power and recognized its practical use as the ultimate task of philosophy. Hobbes created the first system of mechanistic materialism in the history of philosophy. The social doctrine of Hobbes about the state and the role of state power had a significant impact on the development of European social thought.
The ideas of Francis Bacon are also developed by John Locke (1632-1704), an English philosopher-enlightener and political thinker. He developed the empirical theory of knowledge and the ideological and political doctrine of liberalism. According to Marx, Locke was "... the classic exponent of the legal ideas of bourgeois society as opposed to feudal society." Locke's ideas played a huge role in the history of the philosophical and socio-political thought of the European Enlightenment.
The most prominent representative of the French philosophy of the XVII century. rightly believe Rene Descartes(1596-1650). A philosopher, mathematician, physicist and physiologist, he was a universal revivalist type of personality living in the 17th century. and reflecting in scientific and philosophical works the complexity and inconsistency of its turbulent time. He laid the foundations of analytical geometry, formulated laws and concepts from the field of mechanics, created a theory of the formation and movement of celestial bodies due to the vortex motion of matter particles. But a special contribution to world culture belongs to Descartes the philosopher. Descartes is the author of the famous saying: "I think, therefore I am." Descartes is a representative of the philosophy of dualism. According to Descartes, the common cause of motion is God, who created matter, motion and rest. Man is a lifeless bodily mechanism plus a soul with thinking and will. The immediate certainty of consciousness underlies all knowledge. Descartes tried to prove the existence of God and the reality of the external world. The main works of Descartes are "Geometry" (1637), "Discourse on the Method ..." (1637), "Principles of Philosophy" (1644).
Benedict Spinoza(1632-1677), Dutch materialist philosopher, pantheist, like many of his contemporaries, transferred mathematical laws to philosophy. He believed that the world is a natural system that can be known by the mathematical method. Nature, according to Spinoza, is God, a single, eternal, infinite substance. Thinking and attraction are its inalienable properties, while things and ideas are single phenomena (modes). Man is a part of nature, his soul is a mode of thinking, his body is a mode of extension. Will and mind are one, all human actions are included in the chain of world universal determination. Spinoza's teaching had a great influence on the development of atheism and materialism.
Scientific revolution of the 17th century. connected with the revolution in natural science. The development of productive forces required the creation of new machines, the introduction of chemical processes, knowledge of the laws of mechanics, and precise instruments for astronomical observations.
The scientific revolution went through several stages, and its formation took a century and a half. Its beginning was laid by N. Copernicus (1473-1543) and his followers Bruno, Galileo, Kepler. In 1543, the Polish scientist N. Copernicus published the book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres”, in which he approved the idea that the Earth, like other planets of the Solar System, revolves around the Sun, which is the central body of the Solar System. Copernicus established that the Earth is not an exclusive celestial body. This was a blow to anthropocentrism and religious legends, according to which the Earth supposedly occupies a central position in the universe. The geocentric system of Ptolemy, accepted for many centuries, was rejected. But the work of Copernicus from 1616 to 1828 was banned by the Catholic Church.
Developed the teachings of Copernicus in the XVI century. the Italian thinker J. Bruno (1548-1600), the author of the works, innovative for his time, On Infinity, the Universe and the Worlds, On Cause, Beginning and One. He believed that the Universe is infinite and measureless, that it represents an innumerable number of stars, each of which is similar to our Sun and around which their planets revolve. Bruno's opinion is now fully confirmed by science. And then, in the Middle Ages, for these bold views, J. Bruno was accused of heresy and burned by the Inquisition.
Galileo (1564-1642) owns the largest achievements in the field of physics and the development of the most fundamental problem - movement; his achievements in astronomy are enormous: the justification and approval of the heliocentric system, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter out of 13 currently known; the discovery of the phases of Venus, the extraordinary appearance of the planet Saturn, now known to be created by rings representing a collection of solid bodies; a huge number of stars that are not visible to the naked eye. Galileo was successful in scientific achievements to a large extent because he recognized observations and experience as the starting point for the knowledge of nature.
Galileo was the first to observe the sky through a telescope (a telescope with 32x magnification was built by the scientist himself). The main works of Galileo are the Starry Herald, Dialogues on the Two Systems of the World.
