Features of the Renaissance in France.
The renaissance in France had basically the same prerequisites for its development as in Italy. However, there were significant differences in the socio-political conditions of both countries. Unlike Italy, where in the northern regions already in the XIII century. a political upheaval takes place and a number of completely independent city republics arise in France, where bourgeois development was relatively slow, and the nobility continued to be the ruling class.
In the XV century. the stratum of the hereditary bureaucracy from the bourgeoisie, formed in the previous century, in the courts and in the administration, greatly expanded. At the same time, part of the bourgeoisie became noble, buying up the lands of the ruined nobles. However, the French bourgeoisie did not indulge in bold enterprises and, due to the lack of convenient markets, did not develop large foreign trade, they preferred a calm and sure income: they were mainly engaged in usurious activities, realizing state loans and investing money in agriculture. From this follows a certain backwardness of the French bourgeoisie in comparison with the Italian or even English and, in particular, its weak participation in the humanist movement.
In general, the strong influence of Italy is one of the most important features of the French Renaissance. The rapid flowering of humanistic thought coincides with the first half of the reign of Francis I (1515 - 1547). The Italian campaigns, which began under his predecessors and continued by him, greatly expanded cultural relations between the two peoples. Young French nobles, once in Italy, were blinded by the wealth of its cities, the splendor of clothes, the beauty of works of art, the elegance of manners. An intensified import of Italian Renaissance culture to France immediately began. Francis I attracted to his service the best Italian artists and sculptors - Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Benvenuto Cellini. Italian architects build him castles in the new Renaissance style in Blois, Chambord, Fontainebleau. A large number of translations of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, and others appear. A large number of Italian words from the field of art, technology, military affairs, secular amusements, etc. penetrate into the French language. Among the Italian humanists who moved to France at that time, the most prominent was Julius Caesar Scaliger (died 1558), physician, philologist and critic, author of the famous "Poetics" in Latin, in which he outlined the principles of a learned humanistic drama.
In parallel, there was an in-depth study of antiquity, which also reached partly through Italian mediation.
Francis I personally wanted to lead the French Renaissance in order to direct it and keep it under his control, but in fact he only followed the mental movement of the era. Their advisers, the true leaders of the movement, should be put in the first place by Guillaume Bude (1468 - 1540). Bude owns a huge number of works in Latin on philology, history, philosophy, mathematics and jurisprudence. Bude's main idea was that philology is the main basis of education, since the study of ancient languages and literature expands a person's mental outlook and improves his moral qualities. Much in Bude's views was on religion, morality, education brings him closer to Erasmus of Rotterdam. Bude's largest undertaking was the plan to create a secular university, carried out by Francis I. According to Bude, teaching in it should be based on philology. Thus arose in 1530 the "College of Three Languages" (Hebrew, Greek and Latin), which later received the name "College de France", which immediately became the citadel of free humanistic knowledge.
The second most important moment that determined the fate of the French Renaissance is its special relationship with the Reformation, at first consonant with humanism, but then sharply diverged from it.
In the history of French Protestantism, two periods must be distinguished - until the mid-1530s. and after. The first Protestants of France were scattered intellectuals of a humanistic way of thinking, who approached critically all issues, including the foundations of religion, but at the same time were little inclined to preaching and fighting. The outstanding mathematician and Hellenist Lefebvre d'Etaple (1455 - 1537), interpreter of Aristotle in a new way, i.e. referring exclusively to the primary sources and trying to penetrate their true meaning, not distorted by scholastic commentaries. Following this, Lefebvre had the idea to apply the same method to the books of Holy Scripture - and here he discovered that neither fasting, nor the celibacy of the clergy, nor most of the "sacraments" are mentioned in the Gospel. From this arose in him and his friends the idea to return to the original purity of the gospel teaching, to create an "evangelical" religion. Delving further into the consideration of the principles of Christianity, Lefebvre in 1512 put forward two provisions, which then became the main ones for Protestantism of all persuasions: 1). Justification by faith, 2). Holy Scripture as the sole basis of religious teaching. To reinforce the new doctrine, Lefebvre published his own translation of the Bible, the first into French.
At this time, French Protestantism enters its second phase. John Calvin (1509 - 1464) becomes its head. Calvin finally formulated his doctrine in "Teaching the Christian Faith", which originally appeared in Latin and was reprinted five years later in French. From this point on, contemplative, utopian evangelism is replaced by a harsh, militant Calvinism.
The bourgeois essence of the Reformation appears clearly in the teachings of Calvin, who recommends thrift and the accumulation of wealth, justifies usury and even allows slavery. The basis of Calvin's doctrine are two provisions - about "predestination" and about the non-intervention of God in the life of the world, subject to immutable laws. According to the first of them, every person from birth is destined either for eternal bliss or eternal torment, regardless of how he will behave in life. He does not know what he is destined for, but he must think that salvation awaits him, and he must show this with his whole life. So this doctrine "predestination” does not lead to fatalism and passivity, but, on the contrary, is an incentive to action.
Thus, if in the second quarter of the XVI century. Protestantism has spread almost exclusively among the bourgeoisie, and more or less evenly throughout France, then, starting from the middle of the century, it is intensively spreading among the southern French nobility. When in the second half of the XVI century. religious wars broke out, it was the Calvinist nobles who fought against absolutism who acted as organizers and leaders of the uprising; moreover, at the end of the war, many of them joined Catholicism.
In France, divided into two camps - Catholics and Protestants, there was no complete national party, since both belligerents, to the detriment of their homeland, often acted in alliance with foreign rulers. The Huguenots (as the Protestants were called in France), who had no support among the people, constantly called for help from their co-religionists from Germany, Holland, and England. As for the Catholics, at the beginning they were a party of national and religious unity, but over time, especially after the Catholic League was created in 1576, the leaders of the party began to seek support from Spain and even thought about transferring the French crown to the Spanish King Philip II.
Humanism had some points of contact with both parties, but even more differences. Many humanists were attracted to the Catholic party by the idea of national unity, but most of them could not put up with the narrowness and superstitions of Catholicism. And the Calvinism of the humanists was repelled by its bourgeois narrow-mindedness, which intensified fanaticism. But less and less often, the rationalistic leaven of Calvinism, its heroic spirit, high moral exactingness and the dream of some kind of ideological structure of human society attracted many humanists to it. However, the most profound humanists, such great writers of the French Renaissance as Rabelais, Deperier, Montaigne, eschewed religious strife, equally alien to the fanaticism of both faiths, and most likely tended to religious freethinking.
Literature. Typical features, more or less common to all writers of the century, are, on the one hand, spontaneous materialism, susceptibility to everything material and sensual, on the other hand, the cult of beauty, concern for the elegance of form. In accordance with this, new genres are born or old ones are radically transformed. A colorfully and realistically developed short story appeared (Marguerite of Navarre, Deperier), a peculiar form of a satirical novel (Rabelais), a new style in lyrics (Marot, then especially Ronsard and Pleiades), the beginnings of secular Renaissance drama (Jodele), the anecdotal-moral type of memoirs (Brantome), civic accusatory poetry (d'Aubigné), philosophical "experiments" (Montaigne), etc.
