"The Flemish way of working with oil paints". "Dead layer" of Flemish painting Compiled from materials collected in

He worked in the technique of chiaroscuro (light-shadow), in which there is a contrasting contrast between the dark areas of the picture and the light ones. It is noteworthy that not a single sketch of Caravaggio has been found. He worked immediately on the final version of the work.

Painting of the 17th century in Italy, Spain and the Netherlands took the new trends as a breath of fresh air. The Italians de Fiori and Gentileschi, the Spaniard Ribera, Terbruggen and Barburen worked in a similar technique.
Caravaggism also had a strong influence on the stages of creativity of such masters as Peter Paul Rubens, Georges de Latour and Rembrandt.

The voluminous canvases of the caravagists amaze with their depth and attention to detail. Let's talk more about the Dutch painters who worked with this technique.

The very first ideas were taken by Hendrik Terbruggen. He visited Rome at the beginning of the 17th century, where he met Manfredi, Saraceni and Gentileschi. It was the Dutchman who initiated the Utrecht school of painting with this technique.

The plots of the canvases are realistic, they are characterized by the soft humor of the depicted scenes. Terbruggen showed not only individual moments of his contemporary life, but also rethought traditional naturalism.

Honthorst went further in the development of the school. He turned to biblical stories, but he built the plot from the everyday point of view of the Dutch of the 17th century. So, in his paintings we see a clear influence of the chiaroscuro technique. It was his works under the influence of the caravagists that brought him fame in Italy. For his genre scenes by candlelight, he received the nickname "night".

Unlike the Utrecht school, Flemish painters like Rubens and van Dyck did not become ardent supporters of caravagism. This style is indicated in their works only as a separate stage in the formation of a personal style.

Adrian Brouwer and David Teniers

For several centuries, the painting of the Flemish masters has undergone significant changes. We will begin our review of artists from the later stages, when there was a move away from monumental paintings to narrowly focused subjects.

First, Brouwer, and then Teniers the Younger, based on scenes from the everyday life of ordinary Dutch people. So, Adrian, continuing the motives of Pieter Brueghel, somewhat changes the technique of writing and the focus of his paintings.

It focuses on the most unattractive side of life. Types for canvases he is looking for in smoky, semi-dark taverns and taverns. Nevertheless, Brouwer's paintings amaze with their expression and depth of characters. The artist hides the main characters in the depths, exposing still lifes to the fore.

A fight over a game of dice or cards, a sleeping smoker or dancing drunkards. It was these subjects that interested the painter.

But the later works of Brouwer become soft, in them humor prevails over the grotesque and unrestraint. Now the canvases contain philosophical moods and reflect the slowness of thoughtful characters.

Researchers say that in the 17th century, Flemish artists begin to shrink in comparison with the previous generation of masters. However, we simply see a transition from the vivid expression of the mythical subjects of Rubens and the burlesque of Jordaens to the calm life of the peasants by Teniers the Younger.

The latter, in particular, concentrated on the carefree moments of village holidays. He tried to depict the weddings and festivities of ordinary farmers. Moreover, special attention was paid to external details and the idealization of lifestyle.

Frans Snyders

Like Anton van Dijk, whom we will talk about later, he began training with Hendrik van Balen. In addition, Pieter Brueghel the Younger was also his mentor.

Considering the works of this master, we get acquainted with another facet of creativity, which is so rich in Flemish painting. Snyders' paintings are completely different from the canvases of his contemporaries. Frans managed to find his niche and develop in it to the heights of an unsurpassed master.

He became the best in the depiction of still lifes and animals. As an animal painter, he was often invited by other painters, in particular Rubens, to create certain parts of their masterpieces.

Snyders' work shows a gradual transition from still lifes in the early years to hunting scenes in later periods. With all the dislike for portraits and depictions of people, they are still present on his canvases. How did he get out of the situation?

It's simple, Frans invited Janssens, Jordaens and other masters familiar from the guild to create images of hunters.

Thus, we see that 17th-century painting in Flanders reflects a heterogeneous stage of transition from previous techniques and attitudes. It did not proceed as smoothly as in Italy, but gave the world completely unusual creations of the Flemish masters.