One of the creators of modern astronomy was I. Kepler (1571-1630), who discovered the laws of planetary motion, which are named after him (Kepler's laws). He compiled the so-called Rudolf planetary tables. To his credit laying the foundations of the theory of eclipses, he invented a telescope with biconvex lenses. He published his theories in the books New Astronomy and Brief Review of Copernican Astronomy. The English physician W. Harvey (1578-1657) is considered the founder of modern physiology and embryology. His main work is An Anatomical Study on the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals. He described the large and small circles of blood circulation. His teaching refuted the halo of the previously existing Ideas set forth by the ancient Roman physician Golen (c.130-c.200). Harvey was the first to state that "everything that lives comes from an egg". However, the question remained open how the blood coming from the heart through the veins returns to it through the arteries. His assumptions about the existence of tiny connecting vessels were proven in 1661 by the Italian researcher M. Molpigi (1628-1694), who discovered capillaries connecting veins and arteries under a microscope.
Among the merits of R. Descartes (1596-1650) - a French scientist (mathematician, physicist, philologist, philosopher) - the introduction of the coordinate axis, which contributed to the unification of algebra and geometry. He introduced the concept of a variable, which formed the basis of the differential and integral calculus of Newton and Leibnitz. The philosophical positions of Descartes are dualistic, he recognized the soul and the body, of which the soul is a “thinking” substance, and the body is an “extended” substance. He believed that God exists, that God created matter, movement and rest. The main works of Descartes are "Geometry", "Discourse on Method", "Principles of Philosophy".
The Dutch scientist X. Huygens (1629-1695) invented the pendulum clock, established the laws of pendulum motion, laid the foundations for the theory of impact, the wave theory of light, and explained birefringence. He was engaged in astronomy - he discovered the ring of Saturn and its satellite Titan. He prepared one of the first works on the theory of probability.
One of the greatest scientists in the history of mankind is the Englishman I. Newton (1643-1727). He wrote a huge number of scientific works in various fields of science ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", "Optics", etc.). The most important stages in the development of optics, astronomy, and mathematics are associated with his name. Newton created the foundations of mechanics, discovered the law of universal gravitation and developed on its basis the theory of motion of celestial bodies. This scientific discovery glorified Newton forever. He owns such discoveries in the field of mechanics as the concepts of force, energy, the formulation of the three laws of mechanics; in the field of optics, the discovery of refraction, dispersion, interference, and diffraction of light; in the field of mathematics - algebra, geometry, interpolation, differential and integral calculus.
In the XVIII century. revolutionary discoveries were made in astronomy by I. Kant and P. Laplace, as well as in chemistry - its beginning is associated with the name AL. Lavoisier.
The German philosopher, the founder of German classical philosophy I. Kant (1724-1804) developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula (treatise "General Natural History and Theory of the Sky").
P. Laplace (1749-1827) - French astronomer, mathematician, physicist, author of a classic work on probability theory and celestial mechanics (considered the dynamics of the solar system as a whole and its stability). Laplace wrote a Treatise on Celestial Mechanics and an Analytical Theory of Probability. Just like Kant, he proposed a cosmogonic hypothesis, it was named after him (Laplace's hypothesis).
French chemist A.L. Lavoisier (1743-1794) is considered one of the
him from the founders of modern chemistry. In research
he used quantitative methods. Explain the role of oxygen in
processes of combustion, roasting of metals and respiration. One of the founders of thermochemistry. The author of the classic course "Initial textbook
Chemistry", as well as the essay "Methods for naming chemical elements".
Development of painting in the Netherlands. Decoration of art schools
Baroque style.
The 17th century was a golden age for Dutch painting: national art schools did not know court art, did not interfere in the work of painters and the church. Flemish art developed in somewhat different ways. After the division of the Netherlands into Holland and Flanders, the main customers for works of art in Flanders were the nobility, the higher burghers and the Catholic Church. The social order predetermined the purpose of artistic creativity - to decorate castles, patriciate houses and places of worship. Therefore, the predominant genre of secular painting were portraits of noble and wealthy customers, hunting scenes, huge still lifes.
The outstanding Flanders artists of this time are Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordanes and Snyders.