Both poetry and prose are characterized by a broader, more realistic approach to reality. Images are more specific and individual. Abstraction and naive edification are gradually disappearing.
In the French Renaissance, several stages should be distinguished:
1. First half of the 16th century The flourishing of humanistic ideas, optimism prevails, faith in the possibility of building a better, more perfect way of life.
2. Mid-1530s The mood is overshadowed by the impending reaction, the religious and political split has not yet had time to fully manifest its destructive effect.
3. Second half of the 16th century In the context of religious wars beginning or being prepared, the first signs of doubt and disappointment are observed among humanists.
4. Third quarter of the 16th century Powerful efforts are being made to create a new, completely national poetry and a rich national language.
5. 1560s Starting from this period, the crisis of humanism reaches its full strength, and literature reflects, on the one hand, the fighting and fermentation of minds caused by civil wars, on the other hand, profound quests that prepare the later forms of social and artistic consciousness.
Circle of Margaret of Navarre
One of the major humanistic and cultural centers of France in the first half of the XVI century. was the court of Margaret of Navarre (1492 - 1549). Marguerite sympathized with Protestantism and may have been a secret Huguenot herself. At her court, humanists who were persecuted for freethinking found shelter; many "heretics" owed their salvation from the fire to her direct intervention.
Being a highly educated woman, Margarita was a prolific writer. It seeks to liberate human thought and feelings from the oppression of medieval asceticism and scholasticism, but at the same time it cannot renounce the religious worldview and well-known moralism. Margarita owns a huge number of poems and poems, in which religious and moral themes prevail. Most often they are devoted to the Neoplatonic ideals of sublime love and endless moral self-improvement.
Her most significant work is a collection of short stories. "Heptameron" written by her in imitation of Boccaccio. Like the latter, she intended to compose 100 short stories, but managed only 72. Five gentlemen and five ladies from good society were delayed along the way by downpours that washed out the road. To pass the time, they decided to tell each other entertaining stories, then subjecting them to a lengthy discussion. Under the conditional names of travelers, Margarita herself, King Francis, their mother, and others act as narrators.
Unlike Boccaccio's short stories, stories "Heptameron" rarely have a ready-made itinerant story as their source; usually they convey actual incidents from court life that Margarita observed directly or knew by hearsay. A prominent place among them is occupied by love affairs, the hero of which is sometimes, under some pretext, Francis I, famous for his red tape. Much less often come across short stories from the life of the middle or lower strata of society. In some of them, the greed and debauchery of the monks is exposed.
"Heptameron" is a valuable document for studying the morals, feelings, ideological contradictions of the French Renaissance. However, Margarita's horizons are limited, and she lacks genuine courage of thought. This is especially evident in the longest pedantic afterwords to the short stories, which stray into a church sermon and have nothing in common with the cheerful and sharp remarks of the listeners of the short stories in "Decamerone".
Margarita of Navarre maintained friendly relations with many humanists and writers. The poet Clement Marot (1496 - 1544) is primarily among the persons who were directly in the service of Marguerite. Maro is primarily a court poet, reflecting in his light, elegant verses the morals and feelings of the advanced circles of the nobility. He is a wonderful master of small forms. Except for two poems - a rhetorical work "Temple of Cupid"» and a satirical poem "Hell"- he owns several hundred epigrams, rondos, messages, elegies, etc. These are live, direct responses to everything that happens in the court circle and in the personal life of the poet: petty incidents, love interests, intrigues, festivities, petitions for some kind of mercy, intimate confessions and satirical pictures.
Another major writer of the circle was Jean Bonaventure Deperier. His main work is "Cymbal of Peace" written in the manner "Talk of the Gods" Lucian, consists of four dialogues. The first two dialogues depict the adventures of Mercury. On the orders of Jupiter, he descended to earth to give the frayed "Book of Fates" into binding; but two rogues who met him in a tavern steal this book from him and replace it with another, which tells about the love affairs of Jupiter. Further, Mercury, wanting to laugh at the people who begged him for "philosopher's Stone", crushed this stone into powder and scattered its grains; since then, people, rummaging in the dust, are looking for particles of the “philosopher's stone”, dispute them with each other, quarrel, and everyone claims that it was he who got the wonderful stone. In the third and fourth dialogues, talking animals appear - first a horse miraculously received the gift of speech and accusing his groom, who treats her cruelly and steals the money allocated for her food, then two dogs who speak human language. They decide to hide their ability from the humans so they won't use it somehow. Their other conclusion is that it is better to live like a dog than to drag out the existence of an unfortunate human race.
Deperier also owns a collection of short stories entitled "New fun and funny talk". In their construction and plots, these very short, simple stories are extremely similar to medieval anecdotes. In these stories, the folk principle manifested itself with great force: it is reflected not only in the general assessments of the depicted and in the nature of humor, but even in the very manner of narration, close to folk speech and interspersed with proverbs and expressions from folk songs.
Francois Rabel. Gargantua and Pantagruel.
The impetus for the creation of this Romano was the publication in 1532 in Lyon of an anonymous folk book "Great and invaluable chronicles about the great and huge giant Gargantua". The success of the book, which wittily parodied medieval chivalric romances, led Rabelais to use this form to convey deeper content; in the same 1532, he published as its continuation the book “ Terrible and terrifying deeds and deeds of the glorious Pantagruel, king of the dipsodes, son of the great giant Gargantua.. In this book, Rabelais still closely adheres to the scheme of medieval novels suggested to him by the popular book (the childhood of the hero, youthful wanderings and exploits, etc.), from which he drew many images and plot motifs. Along with Pantagruel himself, another central hero of the epic comes forward - Pantagruel's inseparable companion - Panurge.
Encouraged by the success of his plan, in 1534 Rabelais published under the same pseudonym (Alcofribas Nazier) the beginning of history, which was supposed to replace the folk book, under the title "The Tale of the Terrible Life of the Great Gargantua, Father of Pantagruel", which constituted the first book of the entire novel. Fantasy gave way to grotesque and often hyperbolic, but essentially real images, and the comic form of presentation covered up very deep thoughts. The most important moments of Romano Rabelais are concentrated here. The history of Gargantua's upbringing reveals the differences between the old scholastic and the new humanistic methods in pedagogy. The speech of Magister Ianotus de Bragmardo, who begs Gargantua to return the bells he has stolen, is a magnificent parody of the empty rhetoric of the Sorbonnists. What follows is a description of Picrochole's invasion and plans of conquest, a brilliant satire on feudal wars and feudal-type kings. Against the background of the war, a figure appears "lay monk", brother Jean, is the personification of physical and moral health, rude cheerfulness, freed from the medieval fetters of human nature. The book ends with a description of the Abbey of Theleme, founded according to the plan of Brother Jean, this center of reasonable, cultural pleasures and absolute freedom of the individual.