Jacob Jordaens

Flemish painting of the 17th century is characterized by greater freedom compared to the previous period. Here you can see not only live scenes from life, but also the beginnings of humor. In particular, he often allowed himself to add a piece of burlesque to his canvases.

In his work, he did not reach significant heights as a portrait painter, but nevertheless, he became perhaps the best in conveying character in the picture. So, one of his main series - "Feasts of the Bean King" - is built on the illustration of folklore, folk sayings, jokes and sayings. These canvases depict the crowded, cheerful, bustling life of Dutch society in the 17th century.

Speaking about the Dutch art of painting of this period, we will often mention the name of Peter Paul Rubens. It was his influence that was reflected in the work of most Flemish artists.

Jordanes also did not escape this fate. He worked for some time in the workshops of Rubens, creating sketches for paintings. However, Jacob was better at creating tenebrism and chiaroscuro in the technique.

If you look closely at the masterpieces of Jordaens, compare them with the works of Peter Paul, we will see a clear influence of the latter. But Jacob's canvases are distinguished by warmer colors, freedom and softness.

Peter Rubens

When discussing the masterpieces of Flemish painting, one cannot fail to mention Rubens. Peter Paul was a recognized master during his lifetime. He is considered a virtuoso of religious and mythical themes, but the artist showed no less talent in the technique of landscape and portraiture.

He grew up in a family that fell into disgrace due to the tricks of his father in his youth. Soon after the death of a parent, their reputation is restored, and Rubens and his mother return to Antwerp.

Here the young man quickly acquires the necessary connections, he is made a page of the Countess de Lalen. Additionally, Peter Paul meets Tobias, Verhacht, van Noort. But Otto van Veen had a special influence on him as a mentor. It was this artist who played a decisive role in shaping the style of the future master.

After four years of internship with Otto Rubens, they are accepted into the guild association of artists, engravers and sculptors called the Guild of St. Luke. The end of the training, according to the long tradition of the Dutch masters, was a trip to Italy. There, Peter Paul studied and copied the best masterpieces of this era.

It is not surprising that the paintings of the Flemish artists in their features resemble the technique of some Italian masters of the Renaissance.

In Italy, Rubens lived and worked with the famous philanthropist and collector Vincenzo Gonzaga. Researchers call this period of his work the Mantua period, because the estate of the patron Peter Paul was located in this town.

But the provincial place and Gonzaga's desire to use it did not please Rubens. In a letter, he writes that with the same success, Vicenzo could use the services of artisan portrait painters. Two years later, the young man finds patrons and orders in Rome.

The main achievement of the Roman period was the painting of Santa Maria in Valicella and the altar of the monastery at Fermo.

After the death of his mother, Rubens returns to Antwerp, where he quickly becomes the highest paid master. The salary he received at the Brussels court allowed him to live in grand style, have a large workshop, and many apprentices.

In addition, Peter Paul maintained a relationship with the Jesuit order, which brought him up in childhood. From them he receives orders for the interior decoration of the Antwerp Church of St. Charles Borromeo. Here he is helped by the best student - Anton van Dyck, which we will talk about later.

Rubens spent the second half of his life in diplomatic missions. Shortly before his death, he bought himself an estate, where he settled, took up landscapes and depicting the life of peasants.

In the work of this great master, the influence of Titian and Brueghel is especially traced. The most famous works are the canvases "Samson and Delilah", "The Hunt for the Hippo", "The Abduction of the Daughters of Leucippus".

Rubens had such a strong influence on Western European painting that in 1843 a monument was erected to him on the Green Square in Antwerp.

Anton van Dyck

A court portrait painter, a master of mythical and religious subjects in painting, an artist - all these are the characteristics of Anton van Dyck, the best student of Peter Paul Rubens.

The painting techniques of this master were formed while studying with Hendrik van Balen, to whom he was given as an apprentice. It was the years spent in the workshop of this painter that allowed Anton to quickly gain local fame.

At the age of fourteen he wrote his first masterpiece, at fifteen he opened his first workshop. So at a young age, van Dijk becomes an Antwerp celebrity.