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) had a universal talent. The subjects of his canvases are varied (religious, mythological, allegorical, landscapes, scenes of peasant life, portraits), but all of them are imbued with a huge life-affirming beginning. The master is characterized by a combination of realistic observations and sensual beauty of images, drama. In the paintings, made in the Baroque style, elation, pathos, stormy movement. The canvases are full of decorative brilliance and color. The most famous paintings by Rubens are "Exaltation of the Cross", "Descent from the Cross", "Perseus and Andromeda", "History of Mary Medici", "Return of the Reapers", "Bathsheba", portraits - "Maid Lady", "Fur Coat", self-portraits .
Rubens created his own world - the world of gods and heroes to match the hyperbolic images of "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by F. Rabelais. The color of his canvases is built on the contrast of the tones of the naked body with bright robes and a noble restrained tone.
The most famous student of Rubens, the brilliant portrait painter Antonio van Dyck (1599-1641), entered the history of fine art. He is the author of ceremonial portraits of aristocrats, politicians, church prelates, wealthy burghers, local beauties, fellow artists. He painted many portraits and members of the royal family. Despite the splendor of the portraits, the artist manages to capture individual features in each
models and show brilliant craftsmanship. His characters are effortless and graceful, and their surroundings are emphatically decorative. Van Dyck has paintings on mythological and Christian subjects imbued with lyricism (“Susanna and the Elders”, “St. Jerome”, “Madonna with Partridges”).
One of the outstanding artists of Flanders is Jacob Jordan (1593-1678). His large-scale canvases depict mythological, allegorical scenes from peasant life. My favorite genre is everyday paintings (“The Bean King”, “Adoration of the Shepherds”, “Satire Visiting the Peasant”). Jordane most fully expressed the national flavor and national type.
Frans Snyders (1579-1657) became famous for his still lifes and hunting scenes. His still lifes are monumental, decorative, colorful. Snyders superbly painted the gifts of nature - fish, meat, fruits (series "Shops"), furs, feathers, animal fights.
Baroque style.
Artistic The dominant artistic styles of the 17th century of this century were Baroque and Classicism. century Baroque style, baroque, existed in Europe from 1600 to 1750. It is characterized by expressiveness, splendor, dynamics. Aimed at supporting the Catholic Church in its struggle against the Reformation, Baroque art sought to directly affect the feelings of the audience. An example of the highest expression of feelings is the sculpture of Bernina “The Ecstasy of St. Teresa." Painting, sculpture, decor, architecture create a holistic dramatic effect. The style that originally emerged in Roman churches conquers all of Europe, while acquiring new features.
Baroque art developed in the feudal-absolutist states under the strong influence of Catholicism (Italy, Spain, Flanders). The visual art of the Baroque cannot be understood apart from its connection with architecture. Architecture, which combines utilitarian and artistic factors to a greater extent than other forms of art, is associated with material progress and is more dependent on the dominant ideology (temple architecture and urban planning is carried out with the money of the church and rich people, but at the same time it serves society as a whole). In baroque cult buildings, all the richest possibilities for the synthesis of architecture, sculpture, decorative art and painting are designed to strike the imagination of the viewer, imbued with a religious feeling. In the same Italy, secular structures are erected, representing an important stage in the development of world architecture. Techniques of urban planning, an integral urban ensemble are being developed, palace and park complexes are being built, in which new principles of the connection between architecture and the natural environment are being discovered.
Baroque is characterized by great emotional elation and pathetic nature of images, which is achieved due to the scale of buildings, exaggerated monumentalization of forms, dynamics of spatial construction, and increased plastic expressiveness of volumes. Hence the curvilinear plans, the curves of the walls, on which, as it were, grow cornices, pediments, pilasters; small forms of architectural decoration abound: windows are decorated with various architraves, niches - with statues. The general impression of rapid movement and wealth is complemented by sculpture, murals, stucco, colored marbles and bronzes. Add to this picturesque contrasts of chiaroscuro, perspective and illusionistic effects.
Religious, palace buildings, sculpture, fountains (Rome) are combined into an integral artistic image. The same can be said about the palace and park complexes of other regions of Italy of the Baroque era, which are distinguished by their exceptionally masterful use of complex terrain, rich southern vegetation, water cascades in combination with small forms - pavilions, fences, fountains, statues and sculptural groups.
Most clearly, the features of the Baroque were embodied in monumental sculpture, in the work of Lorenzo Bernini (the ideas of the triumph of mysticism over reality, the ecstatic expressiveness of images, the stormy dynamics of odds).