"The third book of the heroic deeds and sayings of the good Pantagruel" was published after a long break, in 1546, with the designation of the true name of the author. It differs significantly from the previous two books. Rabelais's satire "Third Book" became of necessity more restrained and covered. The book opens with a picture of the peaceful and humane colonization of the country of Dipsodes conquered by Pantagruel - a picture clearly conceived as an antithesis to the predatory colonial policy of the era. The book is filled with conversations and reasonings in which Rabelais shows his scholarship in the field of botany, medicine, jurisprudence, etc. The reason for this is that Panurge cannot decide whether to marry him or not (because he is terribly afraid of "horns"), and asks everyone for advice. Hence the whole series of grotesque characters he addresses: "philosophers" different interpretations, unable to utter a word, Judge Bridois, who decides all litigations by throwing dice, etc. This book outlines the philosophy "pantagruelism", which for Rabelais is equivalent to inner peace and some indifference to everything that happens around him.
First short edition "The fourth book of the heroic deeds and speeches of Pantagruel", published in 1548 (again under the name of Rabelais), is also ideologically restrained for the reasons indicated. But four years later, Rabelais published in Paris an expanded edition of this book, where he gave vent to his indignation against the new royal policy that encouraged religious fanaticism, and gave his satire an extremely sharp character.
The main source of Rabelais was folk art, a living folklore tradition that permeates his entire novel, as well as those works of French medieval literature of the previous two or three centuries in which the folk principle manifested itself with the greatest force. Rabelais learned a lot from ritual and song imagery, from folk tales, anecdotes, proverbs and jokes of his time.
The language of Rabelais - whimsical, full of synonymous repetitions, heaps, idioms, folk proverbs and sayings - has as its task to convey all the richness of shades inherent in the Renaissance material and sensory perception of the world, freed from all the fetters and restrictions of the medieval worldview. However, along with this turbulent flow of tones and colors, one can observe in the style of Rabelais a huge language structure, the use of all grammatical means, the inclusion of a large stock of scientific and technical terms, Latin or Greek words and expressions.
The grotesque-comic jet in Rabelais's novel fulfills several purposes. On the one hand, it serves the purpose of "luring" the reader, should interest him and make it easier for him to perceive the complex and deep thoughts underlying the novel. On the other hand, it also masks these thoughts, softening their expression, and serves as a shield for the book against the attacks of censorship. In the Middle Ages, the guise of buffoonery made possible very bold statements and professional jesters were allowed to say, clowning, what was considered unacceptable in the mouth of someone else. A special case of the grotesque Rabelais is the gigantic size of Gargantua and his entire family in the first two books (starting from the third, Pantagruel takes on an ordinary human appearance). Rabelais adopted this feature from the popular book, but again it received from him a new and, moreover, complex understanding.
During the 20 years during which Rabelais wrote his novel, his views and assessments changed depending on the changes that took place around him in the political and intellectual life of France. Hence the lack of complete unity in the novel, which is especially noticeable in the transition from the second book to the next. More and more, notes of disappointment and a feeling of bitterness, caused by the picture of the collapse of former hopes, are mixed with the former bold optimism. However, despite the evolution in views and moods, Rabelais remains true to his basic ideas throughout the entire novel. Rabelais gives them the most militant expression in his work. He is an active, militant nature. His pen is his weapon. He says: “There is little honor for those who use only their eyes and, like loafers, save their strength by scratching their heads and yawning around”.
Rabelais maliciously ridicules the medieval court, feudal wars, the old system of education, all scholasticism, theological metaphysics and religious fanaticism. His pedagogical ideas, close to the views of Leonardo Bruni, Bude, Erasmus of Rotterdam, are most clearly expressed in the picture of the education of Gargantua, who had two teachers. The first, the pedant Tubal Olfern, knew only one method of learning - cramming. Gargantua learned the alphabet so well in 5 years and 3 months that he "could say it by heart in reverse order." In the same way, he learned other books. But his father, noticing that from such activities the boy “does not derive any benefit for himself and, worst of all, only becomes stupid,” invited another teacher to him, named Ponocrates. This latter took care that the boy did not so much memorize as meaningfully assimilate knowledge, so that learning was not a burden for him, but interesting and pleasant mental entertainment, so that knowledge was closely connected with practical life. During morning and evening walks, Ponocrates explained to the boy the structure of the sky, sunrise, showed him the stars. At dinner, he gave him information about those cereals and animals that are eaten. He also taught him arithmetic during the card game. Alternating classes with rest, Ponocrates introduced Gargantua to crafts, taught him to play various instruments, paying due attention to physical exercises - horseback riding, swimming, fencing. Raised in this way, Gargantua becomes a kind and reasonable ruler. He cares about the welfare of his subjects, encourages printing, welcomes the study of antiquity. Gargantua himself states: "States will be happy when kings are philosophers or philosophers are kings".
No less expressive is Rabelais' portrayal of the feudal wars. King Picrochole, a neighbor of Grangousier, Gargantua's father, who had lived in peace with him for many years, suddenly went to war with him because the subjects of Grangousier, who lived near the border, took away by force a few cakes from the subjects of Picrochole, who, out of stubbornness, did not want to sell them. And although the money for the cakes was still paid and Grangousier was ready to return the cakes, Picrochole, instigated by his commanders, started the war. But the possessions of Granguzier are already not enough for them: at the military council they are making plans to conquer almost the whole world.
Exposing all the baseness and stupidity of medieval institutions and concepts, Rabelais opposes them with a new, humanistic worldview, for which, in his understanding, the demand for the freedom of the human person from all bonds, spontaneous materialism and anti-feudal tendencies are most characteristic.
A red thread through the whole novel is faith in the goodness of nature, in the natural "kindness" person. All natural inclinations, according to Rabelais, are legitimate, and if they are not forced, they will only lead to reasonable and moral actions.
Everything connected with the practice of Catholicism is subjected to cruel ridicule by Rabelais. He hates theologians, mocks the Roman Church and the Pope, over all mysticism. For Rabelais there is nothing more hated than the monks. Rabelais compares monks to monkeys who " they crap everywhere and spoil everything, for which they receive ridicule and beaters from everyone ”. When Gargantua is tormented by insomnia, Brother Jean gives him wise advice: “I never sleep as well as during a sermon or in prayer. I beg you: let's begin the Seven Psalms together, and you will immediately fall asleep, I assure you!
In the novel by Rabelais, three images stand out in particular. The first of them is the image of the good king in its three versions, essentially differing little from each other: Grangousier, Gargantua, Pantagruel.
Gargantua- the son of the giant Grangousier and Queen Gargamell. His image is generally grotesque. In childhood, for example, Gargantua “combed his hair with a glass”, “sat between two chairs”, “scooped water with a sieve”, “forged when it cooled down”. The ridiculous antics of the heroes of Rabelais and their fantastic exaggerated features of appearance and character symbolize the impossibility of forging the free and natural manifestations of life into perfectly correct and strictly logical forms. In the images of the good-natured giants Gargantua and his son Pantagruel, who surpass those around them not only in physical strength, excessive appetite, size, but also in their spiritual qualities, Rabelais' humanism and his faith in the colossal possibilities of man are manifested.