At the age of seventeen, Anton was accepted into the guild of St. Luke, where he became an apprentice with Rubens. For two years (from 1918 to 1920), van Dyck paints portraits of Jesus Christ and the twelve apostles on thirteen boards. Today, these works are kept in many world museums.

The painting art of Anton van Dyck was more focused on religious themes. He writes in the workshop of Rubens his famous paintings "Coronation with a crown" and "Kiss of Judas".

From 1621, the period of travel begins. First, the young artist works in London, under King James, then goes to Italy. In 1632, Anton returned to London, where Charles I knighted him and gave him the position of court painter. Here he worked until his death.

His canvases are exhibited in the museums of Munich, Vienna, the Louvre, Washington, New York and many other halls of the world.

Thus, today we, dear readers, have learned about Flemish painting. You got an idea about the history of its formation and the technique of creating canvases. In addition, we briefly met with the greatest Netherlandish masters of this period.

Today I want to tell you more about the Flemish method of painting, which we recently studied in the 1st series of my course, and I also want to show you a small report on the results and the very process of our online learning.

On the course, I talked about the ancient methods of painting, about primers, varnishes and paints, revealed many secrets that we put into practice - we painted a still life based on the work of the Little Dutch. From the very beginning, we have been working, taking into account all the nuances of the Flemish painting technique.

This method replaced the tempera, which was written before. It is believed that, like the basics of oil painting, the method was developed by the Flemish artist Early Renaissance - Jan Van Eyck. This is where oil painting begins its history.

So. This is the method of painting that, according to Van Mander, was used by the painters of Flanders: Van Eycky, Dürer, Luke of Leiden and Pieter Brueghel. The method is as follows: on a white and smoothly polished adhesive ground, a drawing was transferred with gunpowder or in another way, which was previously executed in full size separately on paper (“cardboard”), since drawing directly on the ground was avoided so as not to disturb its whiteness, which played great importance in Flemish painting.

Then the drawing was shaded with a transparent brown so that the ground showed through it.

The named shading was made either with tempera and then it was done like an engraving, with strokes, or with oil paint, while the work was done with the utmost care and already in this form was a work of art.

According to a drawing shaded with oil paint, after drying, they wrote and finished painting either in cold halftones, then adding warm ones (which van Mander calls “Dead Tones”), or finished the work with colored glazes, in one step, semi-hulled, leaving the brown preparation to shine through in midtones and shadows. We used exactly this method.

The Flemings always applied paints in a thin and even layer in order to use the translucence of the white ground and get a smooth surface on which, if necessary, one could glaze many more times.

With the development of the pictorial skill of artists the methods described above have undergone some changes or simplifications, each artist used his own method slightly different from the others.

But the basis for a long time remained the same: the Flemish painting was always done on white adhesive ground (which did not draw oil from the paints) , a thin layer of paint, applied in such a way that not only all layers of painting, but also the white ground, which was, as it were, a source of light illuminating the picture from the inside, took part in creating the overall pictorial effect.

Your Hope Ilyina.

"The Flemish method of working with oil paints".

A. Arzamastsev.
"Young Artist" No. 3 1983.

Here are the works of Renaissance artists: Jan van Eyck, Petrus Christus, Pieter Brueghel and Leonardo da Vinci. These works of different authors and different in plot are united by one method of writing - the Flemish method of painting.

Historically, this is the first method of working with oil paints, and legend attributes its invention, as well as the invention of the paints themselves, to the van Eyck brothers. The Flemish method was popular not only in Northern Europe.

It was brought to Italy, where all the greatest artists of the Renaissance up to Titian and Giorgione resorted to it. There is an opinion that Italian artists painted their works in this way long before the van Eyck brothers.

We will not delve into history and clarify who was the first to apply it, but we will try to talk about the method itself.

The Van Eyck brothers.
Ghent altar. Adam. Fragment.
1432.
Oil, wood.

The Van Eyck brothers.
Ghent altar. Fragment.
1432.
Oil, wood.

Modern studies of works of art allow us to conclude that the painting of the old Flemish masters was always done on white adhesive ground.