In painting, the contribution to the art of the Baroque was made by the Bologna academic brothers Carracci, Guido, Reni, Gvercino. The baroque concept reaches its full development with Pietro da Norton, Bacciccio and others. In their multi-figure compositions saturated with strong movement, the characters seem to be carried away somewhere by an unknown force. Baroque painting was dominated by monumental and decorative paintings, mainly plafonds, altar paintings depicting the apotheoses of saints, scenes of miracles, martyrdoms, huge historical and allegorical compositions, folk portrait (large style). In Baroque art, in particular in the monumental sculpture of Bernini, not only religious ideas were reflected, but also an acute crisis and irreconcilable contradictions in Italy in the 17th century.
The baroque art of Flanders has its own specifics. In Rubens, Jordans and other masters, the antithesis of the earthly and the mystical, the real and the illusory, which is characteristic of the Baroque concept, is expressed more externally, without turning into a tragic dissonance. In Rubens, in many altar compositions, as well as in paintings on the themes of ancient mythology, man and real life are glorified.
Spain in the 17th century. the baroque developed in original national forms in architecture, sculpture, and painting with a pronounced polarization.
In France, the Baroque style did not occupy a leading position, but France in the 17th century. - This is the historical arena of the development of classicism.
French culture in the 17th century. Decoration in classic style.
Classicism has been recognized as the official trend in French literature since the formation in 1635 of the Academy of Literature in Paris.
In the 17th century, when the unlimited power of the monarch was established in France, which reached its apogee under Louis XIV, a classicist trend was formed that embraced all types of artistic creativity - classicism. Classicism, based on following the principles of ancient art: rationalism, symmetry, purposefulness, restraint and strict compliance of the content of the work with its form, sought to express the sublime, heroic and moral ideals, to create clear, organic images. At the same time, classicism carried the features of utopianism, idealization, abstraction, academicism, which grew during its crisis.
Classicism established a hierarchy of artistic genres - high and low. So, in painting, historical paintings, mythical, religious, were recognized as high genres. Landscape, portrait, still life belonged to the low ones, the same subordination of genres was observed in literature. Tragedy, epic, ode were considered high, and comedy, satire, fable were considered low. A clear demarcation of plans and smoothness of forms were established for works of sculpture and painting. If there was movement in the figures, then it did not disturb their calm statuary ha, plastic isolation. For a clear selection of objects, a local color was used: for the near - brown, for the middle - green, for the distant plan - blue.
The ancestor of classicism in literature was Pierre Corneille (1606-1684), the author of the tragedies Sid, Horace, Cinna, Polyeuctus, Oedipus, and others, glorifying the willpower controlled by reason. Corneille is considered the founder of the French theater. The core of Corneille's plays is the tragic conflict of passion and duty, heroic characters act in them, the great poet denounces despotism.
The works of Francois de La Rochefoucauld (1613-1680) and Marie Madeleine de Lafayette (1634-1693) became the model for French prose. In the collection of aphorisms and maxims "Reflections, or Moral Sayings", containing brief, sharp and cynical observations of life and people, La Rochefoucauld criticizes the aristocratic society of his day. Marc Lafayette is the author of the first psychological novel in France, The Princess of Cleves, which was a huge success with readers. All the characters in the novel are real people, but bred under different names.
Nicolas Boileau (1636-1711) was the theoretician of classicism. The rules and norms of classicism are set forth by him in the treatise "Poetic Art" (in the form of a poem). He is the author of the witty Satyrs, in which he ridiculed religion and statesmen. His poetic talent was highly appreciated by A.S. Pushkin.
The greatest playwright of France is Jean Racine (1639-1699), author of the tragedies Andromache, Britannia, Berenice, Mithridates, Iphi-Genius, Phaedra, Afapia, etc. Racine borrowed plots from Greek mythology and created his works according to all the canons of classical Greek drama. In his plays, with the exceptional musicality and harmony of the verse, the balance of the external form, sharply dramatic conflicts are depicted, the spiritual tragedy of people forced to sacrifice their feelings to the demands of public duty.
The development of world dramaturgy was greatly influenced by the work of Molière (nast, name Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, 1622-1673), a stage art reformer, comedian, and actor. The most important source of inspiration for him is farcical dramaturgy. On the basis of a combination of classicism and the traditions of the folk theater, Moliere created the genre of social comedy. In his works "Tartuffe, or the Deceiver", "The tradesman in the nobility", "The Misanthrope", "The Imaginary Sick", "Funny Cossacks", "A Lesson for Wives", "Marriage involuntarily", "The Miser" are denounced, as Balzac wrote , treachery, shameful love of old people, misanthropy, slander, foppishness, unequal marriages, avarice, venality, debauchery of judges, vanity.