Pantagruel He is the son of King Gargantua and Princess Badback. The mother of the newborn died in childbirth because he was very large. His appetite was directly proportional to his size: he bit off the udder and half of the belly from the cow that gave him milk, tore it apart and swallowed a huge bear. However, Pantagruel demonstrates no less appetite in relation to the sciences: by fulfilling the will of his father, he acquired extensive knowledge, "affecting all sectors", and all pundits compared to him "No more than calves in robes". The nobility and mercy of Pantagruel are manifested in the wise policy that he adheres to in the country of the dipsodes, whose lands he conquered. He is opposed to the need to plunder and ruin the conquered countries, which they insist on "other tyrannical minds", on the contrary, he believes that they are necessary "to protect from all sorts of storms, misfortunes and damage". The essence of the character of Pantagruel, who seeks to live in harmony with the world around him, is, according to Rabelais, "deep and indestructible cheerfulness, before which everything transient is powerless". Philosophy "pantagruelism", which the heroes of the book profess, denies any asceticism, suppression and restriction of natural needs and spiritual aspirations of man.
Panurge- a friend of the giant Pantagruel, with whom he makes an inseparable and at the same time comic couple: next to Pantagruel, Panurge, who has a normal height and physique, seems to be a dwarf. The author characterizes Panurge as a mischievous, cheater, reveler, reveler and swindler, and nevertheless openly sympathizes with the optimism and love of life of his hero, calling him "In essence, the most wonderful of mortals". Panurge is an incurable player who loves the game for its own sake. Because of the passion for the game, he often commits ridiculous and reckless acts, for which he either suffers beatings, or is persecuted, but never loses his presence of mind. When Pantagruel, after defeating the dipsodes, gives his friend the estate of Ragu, the careless Panurge squanders all the income from it for three years in advance. Pantagruel persuades him to be more frugal, but he declares with a laugh: "Be cheerful, cheerful and contented - I don't need any other wealth". The paradoxical behavior of Panurge, who hates everything dogmatic, inert, settled, sober and unshakable, symbolizes the relentless search of the human spirit, which tends to doubt everything in order to gain even greater depth.
jean grinder- a former peasant, and now a monk, not like his brothers. Cheerful, resolute, not losing his presence of mind in the most dangerous situations, Jean is above all a hard worker. “He works, plows the land, intercedes for the downtrodden, comforts the mourners, helps the afflicted, guards the gardens of the abbey”. Jean is a peace-loving man, but when the troops of Picrochol attacked his homeland, he (while the other monks were praying in fear) threw off his cassock and “waving the crossbar from the cross, he suddenly rushed at the enemies ... fell to the bottom with terrible force and, in the old fashioned way, pounding them with anything, began to scatter them like kittens”. Jean dreams of the well-being of the whole people, and it is he who came up with the idea of creating Theleme Abbey - a community of equal and happy people.
Conqueror kings. Kings Picrochole and Anarch, dreaming of world domination, are Rabelais's evil satire of European sovereigns waging wars of conquest. They are the antipodes of the wise rulers Gargantua and Pantagruel. So, Picrohole at the military council is making crazy plans to capture "... Holland, Zeeland, Bavaria, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, Scotland, England, Poland, Lithuania..." and other countries, and one of his close associates, Molokosos, already sees himself as a governor in Muscovy, promising to trample, dishevel, crush, shake, smash, crush its inhabitants. An exact description of such rulers is given by Panurge: “These damn kings here on our earth are real donkeys: they don’t know anything, they’re good for nothing, they only know how to harm unfortunate subjects and, for the sake of their lawless and vile whim, excite the whole world with wars”. At Rabelais, the feudal warriors ingloriously end their military careers: having lost power, Picrochole became "a simple day laborer in Lyon", and from Anarch it turned out "one of the slickest green sauce salesmen Utopia has ever known".
"Beat me"
At the end of the 1540s, a literary circle arose, consisting of several young educated nobles, enthusiasts who dreamed of reforming the French poetic language and creating a new, humanistic in nature and at the same time quite national poetry. At first, this circle was called the "Brigade", but then, according to the number of its members, it began to be called the name of the constellation of seven stars - the "Pleiades". The leader and common teacher of the group of young poets was Dora, a connoisseur of ancient languages and literatures, but Pierre de Ronsard and Joaquin du Bellay became its true leaders. In 1549, the manifesto of this poetic school was published - "Defense and glorification of the French language", compiled by du Bellay, but inspired to a large extent by Ronsard.
"Protection and glorification of the French language"
This work consists of two parts: the first is devoted to the problem of poetic language, the second - to the theory of poetry. The first part begins with a protest against the opinion of some people that the French language is a “barbarian” language, not suitable for presenting subtle thoughts and lofty subjects in it, as it can be done in Greek or Latin. However, the French language itself is quite flexible, harmonious and strong: you just need to enrich it and ennoble it. The author recalls that once the Greek and Latin languages were also rough, they reached perfection only as a result of lengthy exercises; in particular, the Latin language has fully developed due to a long study from the Greek. The French language must follow the same path. The best means of enriching and elevating it is to borrow from ancient languages a number of words and turns of speech. But borrowings should be made with analysis, reasonably, in accordance with the spirit of the native language. In addition, the source of enrichment of the French language should be not only antiquity, but the language of artisans, sailors, artists, dialects, word formation, etc.
The second part of the treatise begins with the assertion of a lofty idea of the poet and his mission. A poet must be born. But one natural talent is not enough: it must be developed by work on oneself and exercises. The best school for a poet is antiquity. And here the same idea is repeated that was expressed regarding the language: one must learn from antiquity in order to overcome it and enter the path of original, completely national creativity. One should not translate the ancient authors, as this means complete submission of oneself to them, but one must imitate them with analysis and sense. Du Bellay urges poets to abandon the old, medieval forms - ballads, rondos, virelets, etc. - and write epigrams, elegies, odes, satires after the model of Latin poets, such masters in these genres as Ovid, Horace, Catullus, Martial, as well as sonnets in imitation of Petrarch and Sannazaro, tragedies and comedies, following the famous ancient models, finally, heroic poems in the manner of Homer, Virgil and Ariosto.
Ronsard and the influence of Petrarch on his work
Ronsard is one of the greatest singers of love, for the image of which he uses more diverse and richer means than Petrarch. We find in him a huge number of shades and transitions of feelings, situations, details. For Ronsard, love is always material, but at the same time tender and spiritual, like the image of a beloved woman. At the beginning of his work, Ronsard began to cultivate love poetry (collections "Love for Cassandra", "Love for Mary"), taking advantage of the sonnet form, which he developed to perfection. Here, at the beginning, Ronsard felt the strong influence of Petrarch, from which he gradually freed himself, finding a completely independent tone, much more sensual and realistic than that of the Italian poet and his imitators.