The paints were applied with a thin glazing layer, and in such a way that not only all layers of painting, but also the white color of the ground, which, translucent through the paint, illuminates the picture from the inside, took part in creating the overall pictorial effect.

Also noteworthy is the practical absence of white in painting, with the exception of those cases when white clothes or draperies were painted. Sometimes they are still found in the strongest lights, but even then only in the form of the thinnest glazes.

Petrus Christus.
Portrait of a young girl.
XV century.
Oil, wood.

All work on the picture was carried out in strict sequence. It began with a drawing on thick paper in the size of the future picture. It turned out the so-called "cardboard". An example of such cardboard is Leonardo da Vinci's drawing for the portrait of Isabella d'Este.

Leonardo da Vinci.
Cardboard for the portrait of Isabella d "Este. Fragment.
1499.
Coal, sanguine, pastel.

The next stage of work is the transfer of the pattern to the ground. To do this, it was pricked with a needle along the entire contour and borders of the shadows. Then the cardboard was placed on a white polished primer applied to the board, and the drawing was transferred with charcoal powder. Getting into the holes made in the cardboard, the charcoal left a light outline of the pattern on the basis of the picture.

To fix it, a trace of coal was outlined with a pencil, pen, or the sharp tip of a brush. In this case, either ink or some kind of transparent paint was used. Artists never painted directly on the ground, as they were afraid to disturb its whiteness, which, as already mentioned, played the role of the lightest tone in painting.

After transferring the drawing, they started shading with transparent brown paint, making sure that the ground everywhere shone through its layer. Shading was done with tempera or oil. In the second case, in order for the binder of paints not to be absorbed into the soil, it was covered with an additional layer of glue.

At this stage of work, the artist solved almost all the tasks of the future picture, with the exception of color. In the future, no changes were made to the drawing and composition, and already in this form the work was a work of art.

Sometimes, before finishing a picture in color, the whole painting was prepared in the so-called "dead colors", that is, cold, light, low-intensity tones. This preparation took over the final glazing layer of colors, with the help of which they gave life to the whole work.

Of course, we have drawn a general outline of the Flemish method of painting. Naturally, every artist who used it brought something of his own to it. For example, we know from the biography of the artist Hieronymus Bosch that he painted in one go, using the simplified Flemish method.

At the same time, his paintings are very beautiful, and the colors have not changed color over time. Like all his contemporaries, he prepared a thin white ground, on which he transferred the most detailed drawing. He shaded it with brown tempera paint, after which he covered the picture with a layer of transparent flesh-colored varnish, which isolates the primer from the penetration of oil from subsequent paint layers.

After drying the picture, it remained to register the background with glazes of pre-composed tones, and the work was completed. Only sometimes some places were additionally prescribed with a second layer to enhance the color. Peter Brueghel wrote his works in a similar or very close way.

Pieter Brueghel.
Snow hunters. Fragment.
1565.
Oil, wood.

Another variation of the Flemish method can be seen in the work of Leonardo da Vinci. If you look at his unfinished work, The Adoration of the Magi, you can see that it was started on white ground. The drawing translated from cardboard was outlined with transparent paint like green earth.

The drawing is shaded in one brown tone, close to sepia, composed of three colors: black, crayon and red ocher. The whole work is shaded, the white ground is nowhere left unwritten, even the sky is prepared in the same brown tone.

Leonardo da Vinci.
Adoration of the Magi. Fragment.
1481-1482.
Oil, wood.

In the finished works of Leonardo da Vinci, the lights are obtained thanks to the white ground. He painted the background of works and clothes with the thinnest overlapping transparent layers of paint.

Using the Flemish method, Leonardo da Vinci was able to achieve an extraordinary rendering of chiaroscuro. At the same time, the paint layer is uniform and very thin.

The Flemish method was briefly used by artists. It existed in its pure form for no more than two centuries, but many great works were created in this way. In addition to the already mentioned masters, Holbein, Dürer, Perugino, Rogier van der Weyden, Clouet and other artists used it.