Satire acquired great emotionality, social acuteness and realistic concreteness in the fables of the largest poetic talent of France - Jean La Fontaine (1621-1695), in his work based on ancient samples and folk traditions (Aesop's fables), the so-called animal epic. In his works, absolute monarchy and aristocratic society are compared with the kingdom of bloodthirsty and predatory animals; the church is condemned, religion is skeptically evaluated and at the same time the true humanity of people from the people is revealed (“Shoemaker and farmer”, “Peasant from the Danube”, “Merchant, nobleman, shepherd and son of the king”, etc.).
In the second half of the XVII century. Antoine Furetier (1620-1688) was the foremost representative of French literature. His main work, The Bourgeois Novel, is an important step in the development of realism.
Charles Perrault (1628-1703) lived and wrote his famous fairy tales at this time. His collection Tales of Mother Goose includes the tales Sleeping Beauty, Little Red Riding Hood, Cinderella, Puss in Boots, etc. In some of them, the writer used European folk stories (for example, the plot of Cinderella has about 700 options).
The founder of classicism in painting is Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), who painted pictures on mythological and literary themes. The strict balance of the compositions, the cult of nature and the worship of antiquity are the characteristic features of the artist’s work (“The Death of Germanicus”, “Tancred and Erminia”, “Sleeping Venus”, “Landscape with Polyphemus”, the cycle “Seasons”, “Arcadian Shepherds” ). Poussin made small wax figures for his paintings, experimenting with different compositions and lighting.
The master of the lyrical landscape was the painter Claude Lorrain (1600-1682). His clear light painting in the classical style had a strong influence on the tastes of the XVII-XVIII centuries. The characters of his canvases (usually mythological or historical) are most often lost in the setting of a poetic landscape (“The Enchanted Castle”). With subtle lighting effects, Lorrain was able to express a different feeling of nature depending on the time of day (series "Seasons of Day").
Although the architecture still retained elements of Gothic and Renaissance, elements of classicism had already appeared, for example, the facade of the building of the Luxembourg Palace (architect S. de Bros) was divided by an order that would become mandatory for this style; the colonnade of the eastern facade of the Louvre (architect Perrault) is characterized by the simplicity of the order, the balance of masses, static, which achieves a sense of peace and grandeur.
The largest palace architectural structure of the 17th century. is Versailles. Here harmony and proportionality of the entire grandiose ensemble as a whole has been achieved. The palace was built by the architects L. Levo (1612-1670) and J. Hardouin-Mansart (1646-1708). Hardouin-Mansart also erected majestic ceremonial buildings: the Grand Trianon Palace, Les Invalides, Place Vendôme, and Levo designed the Tuileries Palace.
The creator of the parks of Versailles and the Tuileries is the architect, master of landscape art Andre Le Nôtre (1613-1700). The park in Versailles was wonderfully combined with the architecture of the facade of the palace facing the park, the symmetry of the facade, as it were, continues in the spacious “parterres” (gardens, flowerbeds and paths of which make up the pattern), radially divergent alleys, open perspectives.
In the 17th century in France, secular music comes to the fore, it begins to prevail over the spiritual. Opera and ballet are developing. The first national operas are Triumph of Love, Past Toral. The founder of the national opera school is composer and dancer Zh.B. Lully (1632-1687), author of the operas Alceste, Theseus, as well as opera overture, music for Molière's performances.
Instrumental schools also developed at this time - lute, harpsichord, viol.
English culture of the 17th century.
The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588 - culture 1679) is considered the creator of the first complete system of mechanistic materialism. Hobbes is one of the representatives of the theory of the emergence of the state by a social contract, or the contract theory of the state. According to this theory, the state is the result of a kind of contract concluded by a sovereign ruler and subjects. According to Hobbes, the motivation for concluding such an agreement was fear of aggression from other people, fear for one's life, freedom and property. The emergence of the state put an end to the natural state of "war of all against all", which, according to Hobbes, took place in the pre-state period. Hobbes was the first to speak out against the divine origin of royal power. He outlined his theory in the main pro-product "Leviathan". His philosophical works are "Fundamentals of Philosophy" ("Hotel", "Oman", "Citizen").