Revival in the book of M. Montaigne "Experiments"
"Experiences" Montaigne is a collection of observations, anecdotes, thoughts, commented extracts from ancient and modern authors, Recorded by Montaigne in no apparent order, as they occurred to him. However, this book has a deep inner unity - the unity of the theme and the unity of the worldview. The subject of Montaigne's study is a person whose nature he understands differently than his predecessors, the humanists of the beginning or middle of the 16th century. (Rabelais, Ronsard, etc.). For them, a person is a stable, definite being, who, in order to ensure happiness for himself, and a better order for the world, must only do the right things. The collapse of the utopian ideals of early humanism made Montaigne doubt the impeccability of these views and approach the very concept of man critically. He argues that man is an ever-changing creature, adapting to all climates, modes, conditions of existence. No person is identical to himself at different moments. Depending on the circumstances, a person can be brave or timid, proud or modest, prudent or reckless. There is no limit to the changes of man, and history is nothing but a story about the changes that the human race has undergone. The highest science of Montaigne is the science of man, which studies not Christian writers of modern times, but ancient thinkers and scientists.
One can find deep correspondences between the ideas of Montaigne and those of Rabelais, the thinker of the dawn of the French Renaissance; much in common with him also with another freethinker of that time - Deperier. But much more important is the line of development of free human thought that goes from him into future times. Not to mention the enormous influence that Montaigne had on many leading thinkers and writers in most other European countries.
The history of the Renaissance begins in Still this period is called the Renaissance. The Renaissance changed into culture and became the forerunner of the culture of the New Age. And the Renaissance ended in the XVI-XVII centuries, since in each state it has its own start and end date.
Some general information
Representatives of the Renaissance are Francesco Petrarca and Giovanni Boccaccio. They became the first poets who began to express lofty images and thoughts in a frank, common language. This innovation was received with a bang and spread to other countries.
Renaissance and art
The features of the Renaissance is that the human body has become the main source of inspiration and the subject of research for the artists of this time. Thus, emphasis was placed on the similarity of sculpture and painting with reality. The main features of the art of the Renaissance period include radiance, refined brushwork, the play of shadow and light, thoroughness in the process of work and complex compositions. For Renaissance artists, images from the Bible and myths were the main ones.
The resemblance of a real person to his image on a particular canvas was so close that the fictional character seemed alive. This cannot be said about the art of the 20th century.
The Renaissance (its main trends are briefly outlined above) perceived the human body as an endless beginning. Scientists and artists regularly improved their skills and knowledge by studying the bodies of individuals. At that time, the prevailing opinion was that man was created in the likeness and image of God. This statement reflected physical perfection. The main and important objects of Renaissance art were the gods.
Nature and beauty of the human body
Renaissance art paid great attention to nature. A characteristic element of the landscapes was a varied and lush vegetation. The skies of a blue-blue hue, which were pierced by the sun's rays that penetrated the clouds of white, were a magnificent backdrop for the soaring creatures. Renaissance art revered the beauty of the human body. This feature was manifested in the refined elements of the muscles and body. Difficult poses, facial expressions and gestures, a well-coordinated and clear color palette are characteristic of the work of sculptors and sculptors of the Renaissance period. These include Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, Rembrandt and others.
The birth of the Renaissance in France
The culture of the French Renaissance was born and developed during the completion of the unification of the kingdom, the development of trade, the transformation of Paris into a political and cultural center, to which the most remote and deaf provinces gravitated.
The revival of ancient culture enjoyed great attention and support from the royal house and the wealthy nobility. The patronage of the new generation of the most educated people was provided by Queen Anne of Brittany and King Francis I, who more than once took away the vengeful sword of the church from them, was a generous patron and good friend. Anne of Brittany created a kind of literary circle, the traditions of which were developed in the activities of the more famous circle of the only and dearly beloved sister of the king, Margaret of Navarre, who invariably enjoyed the patronage of Francis. One of the Italian ambassadors, who was at the court of Francis I, said that "the king spent more than a year on jewelry, furniture, building castles, laying out gardens."
Literature
Poetry
The founder of the new French poetry was Clement Marot, the most talented poet of those decades. Maro returned from Italy, having been severely wounded at the Battle of Pavia. A lame and impoverished cripple, he was thrown into prison on a denunciation and would have been executed if not for the intercession of Margarita. He studied ancient philosophy, was very close to the royal court and the literary circle of Margaret of Navarre. He became the author of many epigrams and songs. Free-thinking works were not in vain for the poet. Twice he fled France. The last days of the poet ended in Turin, and the Sorbonne added many of his poems to the banned list. In his work, Maro sought to overcome the Italian influence, to give the poems a national flavor, "Gallic brilliance".
There was also the Lyon school of poetry. Its representatives were not subjected to severe persecution. The poetess Louise Labe belongs to the Lyon school.
A significant phenomenon for French literature was the work of Marguerite of Navarre, who owns a large number of poetic works that reflected the spiritual quest of her era. The main legacy of Margarita is a collection of 72 short stories called "Heptameron", i.e. "Seven Days". Probably, the main part of this work was written between and 1547, at a time when Margaret was very far from the cares of the Parisian court, from the "big" politics of her brother, immersed in the "small" politics of her tiny kingdom and in family affairs. According to contemporaries, she composed her short stories, traveling around her lands in a stretcher. "Heptameron" by Margaret of Navarre shows the awareness of the tragic contradictions between human ideals and real life.
Title of the edition of the second book of "Gargantua and Pantagruel", Lyon, 1571.
Prose
Perhaps one of the most famous works of the French Renaissance is Francois Rabelais' book Gargantua and Pantagruel. Rabelais was a gifted person, and his talent was especially evident in writing. Rabelais traveled a lot, knew the customs of peasants, artisans, monks, and nobles. He was a connoisseur of common language. In his remarkable and only novel, he gave a brilliant satire on the people of his time.
Along with this, the literature of the French Renaissance absorbed the best examples of oral folk art. It reflected the traits inherent in the talented and freedom-loving French people: their cheerful disposition, courage, hard work and subtle humor.
Philology
In the 16th century, the foundations of the French literary language and high style were laid. In 1549, the French poet Joashen du Bellay published a program manifesto "Protection and glorification of the French language." This essay refuted the assertion that supposedly only ancient languages could embody high poetic ideals in a worthy form, and it was argued that at one time the ancient languages \u200b\u200bwere crude and undeveloped, but it was the improvement of poetry and literature that made them what they became . So it will be with the French language, it is only necessary to develop and improve it. Du Bellay became a kind of center for the unification of his like-minded people and friends. Pierre de Ronsard, who was a member of it, came up with the name Pleiades. The name was not chosen by chance: the group of seven ancient Greek tragic poets was also called the same. Ronsard with this word denoted the seven poetic luminaries in the literary firmament of France, this is a kind of French poetic school of life. It included Pierre de Ronsard, Joashen Du Bellay, Jean Antoine de Baif, Remy Bello. They abandoned the legacy of the Middle Ages, rethinking their attitude towards antiquity. Already under King Henry II, the Pleiades received recognition from the court, and Ronsard became a court poet. He performed in various genres - ode, sonnets, pastoral, impromptu.