Paintings made by the Flemish method are distinguished by excellent preservation. Made on seasoned boards, solid soils, they resist damage well.

The virtual absence of white in the pictorial layer, which from time to time lose their hiding power and thereby change the overall color of the work, ensured that we see the paintings almost the same as they came out of the workshops of their creators.

The main conditions that should be observed when using this method are a scrupulous drawing, the finest calculation, the correct sequence of work and great patience.

of the past fascinate with their colors, the play of light and shadow, the appropriateness of each accent, the general condition, color. But what we see now in the galleries, which has survived to this day, differs from what the author's contemporaries saw. Oil painting tends to change over time, this is influenced by the selection of paints, technique of execution, the finish of the work and storage conditions. This does not take into account the small mistakes that a talented master could make when experimenting with new methods. For this reason, the impression of the canvases and the description of their appearance may differ over the years.

Technique of the old masters

The technique of oil painting gives a huge advantage in work: a picture can be painted for years, gradually modeling the form and prescribing details with thin layers of paint (glazing). Therefore, body writing, where they immediately try to complete the picture, is not typical for the classical manner of working with oil. A well-thought-out phased application of paints allows you to achieve amazing shades and effects, since each previous layer, when glazed, shines through the next one.

The Flemish method, which Leonardo da Vinci loved to use so much, consisted of the following steps:

• On a light ground, the drawing was written in one color, with sepia - the contour and the main shadows.
• Then a thin underpainting was made with volume modeling.
• The final stage was several glazing layers of reflections and detailing.

But over time, Leonardo's dark brown inscription, despite the thin layer, began to strongly show through the colorful image, which led to a darkening of the picture in the shadows. In the base layer, he often used burnt umber, yellow ocher, Prussian blue, cadmium yellow, and burnt sienna. His final application of paint was so subtle that it was impossible to catch it. Own developed sfumato method (shading) allowed this to be done with ease. Her secret is in highly diluted paint and dry brush work.

Rubens, Velazquez and Titian worked in the Italian method. It is characterized by the following stages of work:

• Applying colored primer to the canvas (with the addition of any pigment);
• Transferring the outline of the drawing to the ground with chalk or charcoal and fixing it with a suitable paint.
• The underpainting, dense in some places, especially in the illuminated areas of the image, and in some places completely absent, left the color of the ground.
• The final work in 1 or 2 steps with semiglazing, less often with thin glazes. In Rembrandt, the ball of layers of the picture could reach a centimeter in thickness, but this is rather an exception.

In this technique, particular importance was given to the use of overlapping additional colors, which made it possible to neutralize the saturated ground in places. For example, red ground could be leveled with gray-green underpainting. Work in this technique was carried out faster than in the Flemish method, which was more to the liking of the customers. But the wrong selection of the color of the ground and the colors of the final layer could spoil the picture.

The color of the picture

To achieve harmony in a painting, they use the full power of reflexes and the complementarity of colors. There are also little tricks like applying a colored ground, as in the Italian method, or varnishing the painting with pigment.

Colored primers can be adhesive, emulsion and oil. The latter are a pasty layer of oil paint of the desired color. If the white base gives a glow effect, then the dark one gives depth to the colors.

Rembrandt painted on a dark gray ground, Bryullov on a base with umber pigment, Ivanov tinted the canvases with yellow ocher, Rubens used English red and umber pigments, Borovikovsky preferred gray ground for portraits, and Levitsky preferred gray-green. The darkening of the canvas awaited everyone who used earthy colors in excess (sienna, umber, dark ocher).

For those who make copies of paintings by great artists in digital format, this resource will be of interest, which presents web-based artist palettes.

Lacquering

In addition to earth colors that darken over time, resin-based topcoats (rosin, copal, amber) also change the lightness of the picture, giving it yellow tints. To artificially give antiquity to the canvas, ocher pigment or any other similar pigment is specially added to the varnish. But a strong darkening is more likely to cause an excess of oil in the work. It can also lead to cracks. Although such the craquelure effect is more often associated with work on half-wet paint, which is unacceptable for oil painting: they write only on a dried or still damp layer, otherwise it is necessary to scrape it off and re-register.