The greatest English poet of this time was John Milton (1608-1674). In the poems "Paradise Lost" and "Paradise Regained" in biblical allegorical images, he reflected the events of the English Revolution. Milton is the author of the poem "History of Britain" and the impressive but inconvenient tragedy "Samson the Fighter" for staging, in which he touched on the problem of tyranny.
Milton - a progressive public figure, a brilliant publicist - defended the sovereignty of the English Republic, defended the freedom of the revolutionary press (the pamphlet "Protection of the English People", "Areopagitica").
After the restoration of the Stuart dynasty in England, secular art was revived, attempts were made to establish the canons of classicism in the English theater and literature, but it was not possible to create a tragic style here. Of the comedians, William Utherley (1640-1716) and William Congreve (1670-1729) stood out. Congreve's comedies "Double Game", "Love for Love" and others make fun of secular pretense, they are distinguished by elegant humor and puns, intricacy of intrigue.
In the 17th century musical theater is emerging in England. The greatest English composer of the century is H. Purcell (c. 1659-1695), author of the first English operas Dido and Aeneas and King Arthur. In his music, high technicality is combined with restrained expressiveness of the melody.
Conclusion:
In the era of modern times, the idea of law as the initial governing force in nature and society was established. Science is called upon to know and formulate the laws of nature. Science as a public institution, a community of world scientists who jointly form systematic, verifiable and provable knowledge that has a universal meaning - first emerged in the era of modern times. Art (painting, theater, literature, music) in the era of modern times for the first time freed itself from the embodiment of established religious ideas and became an independent means of cognition and figurative embodiment of the prevailing social laws, a means of educating people in moral norms, which was recognized as “natural”, inherent in human nature itself. . In the era of the New Age, a socially significant system of education and upbringing was developed for the first time. Textbooks on the main branches of knowledge are also an innovation of this era. Political forms, tested in the era of modern times, partly survived to this day. The most valuable legacy of the Modern Age is the then developed idea of a person as a self-responsible figure (monarch, nobleman, politician, scientist, owner, etc.), whose freedom is limited only by natural moral law.
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Lecture number 18.
Topic: European culture of the XVI-XVIII centuries.
1. Culture of the Renaissance.
2. Literature of the Enlightenment.
3. Art of the XVII-XVIII centuries.
1.
The new period in the cultural development of Western and Central Europe was called the Renaissance, or Renaissance.
Renaissance (in French, Renaissance) is a humanistic movement in the history of European culture during the period of the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times. The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 14th century, spread to Western countries (Northern Renaissance) and reached its peak in the middle of the 16th century. Late 16th - early 17th century: decline - mannerism.
The phenomenon of the Renaissance was determined by the fact that the ancient heritage turned into a weapon for the overthrow of church canons and prohibitions. Some culturologists, defining its significance, compare it with the grandiose cultural revolution, which lasted two and a half centuries and ended with the creation of a new type of worldview and a new type of culture. A revolution took place in art, comparable to the discovery of Copernicus. At the center of the new worldview was man, and not God as the highest measure of all that exists. The new view of the world was called humanism.
Anthropocentrism is the main idea of the Renaissance worldview. The birth of a new worldview is associated with the writer Francesco Petrarch. Scholasticism, based on the formal terminological method, he opposes scientific knowledge; happiness in the "City of God" - earthly human happiness; spiritual love for God - sublime love for an earthly woman.
The ideas of humanism were expressed in the fact that in a person his personal qualities are important - mind, creative energy, enterprise, self-esteem, will and education, and not social status and origin.
In the Renaissance, the ideal of a harmonious, liberated, creative personality, beauty and harmony is affirmed, an appeal to man as the highest principle of being, a sense of the wholeness and harmonious regularity of the universe.
The Renaissance gave rise to geniuses and titans:
Italy - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian, politician Machiavelli, philosophers Alberti, Bruni, Val, Ficino, Nicholas of Cusa, architects Brunelleschi and Bramante;
France - Rabelais and Montaigne;
England - More, Bacon, Sydney, Shakespeare;
Spain - Cervantes;
Poland - Copernicus;
Germany - Boehme, Müntzer, Kepler.