Philosophy
Philosophical thought in France at that time was best represented by Pierre de la Ramais, a critic of scholastic Aristotelianism. Rame's thesis "Everything said by Aristotle is false" became the starting point of a new European philosophy. Ramet contrasted the scholastic reasoning with the idea of a logically justified, practice-oriented method, which he called the art of invention. The means of creating the method was to serve as a new logic, the beginnings of which Rame developed in his work "Dialectics". He was one of the greatest mathematicians of his time and the author of a large generalizing work, A Course in Mathematics.
Bonaventure Deperier is one of the most original figures of the Renaissance. He was a philologist and translator, and served as secretary to Margaret of Navarre. In 1537 he anonymously published a book of satirical dialogues, The Cymbal of the World. The book was declared heretical and banned. Deperier was declared "an apostate from the righteous faith", he was removed from the court of Margaret of Navarre. As a result, the persecution led him to commit suicide.
A contemporary of Deperier, Etienne Dole, defended the unfortunate who were sent to the stake on charges of being connected with evil spirits. Assuming the knowledge of causes to be the highest good, Dole himself concludes that everything that exists did not arise by a higher will, but by virtue of "the operating reasons necessary for this." For a time, the patronage of noble and wealthy individuals saved Dole from the Inquisition. However, in 1546 he was accused of contradicting the Christian doctrine of the immortality of the soul in his translation of Plato. Dole was condemned and burned at the stake. The fate of the author was shared by all his books.
Humanism
Guillaume Bude
One of the outstanding French humanists was Jacques Lefebvre d "Etaples. He was a very educated person: an encyclopedist, philologist and philosopher, theologian, mathematician, astronomer. He was educated in Florence and became the founder of a school of mathematicians and cosmographers in France. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century d "Etaple published comments on the works of Aristotle, marked by the desire to take a fresh look at the tradition-sanctified authority of the king of philosophers. In 1512, he published a commentary on the Pauline Epistles, in which he justified the need for a critical analysis of the writings of the fathers of the Christian faith. He translated the Bible into French (until that time it existed only in Latin), but this translation was condemned by the Sorbonne as heretical. Being in fact a dreamy and quiet humanist, Lefebvre d "Etaple was afraid of the consequences of his own ideas when he realized what they could lead to in practice.
Around d "Etaples, students, supporters of Christianity, who studied the gospel texts, were grouped, among whom the philologist Guillaume Bude, who became one of the leaders of the humanist movement in France, was especially prominent. A man of the broadest outlook, he made a significant contribution to the study of mathematics, natural sciences, art, philosophy, Roman and Greek philology. His work "Remarks on 24 books of Pandekt" marked the beginning of a philological analysis of the sources of Roman law. In the work "On the asse and its parts" the idea of two cultures - ancient and Christian was developed. Taking care of the glory of France, he made responsible for her fading on rulers and influential people. He even wrote the book "Instructions to the Sovereign". Thanks to Bude, a library was created in Fontainebleau, later it was transferred to Paris, and it became the basis of the National Library of France. Bude talked a lot and seriously with King Francis, who, under his influence established in Paris the Royal College - College de France... Greek, Latin and Hebrew began to be taught there.
The period of development of humanism in France was short, and its paths very soon became thorny. Catholic reaction intensified in Europe. From the mid-30s of the 16th century, the Sorbonne, frightened by the successes of humanism, opposed its representatives. The attitude of the French royal power and the court towards the humanists is also changing. From a patroness, royal power turns into a persecutor of free thought. The victims of persecution were major French humanists - Bonaventure Deperier, Etienne Dolet, Clement Marot.
Theater
French Renaissance theater did not reach the level of Italy, Spain and England. Etienne Jodel became the director of the first French tragedy in the "classical", that is, antique style. This tragedy was called "Captured Cleopatra".
Architecture
Early Renaissance architecture in France was heavily influenced by Italy. Developing the traditions of the Gothic, French architects created a new type of architectural structures: the castle of Francis I in Blois, the castles of Azay-le-Rideau, Chenonceau, Chambord. During this period, various decorations of buildings were widely used. The pinnacle of Renaissance architecture was the building of the new royal palace of the Louvre. It was built by architect Pierre Lescaut and sculptor Jean Goujon. Goujon received his initial art education in France. Then he traveled a lot around Italy, where he studied ancient sculpture. On his return to France, he carved his first famous work - a statue known as "Diana". It was a kind of portrait of Diane de Poitiers, Duchess of Valentois. The statue adorned the Castle of Anet. Diana is depicted naked and lying with a bow in her hand, leaning on the neck of a deer. Her hair is gathered into braids, in which precious stones are woven, next to her is a dog. The king liked this sculpture so much that he entrusted Goujon with other sculptural works in the castle of Anet. Goujon also decorated with statues the Ekutan castle, the Carnavalet hotel in Paris, the Parisian town hall, in which the Twelve Months carved by the master, then the Saint-Antoine gate with four magnificent bas-reliefs "Seine", "Marne", "Oise" attracted attention. and "Venus emerging from the waves". All these works are now in the Louvre. For the Franciscan church, Goujon sculpted the bas-relief "Descent from the Cross", and finally, the "Fountain of the Nymphs" in Paris belongs to his work. This fountain is still considered the best work of French architecture.
art
The humanistic interest in man also manifested itself in the fine arts, especially in the portrait. The solemn expression of faces and the majesty of poses in the portraits of Jean Clouet were combined with the sharpness of individual characteristics. The portraits of Francois Clouet are also interesting.
The science
Bernard Palissy
The problems of natural science were developed by Bernard Palissy. He was a prominent chemist and discovered a method for making colored glazed ceramics. Achievements in the field of mathematics were high. The theorem of Francois Vieta, the most talented mathematician who lived in those days, is still being studied in schools today. In the field of medicine, Ambroise Paré played a large role, turning surgery into a scientific discipline.
In the first half of the 15th century, at the penultimate stage
The Hundred Years' War, France experienced a severe crisis.
Then a popular performance with Joan of Arc, freeing
denie of the country, the rapid rebirth of the artistic
life, political power and culture. Victory
Louis XI contributed to the political unification
country.
The emergence of the social group "Nobility lean-
tii”, the role of which will increase in the future.
Infection of a new relationship to the real world.
Architecture, sculptures A. Painting.
Architecture.
In the 15th century Gothic enters the last phase of development
- Flame Gothic.
The construction of new cathedrals stops, the main
special attention to the decoration and expansion of old buildings
(an extension of the bell tower, tower, magnificent partals,
porch). Civil architecture (town halls) is developing.
A new type of urban asabnyak (hotel) arises on
replacement of the fortified dwelling of the feudal lord.
Home of the wealthy financier King Charles VII
Jacques Coeur at Bourges.
Differs in richness of decoration with typical
gothic forms (lancet arches, pinnacles, crabs)
are read with characteristic French
Sculpture.
Conservatism dominates, gothic traditions, leash
slowly gives way to a new large distribution
statuary plastics (statues
Madonna and other saints) which has now lost its close
connection with architecture. It is especially characteristic of this
rioda of the group "the entombment", "Pieta (mourning
Christ), saturated with potency and dramatism.
Painting
Strong long-term effect on French
painting of the 15th century - the Netherlands. Although one can speak of
established national school of painting associated
with the age-old tradition of Gothic and characterized by rigor
and style.