Renaissance masterpieces:
Leonardo da Vinci "La Gioconda", "The Last Supper";
Raphael "Sistine Madonna" and "Sleeping Venus", "Madonna Conestabile" and "Judith";
Titian "Danae" (Hermitage Museum).
The main feature of the art and culture of the Renaissance is the affirmation of the beauty and talent of a person, the triumph of thought and high feelings, creative activity. Baroque and classicism styles are developing in fine arts, academicism and caravagism are developing in painting. New genres appear - landscape, still life, paintings of everyday life, hunts and holidays.
Leonardo da Vinci Mona Lisa
Raphael Sistine Madonna
Renaissance architecture is based on the revival of classical, mainly Roman architecture. The main requirements are balance and clarity of proportions, the use of an order system, a sensitive attitude to the building material, its texture, and beauty.
The revival arose and most clearly manifested itself in Italy.
The period from the last decade of the 15th century to the middle of the 16th century (High Renaissance) becomes the "golden age" of Italian art. The solemn and majestic architecture of Bramante and Palladio remains in the memory of his descendants, he gives the world the immortal masterpieces of Raphael and Michelangelo. The entire 16th century continues, and only at the beginning of the 17th century does the flowering of the Renaissance culture born under the sky of Italy fade away.
The late Renaissance is characterized by the rapid development of such a synthetic art form as theater, the most prominent representatives of which were Lope de Vega, Calderon, Tirso de Molina (Spain), William Shakespeare (England).
Thus, the culture of the Renaissance reflects the synthesis of the features of antiquity and medieval Christianity, and humanism is the ideological basis of the secularization of culture.
The Renaissance replaced the religious ritual with a secular one, elevated a person to a heroic pedestal.
2.
People of the 17th-18th centuries called their time centuries of reason and enlightenment. Medieval ideas, consecrated by the authorities of the church and the all-powerful tradition, were criticized. In the 18th century, the desire for knowledge based on reason, and not on faith, took possession of an entire generation. The consciousness that everything is subject to discussion, that everything must be clarified by the means of reason, was a distinctive feature of the people of the 17th and 18th centuries.
The Enlightenment marked the end of the transition to modern culture. A new way of life and thinking was taking shape, which means that the artistic self-awareness of a new type of culture was also changing. Enlightenment saw in ignorance, prejudice and superstition the main cause of human disasters and social evils, and in education, philosophical and scientific activity, in freedom of thought - the path of cultural and social progress.
The ideas of social equality and personal freedom took possession, first of all, of the third estate, from whose midst most of the humanists emerged. The middle class consisted of the prosperous bourgeoisie and people of liberal professions, it possessed capital, professional and scientific knowledge, common ideas, and spiritual aspirations. The worldview of the third estate was most clearly expressed in the enlightenment movement - anti-feudal in content and revolutionary in spirit.
Radical changes also took place at the level of aesthetic consciousness. The main creative principles of the 17th century - classicism and baroque - acquired new qualities during the Enlightenment, because the art of the 17th century turned to the image of the real world. Artists, sculptors, writers recreated it in paintings and sculptures, stories and novels, in plays and performances. The realistic orientation of art prompted the creation of a new creative method.
Literature relied on public opinion, which was formed in circles and salons. The courtyard ceased to be the only center to which everyone aspired. The philosophical salons of Paris came into fashion, where Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Helvetius, Hume, Smith visited. From 1717 to 1724 more than one and a half million volumes of Voltaire and about a million volumes of Rousseau were printed. Voltaire was a truly great writer - he knew how to comprehend and explain simply and in a beautiful, elegant language the most serious topic that attracted the attention of his contemporaries. He had a tremendous influence on the minds of all enlightened Europe. His evil laughter, capable of destroying age-old traditions, was feared more than anyone's accusations. He strongly emphasized the value of culture. He portrayed the history of society as the history of the development of culture and human education. Voltaire preached the same ideas in his dramatic works and philosophical stories (“Candide, or Optimism”, “Innocent”, “Brutus”, “Tancred”, etc.).
The direction of enlightenment realism was successfully developed in England. The whole group of ideas and dreams of a better natural order received artistic expression in the famous novel by Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) Robinson Crusoe. He wrote more than 200 works of various genres: poems, novels, political essays, historical and ethnographic works. The book about Robinson is nothing but the story of an isolated individual, given to the educational and corrective work of nature, a return to the state of nature. Less well known is the second part of the novel, which tells of a spiritual rebirth on an island far from civilization.