School of Provence
Belonged to great importance in the 15th century.
"Annunciation" by an anonymous artist.
Depiction of purely French architecture, but also
close connection of figures with monumental architecture
"Heart Embraced in Love"
Book miniature of the manuscript of the aligoric
mana. The miniatures are imbued with a poetic feeling,
lighting transmission: sunrises and rooms, illuminated
by the flames of the fireplace.
Avignon school
"Lamentation of Christ"
Imbued with severe drama, on a golden background
large silhouettes of figures stand out
in one plane, resembling a high relief. You-
the strikingness of the Gothic pattern and strict simplicity
compositions, combined with carved modeling,
giving forms a sort of faceted character.
Castle architecture of the Renaissance.
16th century architecture
In the development of architecture of the 16th century, 2 can be distinguished
stage. 1st stage - Early Renaissance period beginning 16
1540 2nd floor - middle and second half 16
The architecture of the early Renaissance was formed
influenced by the techniques of Italian architecture and
even with the direct partial participation of her master
- "corps of Francis I" in the castle of Blois
Indicators of its famous palace façade with remarkable
solid open spiral stone staircase. abundance
stone carving.
- Chambord Castle
It is a new type of country palace,
intended for temporary stay during
hunting and entertainment.
Many more characteristic elements are used in chambord.
castle cops - fortresses (inner enclosed courtyard,
moats with drawbridges, Goddesses.
At the same time, they are combined with new features - building
nie is symmetrical in general composition.
The general silhouette of the building is very picturesque:
High towers, roofs, chimneys, attic windows in
several tiers.
In the decoration of the interior and exterior of the building
Elements of orders (perceived as decor).
Royal Palace Louvre in Paris
It was built on the site of the demolished gothic building of the same name.
castle - fortress.
Corps (Lesko - Gouzhon) entered the existing, expanded
renee subsequently numerous restructurings,
huge building of the Louvre.
The building was conceived with a square interior
the courtyard, around which the buildings were located
with the premises placed in them in one row.
3-storey building is dissected in the first floors of the order
ramie, the upper floors are interpreted as attic. Unlike
from the buildings of the early 16th century, strict classical, prophetic
forged orders determine the compositional
facade structure.
The facade is characterized by the widespread use of decor
tive sculpture with numerous allegorical
images. They are made with architectural members
opinions; the figures are given in bold perspective perspectives
sakh, blatantly testifying to excellent knowledge
plastics of the human figure
(architect Pierre Lescaut and sculptor Jean Goujon).
Synthesis of architecture and sculpture.
Ane's Palace
Outwardly, it almost does not resemble a castle-cresto in any way.
post. Only the moats surrounding the palace (connection with the castle-
fortress).
Large complex gates led to the front door.
a palace bordered on three sides by residential buildings
The central portal was solved in 3 orders, sized
puppies in classical subordination. Lower - doric-
sky, middle ionic, upper - Corinthian.
In the chapel of the palace, Delorme used a special
France of that time, the metric hall system with
dome cover.
Other sculptural works by J. Goujon.
Tombstone of Louis de Breze in Rouen
Cathedral
This is a complex two-tier structure adjoining
to Wall. In the upper part of it is placed on the background of the arch con-
naya statue, which is flanked by two caryatids from each
sides supporting a wide entablature.
Caryatids performed with great freedom and
confident skill (acquaintance with classical
models)
5 reliefs for pulpit c. Saint Germain
4 figures of the Evangelists and the Lamentation of Christ
The great influence of mannerism, individual figures for-
borrowed from Parmigiano and Rosso, expression of feelings
subject to a decorative effect, but at the same time
differs in skill in finishing draperies, outlining
body shapes.
Fountain of nymphs
The sculptural decorations of the fountain consisted of 6
narrow vertical reliefs with nymphs in light pro-
transparent robes, holding overturned jugs in their hands -
we, from which water flows, 3 long horizontal
reliefs depicting naiads and tritons and 3 reliefs
with cupids.
Undoubtedly the connection with the school. Fontainebleau. They are peculiar
elongated proportions of figures and refined elegance
In the work of Goujon, the French art of the Renaissance
denia reaches full maturity. It has a pure
that style, restraint and subtle sense of rhythm and
harmony.
Germaine Pilon
He focused his attention not on the relief, but on the monument
mental sculpture.
first tomb of Henry II
Represented by a group of three graces, on whose head
rests an urn with the heart of a king. The group is made according to ri-
to Raphael's ideas, but the classical proportions of the figures and their
strict Roman draperies are redesigned in accordance with
svii with the stylistic devices of the Fontainebleau school
second tomb of Henry II
The royal mausoleum was designed by Prima
ticcio. It is decorated with four bronze statues of virtue.
lei (close to graces, but more free
movement)
A sharp contrast to them is the figures of kneeling
of Henry II and Catherine de Medici, made in
realistic traditions of French plastic arts. Sbol-
with sharpness, lifeless bodies are conveyed with a backwards
heads resting on a sarcophagus
Tomb of Valentina Balbian
The emaciated face with sunken cheeks,
lean body with bones showing through the skin
contrasted with the image of a young woman in
in the prime of life, dressed in a smart dress.
marble statue of diana
Nude goddess hugging a deer, stylistic
ski is close to the figures of graces.
Ligier Richier
Craftsman who worked outside of Paris
tombstone of Rene de Chalon
Fantasy and heightened emotionality from-
distinguishes the tombstone he created, representing
lying placed in a niche, against the backdrop of a magnificent mantle,
lined with ermine, a skeleton only partially covered
decayed pieces of muscles, tendons, skin, holding
in the hand raised to the sky heart
Fouquet's work
Jean Fouquet (circa 1420-circa 1490)
The head of the Tour school, the largest artist of the 15th century.
Interest in specific phenomena of reality,
accuracy and objectivity. Observations - traits of convergence -
those who share it with the Netherlands, are combined in his work with
a very developed sense of classical form, striving
towards laziness, regularity and orderliness. His
portraits are distinguished by vitality and very truthfully
convey the characteristic features of the models. He models
faces with broad plans, trying to convey the main,
leaving out the details. Clothes fit wide folds
mi, gestures are extremely stingy. Without embellishing models
the artist gives them the significance of the corresponding
high position.
Diptych "Etienne Chivalier and Saint Stephen"
(left wing) Depicts a large state-
figure and his patron Saint Stephen, silhouettes
which clearly stand out against the background of strict architecture
marble hall.
Madonna and Child (right wing)
Madonna graceful and young beauty dressed in raft
but tight blue bodice baring shoulders and
chest, and in a red cloak, the facial features of a lover are betrayed
King Agnes Surel.
Clean, light, non-transparent paints applied
thin and even layer, reminiscent of the coloring of polychrystals
roman architecture.
Fouquet's most precious heritage includes
"Jewish Antiquities" (miniatures for a number of manuscripts
Josephus Flavius). The battle scenes are full of epic
lychia, large masses of people are transferred with skill
Battling armies, moving columns of troops.
"Book of Hours by Etienne Chevalier"
Biblical and Gospel stories, depicting
river valleys, villages, cities and castles of France, pro-
phenomenon of knowledge of nature and animals.
Sculpture of the 16th century.
The first place in its (artistic) significance
in French Renaissance art
sculpture.
Primaticcio (according to whose drawings de-
corative figures of Fontainebleau, had a notable influence
on the largest masters of French plastic arts.
The nature of the French Renaissance XV-XVI centuries. was determined by the processes of formation of a strong centralized state, church reform and the growing inter-religious confrontation. Under Louis XI (1461-1483), recognized as the first king of the absolutist type, vast territories belonging to noble aristocratic families who did not recognize the king were subordinated to the central authority one after another. An important event that most positively influenced the social and industrial and economic development of the country was the liquidation in the middle of the 15th century. serfdom and the replacement of corvée with dues. The sharply intensified participation of the broad masses in civil life largely led to the fact that both the emerging bourgeois and traditional popular views were put at the heart of the humanistic ideology. Hence - the focus on the deep identification of the uniqueness of each personality and understanding of human nature, the protection of his natural rights and needs.
The carnival-folklore element will be decisive for the most prominent Renaissance authors, being one of the ways to assert the out-of-class equality of people and freedom of conscience, the rehabilitation of the flesh and a cheerful worldview. If not detailed, two periods of the French Renaissance can be distinguished: the first - until the beginning of the 16th century, approximately from the end of the Hundred Years' War with England (1337-1453) and until the end of the reign of Louis XII (1498-1515); the second - with the accession to the throne of Francis I (1515-1547) and his announcement in 1516 of himself as the head of the French Catholic Church that separated from Rome.
The key figure in the literature of early humanism is Francois Villon (c. 1431 - after 1463), a man of great poetic talent and difficult fate. In the poems with inserted ballads "Small Testament" (1456) and "Big Testament" (1461), the poet's sincere disclosure of his most intimate personal feelings is intertwined with the ability to look at himself as if from the outside, with the necessary amount of irony and even skepticism. He is not afraid to talk about the power of carnal desires, debunks the courtly idealization of love relationships. The poet makes fun of usurers, money-grubbers, monks, hypocrites of all kinds, because of which the world is divided into two warring camps - well-fed and hungry. He is concerned about the unsolvable problems of being: the transience of time that takes away beauty and youth, the inevitability of old age and death, which, unfortunately, is the only one given to equalize people. With many parodic masks, tragic notes constantly breaking through, Villon does not allow himself to be defeated by anger and despair, which clearly recede before his glorification of life and sensual joys.
The heyday of the literature of the French Renaissance falls on its second period: the circle of Marguerite of Navarre (C. Maro, B. Deperier), the novelistics of F. Rabelais, the Pleiades poetic group (P. de Ronsard, J. du Bellay, J. A. de Baif , E. Jodel, R. Bello, J. Dora, P. de Tiard). main work Francois Rabelais (1494–1553), published in separate books, the last of which comes out after the death of the author, was the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel"(1532–1564). In the final version, it consists of five books, the sequence of which is predetermined by the chronology of the events described.
I - "The Tale of the Terrible Life of the Great Gargantua, Father of Pantagruel." II - "Pantagruel, the king of dipsodes, shown in his authentic form, with all his horrific deeds and exploits." III - "The third book of the heroic deeds and sayings of the good Pantagruel." IV - "The fourth book of the heroic deeds and sayings of the valiant Pantagruel." V - "The fifth and last book of the heroic deeds and sayings of the good Pantagruel." These titles alone give a sense of the original comic setting of the novel, the artistic game started by the author with the "insightful" reader, accustomed by popular literature to pompous, intriguing titles. Borrowing the grotesque aesthetics of folk books, their carnival freedom in dealing with high and low, Rabelais, nevertheless, consistently affirms a humanistic attitude to the value criteria of reality, including through exposing their deformations. It is in the rhyme-comic vein that the most important of the problems raised in the novel are solved in an original way. Skeptically correlating different approaches in education and upbringing, the author shows how primitive cramming can emasculate even the classics (the method of the teacher Holofernes). And vice versa, how a well-planned study can become a natural component of the full development of a person (the system of the teacher Ponocrates).
In general, supporting the monarchical system of government, Rabelais considers it necessary to warn about the troubles that unreasonable sovereigns bring to the people (aggressiveness, arrogance of Picrochole). The more the writer reveals various aspects of the activities of his wise rulers Gargantua and Pantagruel. They are equally benevolent, trying to observe the interests of all the parties involved, and can solve both the most important national issues and the most unpretentious, everyday ones that arise in an individual (for example, the delicate problem of Panurge that dragged on for three books - to marry or not to marry). In the artistic world of Rabelais the humanist, such a rapprochement, and often a carnival confusion, of big and small, important and frivolous, allows us to take a fresh look at prevailing opinions and walking truths. He is disgusted by the one-dimensional perception of reality, when everything complex, contradictory and incomprehensible in it is condemned and scornfully discarded in order to preserve the established standard.
In this sense, the image of Panurge, created, as it were, exclusively according to the clownish model, is especially indicative, at a superficial glance. It is easiest to see him as a rogue and a coward, a glutton and a drunkard, constantly preoccupied with carnal lusts. Meanwhile, having initially made him the closest friend and adviser of Pantagruel, including him in the most important plot twists and turns, the author unobtrusively draws attention to such qualities as sharpness of mind, resourcefulness, education, insight, devotion to friends, not only heightened selfishness, but also the ability to help others. In the course of the story, Panurge, a man from the Parisian crowd, is increasingly asserted as significant and worthy as the royal giants. If you think about it, against the background of this bright, active, able to independently survive and establish itself in a not particularly favorable world of a figure, it is quite natural for the writer to depict a purely ironic image of a few paintings addressed to utopian dreams of ideal societies. The existence of the inhabitants of Theleme Abbey appears to be somehow emasculated, formalized (it is no accident that we are given to understand that even the famous principle “do whatever you want”, due to the general enthusiasm and collectivism prevailing there, has become a rule for everyone and always unanimously pick up what someone started first). The behavior of the Utopians resettled by Pantagruel to the country of the dipsodes, who distinguished themselves only by excessive praise, almost deification of their benefactor, seems ambiguous.
Quite purposefully orienting his novel not on the affirmation of something complete and unconditional, but on search, doubt, a journey into the unknown, Rabelais could hardly take seriously the existing ready-made versions of a perfect society, whether on an isolated island, or on a royally equipped account for a narrow circle of the chosen territory of the abbey. For now, it's time for questions, not answers. And that is why at the end of the novel the prediction of the oracle of the Sacred Bottle is so vague, recalling the ancient saying that the truth is in wine, in one capacious word: “Drink!”. Nevertheless, its deep and, of course, ironic essence was probably accurately captured by the main characters of the novel, puzzled, but not at all discouraged by the wise simplicity of what they heard: no one will give a ready-made formula for the future, create it yourself, filling life with work, sincerity, knowledge, wisdom .