German writers, remaining on the positions of enlightenment, were looking for non-revolutionary methods of combating evil. They considered aesthetic education to be the main force of progress, and art as the main means. German writers and poets moved from the ideals of public freedom to the ideals of moral and aesthetic freedom. Such a transition is characteristic of the work of the German poet, playwright and Enlightenment art theorist Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805). In his early plays, which were a huge success, the author protested against despotism and class prejudice. "Against Tyrants" - the epigraph to his famous drama "Robbers" - directly speaks of its social orientation.
In addition to the styles of baroque and classicism generally accepted in Europe, new ones appeared in the 17th-18th centuries: rococo, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. Unlike previous centuries, there is no single style of the era, the unity of the artistic language. The art of the 18th century became a kind of encyclopedia of various stylistic forms, which were widely used by artists, architects, and musicians of this era. In France, artistic culture was closely connected with the court environment. The Rococo style originated among the French aristocracy. The words of Louis XV (1715-1754) "After us - even a flood" can be considered a characteristic of the mood that prevailed in court circles. Strict etiquette was replaced by a frivolous atmosphere, a thirst for pleasure and fun. The aristocracy was in a hurry to have fun before the flood in the atmosphere of gallant festivities, the soul of which was Madame Pompadour. The court environment partly itself formed the Rococo style with its capricious, whimsical forms. Antoine Watteau (1684-1721), a court painter, can be considered the founder of Rococo in painting. The heroes of Watteau are actresses in wide silk dresses, dandies with languid movements, cupids frolicking in the air. Even the titles of his works speak for themselves: "The Capricious", "The Feast of Love", "Society in the Park", "The Predicament". 
Watteau "The Predicament".
As a painter, Watteau was much deeper and more complex than his numerous followers. He diligently studied nature, wrote a lot from nature. After the death of Watteau, Francois Boucher (1704-1770) took his place at court. A very skilled craftsman, he worked a lot in the field of decorative painting, made sketches for tapestries, for painting on porcelain. Typical plots are The Triumph of Venus, The Toilet of Venus, The Bathing of Diana. In the works of Boucher, the mannerisms and eroticism of the Rococo era were expressed with particular force, for which he was constantly accused by moralist educators.
In the era of the French Revolution, a new classicism triumphed in art. The classicism of the 18th century is not a development of the classicism of the previous century - it is a fundamentally new historical and artistic phenomenon. Common features: an appeal to antiquity as a norm and an artistic model, assertion of the superiority of duty over feeling, increased abstraction of style, pathos of reason, order and harmony. The exponent of classicism in painting was Jacques Louis David (years of life: 1748-1825). His painting "The Oath of the Horatii" became the battle banner of new aesthetic views. A plot from the history of Rome (the Horace brothers swear an oath of fidelity to duty and readiness to fight enemies) became an expression of republican views in revolutionary France.
J.S. Bach
The 18th century brought a lot of new things to musical creativity. In the 18th century, music rose to the level of other arts that had flourished since the Renaissance. Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Friedrich Handel, Christoph Gluck, Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart stand at the pinnacle of musical art in the 18th century. The flourishing of music as an independent art form at that time is explained by the need for a poetic, emotional expression of the human spiritual world. In the work of Bach and Handel, the continuity of musical traditions was still preserved, but they began a new stage in the history of music. Johann Sebastian Bach (life: 1685-1750) is considered an unsurpassed master of polyphony. Working in all genres, he wrote about 200 cantatas, instrumental concertos, compositions for organ, clavier, etc. Bach was especially close to the democratic line of the German artistic tradition, associated with poetry and music of Protestant chorale, with folk melody. Through the spiritual experience of his people, he felt the tragic beginning in human life and, at the same time, faith in ultimate harmony. Bach is a musical thinker who professes the same humanistic principle as the Enlighteners. 
Mozart
Everything new that was characteristic of progressive trends in music was embodied in the work of the Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (life: 1756-1791). Together with Franz Joseph Haydn, he represented the Vienna Classical School. Haydn's main genre was the symphony, Mozart's opera. He changed the traditional opera forms, introduced psychological individuality into the genre types of symphonies. He owns about 20 operas: (The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, The Magic Flute); 50 symphonic concertos, numerous sonatas, variations, masses, the famous "Requiem", choral compositions. 
